D.

Magdalene, AP/CSE

COMPUTER NETWORKS UNIVERSITY QUESTION

What is DNS?
The domain name system (DNS) is the way that Internet domain names are located and
translated into Internet Protocol addresses. A domain name is a meaningful and easy-toremember "handle" for an Internet address.
What is PGP?
Pretty Good Privacy (PGP) is a popular a technique developed by Philip Zimmerman used
to encrypt and decrypt e-mail over the Internet. PGP is often used for signing, encrypting,
and decrypting texts, e-mails, files, directories, and whole disk partitions and to increase the
security of e-mail communications.
Define Kerberos
Kerberos is a computer network authentication protocol which works on the basis of 'tickets' to
allow nodes communicating over a non-secure network to prove their identity to one another in a
secure manner. Kerberos was developed in the Athena Project at the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology (MIT).
What is overlay networks?
An overlay network is a computer network which is built on the top of another
network. Nodes in the overlay can be thought of as being connected by virtual or logical links,
each of which corresponds to a path, perhaps through many physical links, in the underlying
network. For example, distributed systems such as cloud computing, peer-to-peer networks,
and client-serverapplications are overlay networks because their nodes run on top of
the Internet.
What is MPEG?
The Moving Picture Experts Group (MPEG) is a working group of experts that was formed
by ISO and IEC to set standards for audio and video compression and transmission. MPEG
algorithms compress data to form small bits that can be easily transmitted and then
decompressed. MPEG achieves its high compression rate by storing only the changes from one
frame to another, instead of each entire frame.
What is IPV6?
Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPv6) is a network layer protocol that enables data communications
over a packet switched network. IPv6 uses a 128-bit address, allowing 2128, or
approximately 3.41038 addresses. IPv6 is often referred to as the "next generation Internet"

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because of it's expanded capabilities and it's growth through recent large scale deployments. IPv6
protocol was published by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) in 1998.
What is internetworking?
When two or more networks or network segments are connected using devices such as a router
that provide a common method of routing information packets between the networks then it is
called as internetworking. The resulting system of interconnected networks is called an
internetwork, or simply an internet.
What is Computer Network?
A computer network is a group of computer systems and other computing hardware devices that
are linked together through communication channels to facilitate communication and resourcesharing among a wide range of users.
What is bridge?
A bridge is a device that separates two or more network segments within one logical network
(e.g. a single IP-subnet). A bridge is usually placed between two separate groups of computers
that talk with each other, but not that much with the computers in the other group. A good
example of this is to consider a cluster of Macintoshes and a cluster of UNIX machines.
What is flow control?
Flow control is the process of managing the rate of data transmission between two nodes to
prevent a fast sender from overwhelming a slow receiver. It provides a mechanism for the
receiver to control the transmission speed, so that the receiving node is not overwhelmed with
data from transmitting node.

What is slow start?

