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Computer-Based Electronics

Training System FACET

Transmission Lines in
Communication Systems
Student Manual
36970-00

Printed in Canada

|30369700005129~

AB

COMPUTER-BASED ELECTRONICS
TRAINING SYSTEM FACET

TRANSMISSION LINES IN
COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

by
the Staff
of
Lab-Volt Ltd.

Copyright 2005 Lab-Volt Ltd.


All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
in any form or by any means, without the prior written permission
of Lab-Volt Ltd.

Legal Deposit Fourth Trimester 2005


ISBN 2-89289-842-0

FIRST EDITION, DECEMBER 2005

Printed in Canada
December 2005

Foreword
In electrical engineering, transmission lines are used to transfer energy from a
source (generator) to a load. This energy can be in the form of electrical power or
information signals. In electrical power transmission, the energy is transmitted over
frequencies usually ranging around 50 or 60 Hz. In information signal transmission,
the energy can be transmitted over frequencies ranging from around 20 kHz (radio
signals) to 109 Hz and higher (terrestrial microwave signals and light signals).
Common types of transmission lines include the two-wire transmission line, the
waveguide, and the optical fiber.
This course deals specifically with the transmission of radio signals over two-wire
transmission lines. It teaches the principles and operational characteristics of these
lines under transient (step testing) and steady-state conditions. In addition, students
gain valuable experience testing and troubleshooting these lines using time-domain
reflectometry (TDR).
The curriculum has been written for use with the FACET TRANSMISSION LINES
circuit board. This board uses two RG-174 coaxial cables. Two generators provide
step and sinusoidal signals for transient and steady-state testing of the line behavior.
Various load impedances (purely resistive, capacitive, or inductive) can be
connected to the receiving end of the lines to permit analysis of their behavior under
various load conditions.
The Lab-Volt Instructor Guide Transmission Lines in Communication Systems
provides answers to all the procedure steps and review questions found in each
exercise in this manual. The books listed in the bibliography of this manual can be
used as references to complement the course.

III

IV

Table of Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IX
Installation of the Circuit Board and Insertion of Faults . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XI
Unit 1

Characteristics of Transmission Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1


The different types of transmission lines used. Equivalent circuit of a
transmission line. Characteristic impedance, impedance mismatch,
attenuation, and distortion. Transient behavior of transmission lines
terminated by different resistive load impedances.
Ex. 1-1 Introduction to the Transmission Lines Circuit Board

1-17

Familiarization with the various sections of the Lab-Volt


TRANSMISSION LINES circuit board. Thevenin equivalent of an
electrical linear circuit. Determining the voltage across a load
connected to a generator, using the Thevenin equivalent and the
voltage divider rule.
Ex. 1-2 Velocity of Propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-35
Measuring the velocity of propagation of a signal in a transmission
line, using the step response method. Determining the relative
permittivity of the dielectric material used to construct this line,
based on the measured velocity of propagation.
Ex 1-3

Transient Behavior of a Line Under


Resistive Load Impedances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-51
Behavior of a transmission line terminated by various resistive
load impedances, when voltage steps are launched into the line.
Measuring the characteristic impedance of a line, using two
different methods: with a variable load resistor, or through
measurement of the rising edge of the launched step.

Ex. 1-4 Attenuation and Distortion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-67


Definition of attenuation and distortion. Causes of attenuation and
distortion, and how they affect the shape of the transmitted signal.
Evaluating signal quality in high-speed transmission systems,
using the eye-pattern method.
Unit 2

Transmission Line Measurements Under Transient


(Step Testing) Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1
Distributed inductance and capacitance of a line, and how they relate to
characteristic impedance and velocity of propagation. The voltage reflection
diagram. Transient behavior of transmission lines terminated by complex
load impedances. Using time-domain reflectometry (TDR) to locate and
identify discontinuities (impedance changes) along a line.

