Guide to Essay Writing

Essays and marked on 6 separate points: Organisation, Writing, Evidence, Argument &
Evaluation, Originality and Referencing.
The following is a guide to ensure your essay contains all the relevant information required and
is a check list to help to ensure you include all the points the markers will be checking for.

Organization
Organization refers to how well your essay is focused and structured.
Answer the question. Make sure you have answered the question as set. Look at the key skill words in
the title, e.g. if you are asked to critically evaluate make sure you do critically evaluate. Check
the title of the essay carefully and make sure you do not answer a different question. A good
essay that doesnt answer the question as set may fail, because you may not be meeting the
learning outcomes of the module. Check you are not omitting key material that is necessary to
answer the question.
Relate material to the question. Check that the material you are discussing is relevant to the topic at
hand. Do not digress and add superfluous material. Also, make it clear to the reader how the
material you are discussing relates to the question. E.g. you may describe an experiment very
well and with lots of detail, but you must not forget to explain exactly how the findings of that
experiment relate to the question at hand.
Improve your introduction. The main job of the introduction is to preview the rest of the essay and to
make it clear how you are going to answer the question.
Introduction as Preview
Consider first that the most straightforward essay structure is: (1) preview of the essay; (2) main
arguments and evidence; (3) summary and conclusion. This is often paraphrased as: "Say what
you are going to say, say it, and then say what you have said". This is actually a good strategy as
it demonstrates to the reader that you have a clear focus and are not wandering all over the place
with your essay. It also gives the impression that the whole essay is attempting to answer the
question.
So your introduction should preview what you are going to say in your essay. For example,
imagine the question is: Critically Evaluate Piagets Theory of Cognitive Development. After you
have done all your reading and research, and drawn up your rough essay plan, you should have
an idea of what stance your essay will take. Will your essay defend or criticize Piagets theory?
With this in mind, your introduction should preview what stance the essay is going to take. It is a
good idea to write your introduction last. Here are some examples of introductory previews:
This essay will evaluate Piagets theory of cognitive development in relation to more recent
information-processing theories. I shall demonstrate that Piagets theory is based on an outdated
methodology and lacks empirical support, and that more recent research techniques (for example
using the habituation paradigm) reveal that Piaget underestimated the abilities of infants and
young children.
In addition the introduction may define any terms in the question if necessary and also may
outline the limits of what you are going to cover, e.g:

"In order to answer this question in sufficient detail, it is impossible to examine all aspects of
cognitive development. Therefore, this essay will focus in depth on three areas of cognitive
development, namely: (a) Object perception, (b) egocentrism, and (c) conservation."
Improve your conclusion. The conclusion should be a substantial paragraph (or two) which summarizes
the essay and which gives a clear answer to the question. Part of the job of the conclusion is to
recap the main arguments of your essay and to highlight the most important points. It is not the
place where you finally answer the question after hedging your bets in the main part of the essay.
By the time you get to the conclusion, you should have already answered the question you are
reminding the reader what your main arguments have been. Weak conclusions are very common
here are some of the most frequent mistakes
Weak ConclusionsSome Common Mistakes

There has been no answer to the question for the whole of the essay. Then, in the conclusion, the
question is finally answered in a single line, e.g. In conclusion, the evidence supports nurture
rather than nature. (If your essay is discussing the nature/nurture debate, then the whole essay
should be evaluating the relative merits of each side: dont wait until the very end to give your
evaluation).

Woolly conclusion which hedges its bets. E.g. "all the theories are equally good"; "it is impossible
to decide between the different theories"; "much more research is needed before any answer can
be given". Remember an essay is different from a research report. You are expected in an essay
to give a reasoned argument in favour of a particular point of view, whereas in a research report
your conclusions have to be more restrained and modest.

Failure to recap on the key parts of your argument. Part of the job of the conclusion is to
summarize the main points of the essay. This doesnt mean you should repeat huge chunks, but it
does mean that you should identify for the reader what you think have been the key pieces of
evidence that support your argument.