Slow-start is part of the congestion control strategy used by TCP. Slow-start is used in
conjunction with other algorithms to avoid sending more data than the network is capable of
transmitting, that is, to avoid causing network congestion.
What is flooding?
Flooding is a simple routing algorithm in which every incoming packet is sent through every
outgoing link except the one it arrived on. Flooding is used in bridging and in systems such
as Usenet and peer-to-peer file sharing and as part of some routing protocols,
including OSPF, DVMRP, and those used in ad-hoc wireless networks.
What is congestion?
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Congestion is a situation in Communication Networks in which too many packets are present in
a part of the subnet, performance degrades. Congestion in a network may occur when the load on
the network (i.e. the number of packets sent to the network) is greater than the capacity of the
network (i.e. the number of packets a network can handle.)
What is congestion control?
Congestion Control refers to techniques and mechanisms that can either prevent congestion,
before it happens, or remove congestion, after it has happened. Congestion control mechanisms
are divided into two categories, one category prevents the congestion from happening and the
other category removes congestion after it has taken place.
What is HTTP?
HyperText Transfer Protocol defines how messages are formatted and transmitted, and what
actions Web servers andbrowsers should take in response to various commands. For example,
when you enter a URL in your browser, this actually sends an HTTP command to the Web server
directing it to fetch and transmit the requested Web page.
What is FDDI?
FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface) is a set of ANSI and ISO standards for data transmission
on fiber optic lines in a local area network (LAN) that can extend in range up to 200 km (124
miles). The FDDI protocol is based on the token ring protocol. FDDI is frequently used on
the backbone for a wide area network (WAN).
What is HTML?
HTML or HyperText Markup Language is the main markup language for creating web
pages and other information that can be displayed in a web browser. HTML is written in the form
of HTML elements consisting of tags enclosed inangle brackets (like <html>), within the web
page content.
What is cryptography?
Cryptography is the practice and study of techniques for secure communication in the presence
of third parties. it is about constructing and analyzingprotocols that overcome the influence of
adversaries and which are related to various aspects in information security such as data
confidentiality, data integrity, authentication, and non-repudiation.
What is subnetting?
Subnetting is the strategy used to partition a single physical network into more than one smaller
logical sub-networks (subnets). Subnetting allows an organization to add sub-networks without
the need to acquire a new network number via the Internet service provider (ISP). Subnetting
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helps to reduce the network traffic and conceals network complexity. Subnetting is essential
when a single network number has to be allocated over numerous segments of a local area
network (LAN).
What is subnet mask?
A Subnet mask is a 32-bit number that masks an IP address, and divides the IP address into
network address and host address. Subnet Mask is made by setting network bits to all "1"s and
setting host bits to all "0"s. Within a given network, two host addresses are reserved for special
purpose. The "0" address is assigned a network address and "255" is assigned to a broadcast
address, and they cannot be assigned to a host.
What is CIDR?
Classless Inter-Domain Routing is a method for allocating IP addresses and routing Internet
Protocol packets. The Internet Engineering Task Force introduced CIDR in 1993 to replace the
previous addressing architecture of classful network design in the Internet. Its goal was to slow
the growth of routing tables on routers across the Internet.
What is router?
A router is a device that forwards data packets alongnetworks. A router is connected to at least
two networks, commonly two LANs or WANs or a LAN and its ISP's network. Routers are
located at gateways, the places where two or more networks connect.
What is gateway?
A gateway is a node on a network that serves as an entrance to another network. In enterprises,
the gateway is the computer that routesthe traffic from a workstation to the outside network that
is serving the Web pages. In homes, the gateway is the ISP that connects the user to the internet.
What is switch?
A switch is a small hardware device that joins multiple computers together within one local area
network (LAN). Ethernet switch devices were commonly used on home networks.
What is hub?
A hub is a device that connects PCs together. Hubs are commonly used to connect segments of
a LAN. A hub contains multiple ports. When a packet arrives at one port, it is copied to the other
ports so that all segments of the LAN can see all packets.
What is a port?
A port is an application-specific or process-specific software construct serving as a
communications endpoint in a computer's host operating system. A port is associated with an IP
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address of the host, as well as the type of protocol used for communication. The purpose of ports
is to uniquely identify different applications or processes running on a single computer and
thereby enable them to share a single physical connection to a packet-switched network like
the Internet.
What is the purpose of subnetting?
The purpose of subnetting is

1. To divide a large network into smaller segments to reduce traffic and speed up
the sections of your network.
2. To connect networks across geographical areas.
3. To connect different topologies such as Ethernet, Token Ring, and FDDI
together via routers.
4. To avoid physical limitations such as maximum cable lengths or exceeding the
maximum number of computers on a segment.
What are the functions of ARP
The function of Address Resolution Protocol is
To obtain the MAC address of a host, and then map that MAC address to the
host's IP address.
To facilitates data exchange between computers on the same network.
What are the building blocks of network?
Client computers: The computers that end users use to access the resources of the
network.
Server computers: Computers that provide shared resources, such as disk storage and
printers, as well as network services, such as e-mail and Internet access.
Network interface: An interface sometimes called a network port thats
installed in a computer to enable the computer to communicate over a network.

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Cable: Computers in a network are usually physically connected to each other using
cable.
Switches: Network cable usually doesnt connect computers directly to each other.
Instead, each computer is connected by cable to a device known as a switch.
Wireless networks: In many networks, cables and switches are making way for
wireless network connections, which enable computers to communicate via radio
signals.
Network software: Although network hardware is essential, what really makes a
network work is software.
List the similarity between transport layer and DLL
Basically Data Layer provides error-free transmission across a single link ( 2
consecutive stations ) where as Transport layer ensures the communication
between source and destination. (Provide end-to-end delivery, from one
computer (host) to another.)
Thus to ensure the communication, both the layers will provide following
services;
o 1. Flow Control (Which controls the flow of data ensuring no overhead
to the destination)
o 2. Error Detection and Correction (Detect errors in the data and correct
them if possible)
What are the features of datagram networks?
Data is transmitted from source to destination without guarantee of delivery
Data is frequently divided into smaller pieces and transmitted without a defined
route or guaranteed order of delivery
A datagram supports a maximum of 65,535 bytes at a time

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Datagram packet network is a any-to-any communication.