Table of Contents (cont'd)


Ex. 2-1 Determining Characteristic Impedance and
Velocity of Propagation by Measuring the
Distributed Capacitance and Inductance of a Line . . . . 2-7
Measuring the distributed capacitance and distributed inductance
of a line, in order to infer its characteristic impedance and velocity
of propagation.
Ex. 2-2 Voltage Reflection Coefficients at the Line
Load and Generator with Purely Resistive
Load Impedances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-31
Voltage reflection coefficients at the load and generator ends of
a mismatched line. Using a voltage reflection diagram (lattice
diagram) to represent the creation of the reflected steps on a line
and the resulting distribution of the voltage along the line as a
function of time.
Ex. 2-3 Transient Behavior of a Line Terminated by
Complex Load Impedances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-65
Step response signal of a line terminated by various complex
(inductive or capacitive) load impedances.
Ex. 2-4 Detection and Location of Discontinuities on a Line
by Using Time-Domain Reflectometry (TDR) . . . . . . . . 2-93
Using techniques based on time-domain reflectometry (TDR) to
detect and locate discontinuities (impedance changes) along
transmission lines.
Ex. 2-5 Troubleshooting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-105
Locating and identifying the nature of discontinuities (faults)
introduced by your instructor along the transmission lines of the
circuit board, using time-domain reflectometry.
Unit 3

Transmission Line Measurements Under Sinusoidal


(Steady-State) Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1
Electrical length, standing waves, and voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR).
Parameters related to the transfer and loss of power in transmission lines:
insertion loss, return loss, and mismatch loss. The Smith Chart and its
various uses. Impedance transformation and matching with quarterwavelength (/4) line sections.

VI

Table of Contents (cont'd)


Ex. 3-1 Standing Waves and Voltage Standing
Wave Ratio (VSWR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-7
Creation of standing waves on transmission lines. Characteristics
of a standing wave based on the nature of the impedance
mismatch at the origin of this wave. Measuring the voltage
standing-wave ratio (VSWR) on a line.
Ex. 3-2 Effects of Attenuation on the VSWR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-33
Definition and calculation of important parameters related to the
transfer and loss of power in mismatched transmission lines:
insertion loss, return loss, and mismatch loss. Calculation of the
VSWR in a lossless line in terms of the reflection coefficient at the
load. Effect that attenuation has on VSWR measurements in lines
that are lossy.
Ex. 3-3 The Smith Chart, Resonant Lines, and
Impedance Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-51
How the input impedance of a mismatched line varies as a
function of the electrical length of the line. Resonant lines. The
Smith Chart and how it is used to determine the input impedance
of a line that is not terminated by its characteristic impedance.
Using quarter-wavelength (/4) line sections to perform
impedance transformation and matching.
Appendices

A
B
C
D
E

New Terms and Words


Step Response Signal For Various Load Impedances
The Voltage Reflection Diagram
Graph for Plotting the Standing Waves on the Trainer
Transmission Lines
The Smith Chart

Bibliography
We Value Your Opinion!

VII

VIII

Introduction
This manual provides students with the theory and measurement skills required to
implement and test transmission lines. Students first learn the principles and
operational characteristics of transmission lines. They then learn how to conduct
transmission line measurements under transient (step testing), and sinusoidal
steady-state conditions. Finally, students acquire a valuable foundation in the theory
and practice of time-domain reflectometry (TDR), as well as impedance matching
and transformation.
Also included is an exercise fully dedicated to troubleshooting. In this exercise,
students must locate and identify the nature of discontinuities (faults) introduced by
the instructor along transmission lines, using time-domain reflectometry (TDR). This
allows students to develop their troubleshooting skills and to test all their newly
acquired knowledge.
The course is divided into three units:

Unit 1 covers the basic characteristics of transmission lines.

Unit 2 covers transmission line measurements under transient (step testing)


conditions.

Unit 3 covers transmission line measurements under sinusoidal steady-state


conditions.

Each unit contains exercises that provide a systematic and realistic means of
learning transmission line principles. Each exercise contains the elements listed
below.

A clearly defined Exercise Objective.