Over the word limit. Do not exceed the stated word limit. When the work is marked, the excessive use of
words beyond the stated word limit is reflected in the academic judgement of the piece of work
which results in a lower mark being awarded for the piece of work. References and the title do not
count in the word limit but everything else does, including all citations and quotes.
Too short. There is no explicit penalty for going too low under the word limit, but a good rule of thumb is
to not go lower than 90-95% of the maximum. If the essay is meant to be 1,500 words long and
you only use 1,300 words, the marker will be wondering why you didnt use the other 200 words
to present more evidence or arguments.

Writing
Writing refers to the standard of your written communication skills. Does the reader understand what you
are saying? Good communication is enhanced by orderly, fluent writing that is largely free of grammatical
errors and erratic punctuation.
Improve spelling, grammar, punctuation. Ensure you adhere to standard norms of correct written
English with regard to spelling, grammar and punctuation. Proof read your work and use spell and
grammatical checkers. Ask someone to read over your work for spelling and grammar (especially
if English is not your first language). Student support services will also do this for you.
Be clearer. Make sure every sentence you write is clear. What point are you trying to make and have you
communicated it clearly? Use simple language that clearly expresses what you mean. That is,
avoid using jargon and overly technical language. Shorter sentences are better than longer ones.
Dense paragraphs (those with lots of ideas and information) need to be unpacked. That is, they
need to be broken up and each idea explained clearly.
Ensure you use paragraphs correctly. Paragraphs are normally at least 3 sentences long and usually
not more than 8 sentences long. They should contain one distinct idea only. Indent the first line of
a new paragraph.
Use scientific style. Avoid colloquialisms and chattiness. Writing should be objective and factual.
Evidence (and citations) is better than positive assertions. Unsubstantiated opinions are not
appropriate. Bias must be removed from language. Avoid using sexist, racist, or homophobic
language.
Only use first-person appropriately. On the whole, you should avoid using the first-person. Phrases
such as I personally believe, or I feel, or I think should always be avoided. However, there
are circumstances in which the use of I is appropriate, although even in these cases it should be
used sparingly (perhaps only at the beginning when previewing the focus of the essay, and at the
end when concluding).
Acceptable Uses of "I"
When explaining what you are arguing, or what you are concluding, or what you are going to
focus on in the essay. "I" in these cases is usually preferable to "the present author" or to
unwieldy passive constructions (e.g. "In this essay it will be argued"). Sometimes you may
choose to use the passive version and avoid I, although most style guides and monitors of clear
usage (including the APA) argue against an over-use of passive forms. You could say that This
essay will argue that although strictly speaking an essay cannot argue. Another alternative is
According to the argument of this essay.
The advantage of using the word I in these cases is that you are taking clear ownership of your
essay and its arguments. Never use the editorial we construction. Since the essay is your work
alone, there is no we to refer to (e.g. dont say on the basis of this crucial piece of evidence we
can conclude; instead say on the basis of this crucial piece of evidence I conclude that).
E.g. Acceptable
"In this essay I shall argue, on the basis of five main strands of evidence, that Piaget's theory,
although much-maligned, is still one of the most coherent theories of cognitive development"
"According to the evidence and arguments presented in this essay I conclude that Chomsky's
view....."
Unacceptable Uses of "I"

Avoid writing "I think", "I believe", "I feel", or "my personal feeling is"
E.g.
BAD:
BETTER:

"I think that Skinner was misguided"

"Skinner may have been misguided on this point for two reasons"