Any device connected to such a network can inject a packet into the network
with the proper source and destination address, and the network will take it to
its destination.
The network is also highly flexible.
If a portion of the network fails (e.g. a link, a switching node), the surrounding
nodes can select a new path and subsequent packets will take the new route to
the destination.
The datagram model is relatively simple to understand and implement.
There is no complex call setup or call termination required,
The system operates on the connectionless model.
List out the characteristics of frame relay.
Frame Relay Characteristics are

Preservation of the order of frame transfer from one edge of the network to the other
Non-duplication of frames
Small probability of frame loss
IP Split Horizon Checking
Ping Your Own IP Address on a Multipoint Frame Relay
The Keyword broadcast
Reconfiguring a Sub interface
DLCI Limitations
IP/IPX/AT Address
RIP and IGRP
Keepalive
Serial Interfaces
OSPF and Multipoint

What are the benefits of Frame Relay?

Reduced Internetworking costs
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Increased Performance with Reduced Network Complexity.

Increased Interoperability via International Standards.
Protocol Independence.
What is frame relay?
Frame relay is a telecommunication service designed for cost-efficient data transmission for
intermittent traffic between local area networks (LANs) and between end-points in a wide area
network (WAN). Frame relay puts data in a variable-size unit called a frame and leaves any
necessary error correction (retransmission of data) up to the end-points, which speeds up overall
data transmission.
List out the advantages and disadvantages of bluetooth.
Advantages

This technology requires no cables and wires

Simplicity of use
Bluetooth is actually inexpensive
Bluetooth is automatic
Low interference
Low energy consumption
Sharing voice and data
Upgradeable

Disadvantages

Slow transfer speed

Bluetooth only has a range of 15 to 30 feet depending on the device.
Bluetooth is much easier for a hacker to break into than secure wireless networks.

Compare IPV4 and IPV6

Description
Address

IPV4
32 bits long (4 bytes).
Used to designate network from host
Address mask
portion.
Sometimes used to designate network
Address prefix
from host portion.
Address types IPv4 addresses are categorized into
three basic types: unicast address,
multicast address, and broadcast
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IPV6
128 bits long (16 bytes).
Not used
Used to designate the subnet prefix of
an address.
IPv6 addresses are categorized into
three basic types: unicast address,
multicast address, and anycast address.

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IP header

address.
Variable length of 20-60 bytes,
depending on IP options present.

Fixed length of 40 bytes.

What is choke packet? How it is used for congestion control

A choke packet is a specialized packet that is used for congestion and flow control along
a network.
A router detects congestion by measuring the percentage of buffers in use, line utilization
and average queue lengths. When it detects congestion, it sends choke packets across the
network to all the data sources associated with the congestion. The sources respond by
reducing the amount of data they are sending.

How encoding can be done using NRZ-I techniques?

Non return to zero, inverted (NRZI) is a method of mapping a binary signal to a physical
signal for transmission over some transmission media. The two level NRZI signal has a transition
at a clock boundary if the bit being transmitted is a logical 1, and does not have a transition if the
bit being transmitted is a logical 0. "One" is represented by a transition of the physical level.
"Zero" has no transition.

What is 1-persistent CSMA?

When the sender (station) is ready to transmit data, it checks if the transmission medium is busy.
If so, it then senses the medium continually until it becomes idle, and then it transmits the
message (a frame). In case of a collision, the sender waits for a random period of time and
attempts to transmit again. 1-persistent CSMA is used in CSMA/CD systems includingEthernet.
What is P-persistent CSMA?
This is a sort of trade-off between 1 and non-persistent CSMA access modes. When the sender is
ready to send data, it checks continually if the medium is busy. If the medium becomes idle, the
sender transmits a frame with a probability p. If the station chooses not to transmit (the
probability of this event is 1-p), the sender waits until the next available time slotand transmits
again with the same probability p. This process repeats until the frame is sent or some other
sender starts transmitting. In the latter case the sender monitors the channel, and when idle,

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transmits with a probability p, and so on. p-persistent CSMA is used in CSMA/CA systems
including Wi-Fi and other packet radio systems.
List some QOS parameters.