A Discussion of the theory involved.
A detailed step-by-step laboratory Procedure in which the student observes and
measures important phenomena. Illustrations facilitate connecting the modules
and guide the student's observations. Questions direct the student's thinking
process and help in understanding the principles involved.
A Conclusion to confirm that the objective has been reached.
Questions which verify that the material has been well assimilated.

IX

Installation of the Circuit Board


and Insertion of Faults
The TRANSMISSION LINES circuit board is designed to be installed into a Lab-Volt
FACET Base Unit. The Base Unit distributes the required DC power to the circuit
board, and permits the insertion of faults that simulate discontinuities along the
transmission lines of the board.

If the Base Unit is computerized, faults can be inserted automatically by using


the provided software.

If the Base Unit is not computerized, faults can be inserted through the use of
manual switches.

The TRANSMISSION LINES circuit board can also be operated without a FACET
Base Unit (stand-alone mode). In that case, the circuit board must be powered by
an external 15 VDC power supply. The power supply is connected to the
AUXILIARY POWER INPUT section of the TRANSMISSION LINES circuit board.
The LED indicators in this section are on (lit) when adequate power is supplied to the
circuit board.
Throughout the manual, it is assumed that the TRANSMISSION LINES circuit board
is used with the FACET Base Unit.
Installation of the TRANSMISSION LINES Circuit Board into the FACET Base Unit
Before performing each exercise, make sure the TRANSMISSION LINES circuit
board has been installed into the Base Unit as directed below:

Open the connector in the Base Unit by turning the knob on the right side of the
Base Unit away from you. Do not use force; the knob should turn with
reasonable pressure.

Insert the circuit board into the Base Unit by sliding it along the grooves in the
Base Unit. Be sure the connector of the circuit board fits all the way into the slot
at the back of the Base Unit.

Lock the Base Unit connector by turning the knob toward you about a quarterturn.

Turn on the Base Unit by setting its POWER switch (located on the right-hand
side) to the I (ON) position. In the upper section of the Base Unit, verify that the
LED's next to the two adjustable control knobs are both on, confirming that
proper DC power is distributed to the circuit board. Turn off the Base Unit by
setting its POWER switch to the O (OFF) position.
Note: The two control knobs of the Base Unit permit adjustment of the
voltage provided by secondary built-in DC voltage sources. These sources
are not required for the TRANSMISSION LINES circuit board. However,
always make sure that the LED next to each source's knob is turned on
after you turn on the Base Unit, to confirm that adequate power is
distributed to the TRANSMISSION LINES circuit board.
Note: Some Base Unit models come without a built-in power supply. In that
case, the Base Unit must be connected to an external 15 VDC power
supply in order for the Base Unit to distribute adequate power to the
TRANSMISSION LINES circuit board.
XI

Installation of a Circuit Board


and Insertion of Faults (cont'd)
Faults
Faults can be incorporated by the instructor into the TRANSMISSION LINES circuits
to enable you to develop your troubleshooting skills. These faults are introduced by
using the software (if applicable) or manual switches. A fault can be a change in
some circuit component value, or the introduction of a short or open circuit. The
following rules apply to the use of the faults:

XII

You should never have more than one faults introduced at any one time.

The exercise procedure will tell you when to ask the instructor to introduce faults
in the circuits.

The faults to be inserted by the instructor are indicated in the Lab-Volt Instructor
Guide Transmission Lines in Communication Systems, under the section
Answers to Procedure Questions of Exercise 2-5.

Unit

Characteristics of Transmission Lines

UNIT OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of this unit, you will be familiar with the basics of transmission lines.
You will be able to describe different types of transmission lines and how they are
used. You will know how to determine the equivalent circuit of a transmission line.
You will be familiar with the concepts of characteristic impedance and impedance
mismatch.
UNIT FUNDAMENTALS
Basics of Transmission Lines
A transmission line is a conducting device used to transfer energy in the form of
electromagnetic waves from a source (generator) to a load. In television and radio
systems, for example, transmission lines are used to connect transmitters to
antennas, or antennas to receivers, as Figure 1-1 shows.

