ICE NAVIGATION

HISTORY
Sea ice has posed a problem to the
navigator since
antiquity. During a voyage from the
Mediterranean to
England and Norway sometime
between 350 B.C. and 300
B.C., Pytheas of Massalia sighted a
strange substance
which he described as neither land nor
air nor water
floating upon and covering the northern
sea over which the
summer Sun barely set. Pytheas
named this lonely region
Thule, hence Ultima Thule (farthest
north or lands end).
Thus began over 20 centuries of polar
exploration.

FORMATION &TYPES OF SEA ICE

PANCAKE ICE
OPEN
WATER ICE

NILAS

GREASE ICE

Frazil ice

In rough water, fresh sea ice is formed by the cooling

of the ocean as heat is lost into the atmosphere.
The uppermost layer of the ocean is super cooled to
slightly below the freezing point, at which time tiny
ice platelets, known as frazil ice,
form. As more frazil ice forms, the ice forms a mushy
surface layer, known as grease ice
Frazil ice formation may also be started by snowfall,
rather than supercooling.
slush is a floating mass formed initially from snow
and water.
Shuga is formed in agitated conditions by
accumulation of slush or grease ice into spongy
pieces several inches in size.
Waves and wind then act to compress these ice
particles into larger plates, of several meters in
diameter, called pancake ice.

ICEBERGS

An iceberg is a large piece of ice from freshwater that has broken off from a snow-formed glacier or ice
shelf and is floating in open water. It may subsequently become frozen into pack ice. Alternatively, it may
come to rest on the seabed in shallower water, causing ice scour (also known as ice gouging) or
becoming an ice island

FORMATION
Although icebergs float on ocean waters, they are composed of
freshwater.
Although icebergs float on ocean waters, they are composed of freshwater.
An iceberg is simply
an extraordinarily large mass of ice that has
An iceberg is simply an extraordinarily large mass of ice that has broken off from an ice cap
broken off from an or
iceglacier
cap or
glacier
where
it met
the stage
sea. The
where
it met
the sea.
The first
of iceberg formation occurs
first stage of iceberg
formation
when
part
ofhas
a glacier
or into the sea,
when
part of aoccurs
glacier or
ice cap
that
been pushed
begins
to float
onthe
the sea,
water.begins
Tides and
wave on
action
ice cap that has been
pushed
into
to float
thesubsequently cause stress fractures,
causing
a
piece
of
the
glacier
to
break
off
and
a
new
iceberg is born! This process is calving.
water. Tides and wave action subsequently cause stress
fractures, causing a piece of the glacier to break off and a new
An icebergs extraordinary blue and white coloration is a reminder of its glacial origins.
iceberg is born! This
process is calving.
Glacial ice appears blue because pure ice absorbs other colors more rapidly than blue.
This colour appears in the deepest layers of the ice that are under such high pressure that
blue
all ofAn
the icebergs
air bubblesextraordinary
have been forced
outand
of the ice.
By contrast
theglacial
surface origins.
layers of Glacial
the iceberg
white coloration is a reminder
of its
iceare white
because
the
air
bubbles
trapped
in
the
snow
layers reflect much of the incident light.
appears blue because pure ice absorbs other colors more rapidly
These in
airthe
bubbles
also layers
result inof
iceberg
fizz.
than blue.This colour appears
deepest
the ice
that
As an iceberg melts, fizzing results from the release of gases that have been held
are under such high pressure
that all of the air bubbles have
under pressure, trapped in bubbles for thousands of years!

been forced out of the ice.

By contrast the surface layers of the iceberg are white
because the air bubbles trapped in the snow layers reflect much
of the incident light. These air bubbles also result in iceberg fizz.
As an iceberg melts, fizzing results from the release of gases that
have been held under pressure, trapped in bubbles for
thousands of years!