Bandwidth
Latency or delay
Jitter or variations
Synchronization between multiple streams
Packet loss ratio
Packet error ratio

What are the difference between flow control and congestion control?
Flow control
Flow control is a mechanism used in
computer networks to control the flow of
data between a sender and a receiver, such
that a slow receiver will not be outran by a
fast sender.

Congestion control
Congestion control is a mechanism that
controls data flow when congestion
actually occurs.
Congestion control algorithms are
classified based on the amount of
feedback received from the network and
the aspect of performance it aims to
improve.

Mechanisms used in flow control could be

categorized based on whether the receiver
sends feedback to the sender.

List out the advantages of DNS.

Achieves transparency without losing scalability

Consistent on all hosts
DNS is used on the internet
Eliminate management of host tables.

Discuss the use of computer networks.

Allowing to share and exchange a variety of information

File sharing
Printer sharing
Communication and collaboration

Write the categories of network.

The categories of network are
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LAN (local area network)

MAN (metropolitan area network)
WAN (wide area network)

A network bandwidth of 10MBPS can pass only an average of 12,000 frames per minute
with each frame carrying an average of 10,000 bits. What is the throughput of this
network?
Solution
We can calculate the throughput as

The throughput is almost one-fifth of the bandwidth in this case.

What is the propagation time if the distance between the two points is 12,000 km? Assume
the propagation speed to be 2.4 108 m/s in cable.
Solution
We can calculate the propagation time as

The example shows that a bit can go over the Atlantic Ocean in only 50 ms if there is a direct
cable between the source and the destination.
What are the propagation time and the transmission time for a 2.5-kbyte message (an email) if the bandwidth of the network is 1 Gbps? Assume that the distance between the
sender and the receiver is 12,000 km and that light travels at 2.4 108 m/s.
Solution
We can calculate the propagation and transmission time as shown:

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Note that in this case, because the message is short and the bandwidth is high, the dominant
factor is the propagation time, not the transmission time. The transmission time can be ignored.
What are the propagation time and the transmission time for a 5-Mbyte message (an
image) if the bandwidth of the network is 1 Mbps? Assume that the distance between the
sender and the receiver is 12,000 km and that light travels at 2.4 108 m/s.
Solution
We can calculate the propagation and transmission times as shown:

Note that in this case, because the message is very long and the bandwidth is not very high, the
dominant factor is the transmission time, not the propagation time. The propagation time can be
ignored.
Differentiate ARP and RARP
ARP
RARP
ARP is a computer network protocol RARP is a networking protocol used
used to convert network layer in computer networks.
addresses to link layer addresses.
RFC 826 describes the ARP.
RARP is described in RFC 903
published by IETF.
ARP maps IP addresses to hardware RARP maps hardware addresses to IP
address
addresses
ARP is a logical address
RARP is a physical address.
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Draw the datagram format of udp

What is cipertext?
Cipher text is encrypted text. Cipher text is the result of encryption performed on plaintext using
an algorithm, called a cipher. Cipher text is also known as encrypted or encoded information
because it contains a form of the original plaintext that is unreadable by a human or computer
without the proper cipher to decrypt it.
List out the two modes of IP security.
IPsec supports two encryption modes:

Transport
Tunnel.

How is http related to www?

The Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is an application protocol for distributed,
collaborative, hypermedia information systems. HTTP is the foundation of data communication
for the World Wide Web.
Define CSMA/CD.
Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detect (CSMA/CD) is the protocol for carrier
transmission access in Ethernet networks.
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List the goal of QOS

The primary goal of QoS is to provide priority including dedicated bandwidth, controlled jitter
and latency (required by some real-time and interactive traffic), and improved loss
characteristics. The goal of QoS is to provide guarantees on the ability of a network to deliver
predictable results.
Differentiate UDP and TCP.
UDP
UDP has no inherent order as all
packets are independent of each
other. If ordering is required, it has to
be managed by theapplication layer.
UDP is faster because there is no
error-checking for packets.
There is no guarantee that the
messages or packets sent would reach
at all.
UDP Header size is 8 bytes.
UDP does error checking, but no
recovery options.
Eg. DNS, DHCP, TFTP, SNMP, RIP,
VOIP etc...
It is Connection-Less
Transmission Speed is very high.