Figure 1-1. Basic radio system.

1-1

Characteristics of Transmission Lines


Transmission lines are also used in telephone and data transmission systems to
carry signals over long distances, as Figure 1-2 shows.

Figure 1-2. Basic telephone network.

Transmission lines are used in microwave systems to carry electromagnetic energy.


They are also used in optical cable television networks, as Figure 1-3 shows. Optical
fiber systems are used to carry light signals, while coaxial transmission lines are
used as feed cables.
Transients and Steady-State Conditions on a Transmission Line
Transmission lines can carry different types of signals. For example, they are
commonly used for transmitting power signals (at low frequencies) and
communication signals (at high frequencies).
In some applications, such as in telephone or computer networks, pulsed (digital)
signals travel down the lines. These lines are said to operate under transient
conditions, because it takes a certain time, or transitional period, for each pulse on
the line to reach a steady value.
In other applications, sinusoidal signals that repeat periodically travel down the line.
These lines are said to operate under steady-state condition, because the signals
exhibit only negligible change over an arbitrarily long period of time.

1-2

Characteristics of Transmission Lines

Figure 1-3. Hybrid cable television network.

Types of Transmission Lines and Applications


There are several different types of transmission lines. Each type of line has different
properties that affect transmission: the bandwidth, the attenuation, and the noise or
interference. Depending on the type of transmission line and on the communication
requirements, different parts of the electromagnetic frequency spectrum are used.
As figure 1-4 shows, most of the electromagnetic spectrum is invisible. The lower
frequencies of the spectrum include radio waves, microwaves, and infrared
radiations. Visible light falls within a very narrow range. The highest frequencies
include ultraviolet (UV) light, x-rays, and gamma rays.

1-3

Characteristics of Transmission Lines

Figure 1-4. The electromagnetic spectrum.

The following types of transmission lines are commonly used:

two-wire open line;


twisted-pair line;
shielded pair line;
coaxial line;
waveguide;
optical fiber.

The two-wire open line consists of two parallel conductors that are spaced a few
centimeters apart and that are held by spacers placed at regular intervals, as
Figure 1-5 shows. This type of line is used mainly for connections over short
distances for high power lines and rural telephone lines. It is susceptible to noise,
cheap, and simple.

1-4

Characteristics of Transmission Lines

Figure 1-5. Two-wire open line.

The two-wire line is called twin-lead line when the parallel conductors are insulated
by a dielectric material, as Figure 1-6 shows. This type of line is often used to
connect home television sets to their antennas.

Figure 1-6. Twin-lead line.

The twisted-pair line consists of two conductors sheathed in an insulating material


and twisted together to make a flexible line, as Figure 1-7 shows. This type of line
is used for connections over short distances. It is not recommended for transmitting
high-frequency signals because of the important losses that occur in the insulating
material.

1-5

Characteristics of Transmission Lines

Figure 1-7. Twisted-pair line.

The shielded pair line consists of two parallel conductors surrounded and separated
by solid dielectric material, as Figure 1-8 shows. The dielectric material is
surrounded by a copper braid that acts as an electrical shield. The entire assembly
is housed in a flexible protective cover. The main advantage of this type of line is that
the conductors are isolated from external noise sources.

Figure 1-8. Shielded pair line.

The coaxial line is widely used for cable television. It comes in two types: rigid and
flexible. Both types are constructed in the same way: an inner conductor is
surrounded by a tubular outer conductor. This type of conductor minimizes radiation
losses, as well as interference from other lines.

1-6

In the case of the flexible coaxial line, shown in Figure 1-9, the inner conductor
is insulated from the outer conductor by solid, dielectric material. The outer
conductor consists of a braided copper shield, giving the cable its flexibility. This
type of line minimizes the impact of electromagnetic radiation and skin effect.

Characteristics of Transmission Lines

Figure 1-9. Coaxial line (flexible).