DRIFTING OF ICEBERGS

Iceberg movement is influenced by direct wind push on its exposed area to an extent far
greater than commonly assumed. Although the bulk of the iceberg is below water, in many
situations wind has a dominant influence on the movement.
In addition to windage on the iceberg and the ocean gradient current, the wind-induced
surface current has the effect of increasing drift speed by about 10 percent for small
icebergs and increasing the angle of drift direction.
The wind force on an iceberg does not result in movement directly downwind, but, because
of the rotation of the Earth (Coriolis effect), windage on an iceberg is 30 to 50 to the right in
the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere.
They move at speeds of 1 knot, or 24 nautical miles per day.
This iceberg moved 140 kilometres at as much as 3 knots across the Labrador Current and
resulted in an emergency move of the North Atlantic shipping lanes to the south

ICE BREAKERS
An ice breaker is a special-purpose ship or boat designed to
move and navigate through ice-covered waters.
For a ship to be considered an icebreaker, it requires three traits most normal ships lack:
a strengthened hull,
an ice-clearing shape,
the power to push through ice-covered waters.
PRINCIPLE:
it uses its momentum to break the ice
High strength hull
Powerful engine
Azimuth thrusters

DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION

Icebreakers are constructed with a double hull and watertight compartments in case of a breach.
The ship's hull is thicker than normal, especially at the bow, stern, and waterline, using special steel that
has optimum performance at low temperatures. The thicker steel at the waterline typically extends about 1 m above
and below the waterline and is reinforced with extra internal ribbing, sometimes twice the ribbing of a normal ship.
The bow is rounded rather than pointed, allowing the vessel to ride up over the ice, breaking it with the weight of
the vessel. The hull has no appendages likely to be damaged by the ice,and the rudder and propeller are protected
by the shape of the hull. The propeller blades are strengthened, and the vessel has the ability to inspect and
replace blades while at sea.
The optimal shape for moving through ice makes icebreakers uncomfortable in open water
and gives them poor fuel efficiency.
In open-water travel, icebreakers tend to roll side to side to the discomfort of the crew. Some new icebreakers,
such as the USCGC Healy, make use of anti-roll tanks, incompletely filled ballast tanks which span the beam of
the vessel. Ballast water in these tanks is allowed to move side to side, or slosh, as a free surface
A greater concern is how well a ship cuts through waves.The ability of a ship to cut through waves can
greatly affect its fuel efficiency and even its safety in a storm. Most ships use a sharp or bulbous bow
to cut through waves and help prevent waves from slamming the bow of the ship.

DOUBLE ACTING SHIPS

Double acting ship (DAS) is a type of icebreaking merchant ship designed to run ahead in open water
and astern in ice.
Such ships can operate independently in severe ice conditions without icebreaker assistance
but retain better open water performance than traditional icebreaking vessels.

How Double Acting Tankers Work?

A double acting tanker sails in normal sea in the ahead direction, just like any other vessel.
However, when it comes to ice breaking,the astern movement of the ship is utilised.
The aft or stern part of the ship hull structure is therefore made up of special reinforced double skin with a fatigue
life of around 40 years.Moreover, the conventional rudder and propeller is replaced by Azipod system
with fixed pitch propeller and an electric motor of Mega Wattrating.
The azipod system is capable of rotating 360 and the normal ahead speed is above 15 knots.
Additional bow thrusters are also fitted to provide excellent manoeuvrability in narrow channels and ports.

ICE PATROL

The International Ice Patrol is an organization with the purpose of monitoring the
presence of icebergs in the Atlantic and Arctic Oceans and reporting their movements
for safety purposes. It is operated by United States Coast Guard but is funded by the
13 nations interested in trans-Atlantic navigation.
It was established in 1914 in response to the sinking of the RMS Titanic. "The primary
mission of the Ice Patrol is to alert any seacraft traveling the great circle shipping
lanes between Europe and the major ports of the United States and Canada of the
presence of any icebergs there."