TCP
TCP rearranges data packets in the
order specified.
The speed for TCP is slower than
UDP.
There is absolute guarantee that the
data transferred remains intact and
arrives in the same order in which it
was sent.
TCP header size is 20 bytes
TCP does error checking
Eg. HTTP, HTTPs, FTP,
SMTP Telnetetc...
It is Connection-Oriented
Transmission Speed is high but not
as high as UDP.

Define Framing.

Frames Are The Small data Units Created By Data Link Layer And The Process Of
Creating Frames By The Data Link Layer Is Known As Framing.

Why are protocol needed?

Network Protocol are needed because the message or data send by our network have to
reached on destination through different networks of different structure and different
platform.

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So network protocols are performing to duty to make the transmitted data well-suited to
those new networks, which come in the way to destination.

What is the use of IP address?

An IP address is an Internet Protocol address. It is used to identify all the different computers
and websites on the internet.
Each IP address is unique. It is what enables you to do things like send a message in a chat
program to another computer, and out of all the millions of computers in the world, it arrives
at the correct one.

What is client Process?

The client is a process (program) that sends a message to a server process (program),
requesting that the server perform a task (service).
Client programs usually manage the user-interface portion of the application, validate data
entered by the user, dispatch requests to server programs, and sometimes execute business
logic.

What are the two multiplexing strategies used in transport layer?

Upward multiplexing
Downward multiplexing

Define security in networking.

Security is a specialized field in computer networking that involves securing a computer

network infrastructure.
Security in networking is typically handled by a network administrator or system
administrator who implements the security policy, network software and hardware needed to
protect a network and the resources accessed through the network from unauthorized access.

What is symmetric key algorithm?

Symmetric-key algorithms are a class of algorithms for cryptography that use the same
cryptographic keys for both encryption of plaintext and decryption of cipher text.
The keys represent a shared secret between two or more parties that can be used to maintain a
private information link.

State why telnet uses network virtual terminal.

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Rather than having terminals and hosts communicate using their various native languages,
all Telnet clients and servers agree to send data and commands that adhere to a fictional,
virtual terminal type call the Network Virtual Terminal (NVT).
The NVT defines a set of rules for how information is formatted and sent, such as character
set, line termination, and how information about the Telnet session itself is sent.

What is meant by piggybacking? What are its advantages and disadvantages?

Piggybacking is a bi-directional data transmission technique in the network layer (OSI model).
It makes the most of the sent data frames from receiver to emitter, adding the confirmation that
the data frame sent by the sender was received successfully (ACK acknowledge).
Advantages:

Improves the efficiency

Better use of available channel bandwidth.

Disadvantages:

The receiver can jam the service if he/she has nothing to send.
Additional complexity.

How are errors caused in transmission lines?

Errors may be caused by a defect, usually understood either to be a mistake in design or

construction, or a broken component.
Multiple reflections in transmission lines can cause an amplification of timing errors
associated with the delay sensitivity to environment effects of the transmission lines.

List out the function of router.

The main function of a router is

To enable the movement of data by a device from one network to another.

Packet Forwarding
Packet switching and
Packet filtering

List the way to deal with congestion.

Determine what the traffic is

Decide how to deal with the traffic
Weigh your options

Discuss the issues in network security.

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Authentication
o Process of verifying identity of a user
Integrity
o Data that arrives is the same as that is sent
Confidentiality
o Sensitive information should not be visible to eavesdropper - use
Encryption
Non-repudiation
o Assurance that any transaction that takes place can subsequently be proved to
have taken place
Authorization

Explain CRC
CRC (Cyclic redundancy check) is often used to detect data transmission errors. It is
transmitted together with the data and evaluated independently at the receiver side. If evaluated
and received CRCs differ, data transmission error is indicated. If both CRCs are the same, there
still exists other data provided the same CRC. Nevertheless the probability of such an error is
usually very low.
Transmitted data sequence can be interpreted as binary polynomial. E.g. the sequence
11000101 can be written as x
7+x6+x2+1.
CRC is being evaluated as a remainder after the division of data polynomial by so called
generating polynomial.

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