In the case of the rigid coaxial line, the inner conductor is insulated from the outer
conductor by spacer or beads at regular intervals. This type of line minimizes
losses, as well as interference from other lines.

The waveguide is a transmission medium that confines and guides propagating


electromagnetic waves. The waveguide normally consists of a hollow metallic
conductor, usually cylindrical, rectangular, or elliptical in cross section, as
Figure 1-10 shows. This type of waveguide may, under certain conditions, contain
a solid or gaseous dielectric material. Waveguides are used in microwave radio
systems.

Figure 1-10. Waveguides.

Finally, the optical fiber is designed specifically for transmitting light, which can be
modeled as an electromagnetic wave. The optical fiber consists of a central
conductor, called the core, made of glass or plastic, as Figure 1-11 shows. The core
is surrounded by a protective cladding. The whole assembly is housed in a
protective sheath. Advantages of optical fibers are their very high bandwidth, their
noise immunity, and their small size.

1-7

Characteristics of Transmission Lines

Figure 1-11. Optical fiber.

Impedance
In alternating-current (AC) circuits, the resistance of a component to the flow of
current is called impedance. Impedance is symbolized by a capital Z. Impedance
is measured in ohms (). Impedance is quantified by a complex number that can be
expressed in either of the polar or rectangular form, as Figure 1-12 shows.

in polar form, with some resistance value R, expressed in ohms (), and a given
angle, , in degrees or radians (E or rad): R p .

in rectangular form, with a true or purely resistive component R, and a


reactive component (jX), both expressed in ohms (): R jX.

Figure 1-12. Polar and rectangular.

Since it consists of a complex number, impedance can be represented on a


rectangular coordinate chart as a vector starting from the graph origin, as
Figure 1-13 shows. The horizontal axis of the chart is called real axis and
corresponds to the resistance (R) axis. The vertical axis is called imaginary axis,
and corresponds to the reactance (jX) axis.

1-8

Characteristics of Transmission Lines

Figure 1-13. R, XL, and XC.

When the impedance is

purely resistive, then Z = R + j0, or R p0E


purely inductive, then Z = 0 + jXL, or XL p90E
purely capacitive, then Z = 0 jXC, or XC p90E

Most of the time, impedance is neither purely resistive nor purely reactive. It is
composed of both a real (resistive) component and a reactive component, as
Figure 1-14 shows.

When the vector is located in the first quadrant of the chart (between 0 and 90E),
the reactive component is inductive.

When the vector is located in the fourth quadrant (between 90 and 0E), the
reactive component is capacitive.

1-9

Characteristics of Transmission Lines

Figure 1-14. Vector location is dependent upon the reactive component.

For example, the vector in the fourth quadrant of Figure 1-14 consists of a true, or
purely resistive component, and a reactive component that is capacitive: 6 p18E.
Basic Transmission Line Circuit
The upper section of Figure 1-15 shows a basic transmission line circuit. The
transmission line consists of two conductors.

1-10

The sending end of the line is connected to an AC voltage source, ES, having an
internal impedance ZS. The receiving end of the line is connected to a load having
a certain impedance, ZL.

The impedance seen at the sending end of the transmission line, ZIN, is the ratio
of the voltage to current (VIN/IIN) at that point of the circuit. ZIN corresponds to the
impedance presented to the voltage source by the transmission line and the load.

Characteristics of Transmission Lines

Figure 1-15. Basic transmission line circuit.

The lower section of Figure 1-15 shows the circuit when the transmission line used
is a flexible coaxial line. This is the type of transmission line used on the
TRANSMISSION LINES circuit board. The inner conductor is insulated from the
outer conductor by solid, dielectric material. The outer conductor consists of a
braided copper shield. Since the source provides an AC voltage, the polarity of the
two conductors is always opposite, since the current in the circuit alternates from
positive to negative.
Throughout this course, transmission lines will be represented by two parallel
conductors.
Characteristic Impedance of a Transmission Line
The most important property of a transmission line is characteristic impedance.
Characteristic impedance is represented by the symbol Z0.
Z0 is determined mainly by the physical characteristics of the line:

the diameter and shape of the conductors;


the relative spacing between the conductors; and
the type of insulating material that separates the conductors.
1-11

Characteristics of Transmission Lines


However, Z0 is independent of the length of the transmission line.
Theoretically speaking, Z0 can be defined as the input impedance, ZIN, of a line of
infinite length, as Figure 1-16 shows.