Size Category

Height

Length

Growler

Less than 1 metre (3.3 ft)

Less than 5 metres (16 ft)

Bergy Bit

15 metres (3.316 ft)

515 metres (1649 ft)

Small

515 metres (1649 ft)

1560 metres (49200 ft)

Medium

1545 metres (49148 ft)

60120 metres (200390 ft)

Large

4575 metres (148246 ft)

120200 metres (390660 ft)

Very Large

Over 75 metres (246 ft)

Over 200 metres (660 ft)

ICE ACCREATION
CLASSES SIGNIFICANCE
ICE
Not all ships are built to an ice class. Building a ship to an ice class means that the hull must be thicker,
and more scantlings (aggregate of girders, beams, and bulkheads resulting in stronger structure) must be in place.
Sea chests (openings in the hull for seawater intake) may need to be arranged differently depending on the class.
Sea bays may also be required to ensure that the sea chest does not become blocked with ice.
Most of the stronger classes require several forms of rudder and propeller protection.
Two rudder pintles are usually required, and strengthened propeller tips are often required in the stronger ice classes.
More watertight bulkheads, in addition to those required by a ship's normal class, are usually required.
In addition, heating arrangements for fuel tanks, ballast tanks, and other tanks vital to the ship's operation
may also be required depending on the class.

Rudder
Inner Bot.
Bulkhead
Fore&Aft
Deck
Bottom
Hull
Unspec/
Ship Side

ARCTIC CLASSES
FINNISH SWEDISH CLASSES
POLAR CLASSES

Items covered by Ice-Class Notation (Baltic, Arctic and

Polar)
The following areas are subject to requirements depending on the ice
class selected.
BALTIC ICE CLASSES
- Hull ice belt
- Machinery output
- Shaft system
- Propeller
- Mooring
- Heating ballast tanks
- Sea chest
- Air capacity for starting compressor (1A*)
- Rudder and steering gear
- Corrosion protection
ARCTIC ICE NOTATION (ADDITIONAL SCOPE)
- Hull girder transverse strength, line loads due to vessel being trapped
between
moving ice flows.
ARCTIC POLAR AND ICEBREAKER NOTATION (ADDITIONAL
SCOPE)
- Hull materials exposed to low temperatures (DAT-notation)
- Subdivision, intact and damage stability (additional requirements)
- Hull girder longitudinal strength due to beaching and ramming
- General

ICE CLASS RULES AND OTHER

REQUIREMENTS
CLASS
NOTIFICATIONS

EQUIVALENT
BALTICS ICE
CLASSES

VESSEL TYPE

ICE C

ICE 1C
ICE 1B

1C
1B

ICE 1A
ICE 1A*
ICE 1A F*

1A
1A SUPER

ICE O5
ICE 10
ICE 15
POLAR 10
POLAR 20
POLAR 30
ICE BREAKER

ALL SHIP
TYPES

ICE CONDITIONS

ICE LIMITS

VERY LIGHT ICE

CONDITIONS

NO RAMMING

- First year ice and

broken channel
0.4 m ice thickness
0.6 m ice thickness
0.8 m ice thickness
1.0 m ice thickness
1.0 m ice thickness

Vessels intended
for ice
breaking
-Built for another
main purpose

-ICE BREAKING IS
MAIN PURPOSE

First year ice with

pressure ridges

Multi year ice with

glacial inclusions

ACCIDENTAL
RAMMING

REPEATED
RAMMING

THICKNESS OF ICE IN VARIOUS AREAS

North Atlantic
No ice
-20 deg c

Baltic sea
1 m ice
-15 deg c

Kara sea
2 m ice
-40 deg c
Multi year ice

Barents sea
1.2 m ice
-30 deg c

CASPIAN 70
WHITE 80

Typical hazards when operating

in cold climate
Overstress of hull

Lack of good ice reports/routing

Ice restriction vs. commercial pressure on

master
Propulsion failure
Stuck in ice, crushing of hull or drifting
Aground
Remote from rescue and spare parts
Icing (stability, safety functions, cargo
operations)
Black-out ( freezing of ship, crew, difficult restart).
Evacuation problems in ice
Malfunction of fire fighting
Experience/competence