BAD:
"Personally I feel there is nothing in favour of this view"
BETTER:
"On the basis of the arguments presented in this essay I conclude there is little
evidence in favour of this view"
Make your essay flow better use linking phrases. Roughly speaking each paragraph should
contain one idea or make one main point. However, each paragraph does not stand on its own
and you need to use phrases to link between paragraphs. For example, sometimes essays read a
bit like a list of findings, in which finding after finding is described but without any sense of flow.
Try to make smooth links between paragraphs. E.g. you can use phrases such as however, in
contrast to this approach, moreover, in addition, on the other hand, etc. You can also use
numbering (but write numbers as words). E.g. you could say: there are three main pieces of
evidence that falsify the behaviourist account of language learning, and then you could start
each of the next three paragraphs with First, ., Second, ,,,,, and Third, .. See also D2
below on Developing a line of reasoning.
Avoid bullet points and subheadings. Never use bullet points in an essay. Do not use any subheadings
in an essay. An essay consists of a title, followed by continuous prose broken up only by
paragraphs but no subheadings except for the heading References at the end (starting on a
new page). On rare occasions the module leader may specify particular subheadings for an
essay (e.g. if it is in two or more parts) but this is the exception rather than the rule.

Evidence
Evidence refers to the findings and data that you use to support the arguments of your essay.
More evidence needed. Do not make factual claims that are unsupported by evidence.
Relate evidence to theory. Do not just list findings without explaining their relevance to particular
theories. For a finding to count as evidence it has to be either in favour of, or against, a particular
theory or point of view.
Show awareness of counter-evidence. In most areas of research, the evidence is not clear cut.
Demonstrate your awareness of competing or contradictory evidence. This does not prevent you
from then discriminating between good and bad evidence (see below, under Argument &
Evaluation).
More breadth and/or depth of evidence. An essay which receives a high mark will always have
demonstrated a good command of the literature. Breadth of evidence refers to how widely you
have drawn on a range of sources and a wide range of data (e.g. from different areas of research
that all converge on your topic). Depth of evidence refers to the extent you are aware of all the
detailed research in a particular narrow area of study.
Improve factual accuracy. Check your facts! Make sure you report studies accurately and do not mix up
names or other factual details. Also check you do not make factual errors when describing
theories or general psychological knowledge. Use good sources and make sure you read them
carefully in order not to make factual mistakes.

Give more detail (e.g. explain studies in more detail). When you explain a piece of research, make
sure you give sufficient detail in order to show (a) that you have good understanding of the
research, and (b) how the research is relevant to your argument and the question at hand.
Usually you will need to briefly explain the methodology and results and the conclusions drawn
from this results. This is especially necessary if you are then going to criticize the research and its
conclusions, but also if you are evaluating the research in a positive light and are using it to back
up your argument.

Argument & Evaluation

Take a clear position/ argue your case. In an essay, you need to take up a position relative to the
material you are discussing. What is your stance? What is your argument? If there is a debate
between two points of view, which side are you arguing is right, or are you arguing that both sides
are wrong? You can be explicit about this: e.g. In this essay I shall argue that the evidence in
favour of universal facial expressions of emotion is remarkably weak, and is beset by serious
methodological flaws.; or I have demonstrated that neither Skinners nor Chomskys accounts of
language development fit particularly well with recent data.
Develop a line of reasoning. Try to make your essay flow nicely, with linking phrases that signpost to
the reader the direction in which your argument is going. See below for some useful phrases
(adapted from Cottrell, 2005).
Introducing the line of reasoning
An argument normally has a series of stages followed by a conclusion. A good way to introduce
your line of reasoning is to number its stages. E.g. There are three main reasons why Skinners
account of language development is weak. You then go on to outline each of these later on:
First, Skinners theory cannot account for the speed at which young children acquire grammatical
competence. Continue with the evidence for this claim, and then move on to Second, . Etc.
Phrases which develop and continue a line of reasoning
Direction being taken
Reinforcing with similar reasons
Reinforcing with different reasons
Stronger reinforcement
Introducing alternative arguments
Rebutting alternative arguments
Contrasting
Concluding

Useful Phrases
similarly, equally, likewise, also
in addition, not only but also, besides
furthermore, moreover, indeed
alternatively, it might be argued that, others argue that
however, despite this, nevertheless, even though
by contrast, conversely, although, in fact
therefore, this indicates, hence, thus, from this it can be
deduced/inferred.