Figure 1-16. Z0 is the input impedance of a line of infinite length.

A more practical definition of Z0 is that it is the input impedance, ZIN, of a line of finite
length when the impedance of the load, ZL, is perfectly equal to Z0, as Figure 1-17
shows.

Figure 1-17. Z0 = ZIN when the line is terminated with ZL = Z0.

When the losses in a line are low and the frequency of the carried signals is relatively
high, which is a common situation, the reactive component of Z0 is usually
disregarded, and Z0 is considered to be purely resistive.
The characteristic impedance of transmission lines usually stands between 50 and
600 .

1-12

Characteristics of Transmission Lines

Coaxial lines used as television lead-ins, in cable television networks, or for


connecting radio transmitters to their antennas have a characteristic impedance
of 50 or 75 .

Twin-lead transmission lines used to connect television sets to their antennas


usually have a characteristic impedance of 300 .

Twisted-pair transmission lines are used for telephone distribution and have a
characteristic impedance of 600 .

To summarize, the characteristic impedance, Z0, of a transmission line is


theoretically equal to the input impedance, ZIN, of a line of infinite length. Besides,
the input impedance, ZIN, of a line of any length that is terminated with an impedance
equal to the characteristic impedance of the line, Z0, is equal to Z0.
Impedance Match and Impedance Mismatch
When the impedance of the load, ZL, is equal to the characteristic impedance of the
line, Z0, the energy that reaches the receiving end of a line is perfectly absorbed by
the load, as Figure 1-18 shows. Such a condition is called an impedance match. In
this condition, the line appears infinitely long from the perspective of the source,
because the load has the ability to continually absorb all the received energy.

Figure 1-18. Impedance match.

When ZL is not equal to Z0, an impedance mismatch occurs. In this case, not all the
received energy is absorbed by the load, as Figure 1-19 shows. Instead, part of this
energy is reflected back toward the source, resulting in a loss due to reflection.

1-13

Characteristics of Transmission Lines

Figure 1-19. Impedance mismatch.

If, additionally, the impedance of the source, ZS, is not equal to Z0, the reflected
energy, when it gets back to the source, will be partly re-reflected down the line, as
Figure 1-19 shows. The reflected energy will continue to bounce back and forth on
the line for a certain time, increasing the losses between the point of transmission
and the point of use, and resulting in transmission inefficiency.
It is therefore important that the impedance of the load and source be both equal to
the characteristic impedance of the line, in order for the maximum possible energy
to be transferred from the source to the load.
To summarize, when the load impedance, ZL, is not equal to the characteristic
impedance Z0, not all the received energy is absorbed by the load, due to reflection.
Equivalent Circuit of a Transmission Line
A transmission line can be viewed as many tiny sections distributed evenly along the
entire length of the line, as Figure 1-20 shows. Each section contains a same
combination of discrete components per unit length. One unit length may be any
convenient length: centimeter, meter, foot, etc.

1-14

Characteristics of Transmission Lines

Figure 1-20. Distributed parameters of a two-conductor transmission line.

R'S corresponds to the series resistance in ohms, , per unit length.


L' corresponds to the series inductance in henrys, H, (i.e. ohms-second, @s), per
unit length.
R'P corresponds to the parallel (shunt) resistance in ohms, , per unit length.
(R'p is the reciprocal of the distributed conductance, G').
C' corresponds to the capacitance in farads, F, (i.e. seconds/ohm, s/), per unit
length.