Crew fatigue (additional work load, low

temperature, noise/vibrations, 24 hrs

ICING
A SERIOUS CHALLNGE

ICE ACCREATION =
WIND+
WAVES+
LOW AIR TEMPERATURE+
OPEN WATER =
ICING

High Wind Speed

Usually above 18 kts or 9 m/s but
sometimes lower
Low Air Temperature
Below freezing (-1.7 deg c)
Low Water Temperature
Usually below + 7 deg c

Ice accretion on the various

equipment/areas has unequal importance
on the vessel safety.
- Category I : to be kept completely ice
free
- Category II : shall have de-icing
arrangements removing ice within a
reasonable period of time (4-6 hours)

REPORTED ICE DAMAGES

Inner bottom 1%

TOTAL NO. OF DAMAGES REPORTED

Bulk head 4%

Rudder
7%

Rudder

Fore&aft
8%

Inner Bot.
Bulkhead
Fore&Aft
Deck

Ships side
65%

Bottom
10%

Bottom
Hull
Unspec/
Ship Side

Deck 2%

486

MANAGING OF COLD CLIMATE RISKS

CROSS SECTIONS OF FRAM BUILT 1892

FORCES FROM
DRIFT ICE
FORCES FROM
DRIFT ICE

FORCES FROM
DRIFT ICE
FORCES FROM
DRIFT ICE

Ice forces would lift the vessels out of

the ice, and save her.
A brilliant example of practical risk
management

AVOIDING ICING PROBLEMS - METHODS

Protected location. Also with heating (i.e.

adjacent to heated spaces or hot air
ventilation).
Protective covers
Electric tracing (Note ex-requirements)
Heating coils (steam/hot water)
Ice-repellant coating
Self-draining piping/operating procedures
Circulation of liquids (e.g. hydr.oil)

PROTECTION AGAINST
ICE PRESSURE DAMAGE
MEMBRANE LNGC

Collision with Growlers and

Bergy Bits in open waters
Uncouple the containment system
and the
ship side leaving space for indentation
of
the side without damage/deformation
of the
containment system
Increase double hull width
Design for increased energy
absorption
capability of the double hull

Traversing through ice

channel or the ship
completely frozen in
Design hull to lift the ship rather than
pushing it down due to the ice pressure
Increase double hull width
Design a stronger protective outer
hull,
stiffer less deformation

DA (double acting) - where the ship operates with the stern first when operating
in ice. This saves on installed power, and fuel, and makes it possible to
optimize the bow of the ship for open water performance. The DAS was made
possible through the development of azimuthing electric propulsion--another
system which was developed by AARC, together with ABB (Azipod).
A very new develpoment is the Oblique Icebreaker. By using azimuthing
electric propulsion, it breaks ice by moving sideways, utilizing its entire length
for breaking a wide channel. This makes it possible to use a relatively small
and narrow icebreaker to assist large and wide cargo ships.

Challenges human factors

Competence and performance of crew is essential for safe
operations
Availability of experienced personnel?
Training/experience!
Increased manning?

HUMAN FATIGUE

Extreme low temperatures

24 hours darkness
Noise and vibrations in ice

UNDERSTANDING THE
CHALLENGES
CADET

CAPTAIN

CHIEF ENG

Summary..
Ship operations in cold climate is
much more
than ice strengthening of the ship
alone.

Compliance with basic ice class

rules and
regulations may be insufficient for safe
and
effective ship operations in cold
climate
Risk evaluation for specific trades
and adequate
winterization for safe and reliable
operations
must be carried out.

ANY QUESTIONS

THANK YOU