Be logical and consistent. Your argument is a series of statements (premises) leading to a conclusion. A
valid argument is an argument in which the conclusion follows logically from the premises. (A
sound argument is a valid argument in which the conclusion is true). In order to make sure your
argument is valid, try to ensure you do not make any errors in logic. E.g. check you do not
contradict yourself in your argument. Also, try to ensure that conclusions follow logically from
earlier statements, e.g. it is not logical to conclude that because A and B are correlated, that A
causes B.
More evaluation needed. Avoid just describing or listing findings. You need to evaluate the literature.
Evaluation means judging whether something is good or bad. One way to think about this is in
terms of a judge and jury. Your essay presents the evidence and the witnesses (the research and
the researchers) and then you the essay writer have to be the judge and jury and come to a final
considered judgment.

Here are some commonly used evaluative criteria:

For experiments and investigations
how good was the methodology and design?;
is the study valid and reliable?;
have the findings been replicated?
have the results been interpreted correctly?
For theories:
is there good evidence in favour of this theory?;
has this theory been falsified?;
is this theory coherent (does it make sense)?;
what are the arguments for and against this theory?
is this theory parsimonious (i.e. is it the simplest explanation)?
Back up your arguments/ evaluations more convincingly. You may be making arguments and
evaluations, but these may not be convincing. In order to make your arguments and evaluations
stronger, you need to (a) check your logic, and (b) make sure you have a good command of the
literature and are including sound data and findings that strongly support your claims.

Originality
Avoid poor academic practice. Make sure that your essay does not contain passages that have been
copied from other sources (unless these are clearly labeled quotations), or passages of which the
attribution is uncertain, i.e. passages in which you give no citations regarding your sources.
Always make your sources clear and transparent to the reader.
Go beyond lecture notes and textbooks. Although, lecturers typically give out lecture notes, these are a
guide only and do not constitute the entire content of a module. An essay answer that simply
repeats back to the marker the contents of lecture handouts does not demonstrate independent
work on the part of the student, and so will not score very high marks. Use lecture notes and
textbooks as a spring board, but demonstrate to the reader that you have researched the topic
yourself and that you have found and read many journal articles on the topic.
More independent thinking. You may have read widely around the topic, but this criterion refers to
whether you have demonstrated that you have thought for yourself about the topic. This may be
demonstrated by a particularly good level of understanding indicated by using your own novel
examples to illustrate points, or by how your discussion of the topic avoids clichs or challenges
received wisdom.
Make novel connections. Connect different areas of psychology both across the module and between
modules. Dont stick to a hackneyed or narrow way of discussing a topic bring in other relevant
findings that may not be part of the traditional story of that topic.
E.g. You may be writing an essay about childrens language development, but you remember
something from a cognitive psychology module about the nature of working memory that seems
highly relevant to a point you are discussing. Making links like this, so long as they are sensible,
would demonstrate good understanding and original thinking.

References
All citations in the manuscript must appear in the reference list, and all references must be cited in the
text. (APA Publication Manual, 2001, p. 28).
Choose references carefully: ensure they are relevant. All citations should be accurate.
References are there to support any argument you make. Every argument made must be based on a
reference. See the referencing and citation guide for more details on how to reference properly.
Provide supporting citations. Provide supporting citations for all claims and findings.
Use quotations appropriately and cite with page numbers. Use quotations sparingly. These should be
cited with page numbers. Page numbers should be quoted in this format (p. 83 for single page
quotations and pp. 83 96 for multiple page quotations).
Read more widely. You should have more references in your reference list. Read more original journals.
Rather than reading books, you should be reading journal articles.
Use as cited in appropriately. When you have not read the original work, the citation should be
Addams (1894, as cited in Verstraten, 1999). This is only for work you have not read. This
needs to be done for every citation of the work.
Ensure all (and only) cited works are in reference list. All citations need to be referenced in the
reference list. The reference list should contain only work cited in the text.
Reference list in APA format.
Use correct format for citations (name plus date).