R'S, L', R'P, and C', because they are distributed uniformly along the line, are called
distributed parameters. The values of the distributed parameters are determined
by the physical characteristics of the line: the diameter of the conductors, the relative
spacing between the conductors, and the insulating material used.
In applications where R'S is negligible and R'P is very high (G' is very low), the line
is said to be lossless.
In applications where R'S is significant and R'P is relatively low (G' is relatively high),
some part of the transmitted energy is lost through R's due to I2R losses (series
losses), and also through R'p due to insulation leakage losses (shunt losses). The
line is said to be lossy and the losses are converted into heat. This is why high
power transmission lines must have special cooling mechanisms such as copper
tubing soldered along the sides of the guide and carrying a liquid. The liquid can be
water or ethylene glycol.

1-15

Characteristics of Transmission Lines


Determining Characteristic Impedance
As earlier mentioned, when the signals carried by a transmission line are in the
radio-frequency (RF) range of frequencies (20 kHz and higher) and the line losses
are low, the reactive component of Z0 is disregarded and Z0 is considered as being
purely resistive. In this condition, it can be demonstrated that

where

Z0 =
L' =
C' =

Characteristic impedance ();


Distributed inductance, in henrys per unit length (H/m or H/ft);
Distributed capacitance, in farads per unit length (F/m or F/ft).

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
In order to complete the exercises in this unit, you will need the following:

1-16

FACET Base Unit


TRANSMISSION LINES circuit board
Oscilloscope, dual trace, 40 MHz, (Lab-Volt P/N 797 or equivalent)

Exercise

1-1

Introduction to the Transmission Lines Circuit Board


EXERCISE OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of this exercise, you will be familiar with the various sections of the
TRANSMISSION LINES circuit board. You will know how to replace the STEP
GENERATOR of this board by its Thevenin equivalent circuit. You will be able to
determine the voltage across a load connected to this generator, using the voltage
divider rule.
DISCUSSION
The TRANSMISSION LINES Circuit Board
As Figure 1-21 shows, the five sections that make up the TRANSMISSION LINES
circuit board are as follows:

TRANSMISSION LINEs, A and B;


AUXILIARY POWER INPUT;
STEP GENERATOR;
SIGNAL GENERATOR;
LOADs.

Locate and examine each section of the circuit board.

Figure 1-21. TRANSMISSION LINEs A and B.

1-17

Introduction to the Transmission Lines Circuit Board


TRANSMISSION LINEs A and B each consists of a 50- RG-174 coaxial cable
having a length of 24 meters (78.7 feet). These lines can be connected end-to-end
to obtain a total line length of 48 meters (158 feet).
Each line has the following:

A BNC connector at both its sending and receiving ends.

Five probe turrets with their associated coaxial-shield turrets that permit
observation and/or measurement of the signal along the entire length of the line
with an oscilloscope. The posts are equally distributed along the line, thereby
dividing the line into four segments of equal length [6 meters (19.7 feet) each].

The AUXILIARY POWER INPUT section, shown in Figure 1-22, is used to power the
TRANSMISSION LINES circuit board with an external 15 VDC power supply, if the
board is operated in stand-alone mode (without a FACET Base Unit). The LED's in
the AUXILIARY POWER INPUT section are on (lit) when adequate power is supplied
from the external supply.

Figure 1-22. The AUXILIARY POWER INPUT.

The STEP GENERATOR, shown in Figure 1-23, delivers a 50-kHz signal consisting
in a rectangular pulse that occurs every 20 s. The STEP GENERATOR output
signal is available at five BNC connectors, each connector corresponding to a
different generator output impedance.

1-18

Introduction to the Transmission Lines Circuit Board

Figure 1-23. The STEP GENERATOR.

The SIGNAL GENERATOR, shown in Figure 1-24, delivers a sinusoidal signal


whose frequency can be adjusted between 5 kHz and 5 MHz, using the
FREQUENCY knob. The SIGNAL GENERATOR output signal is available at three
BNC connectors, each connector corresponding to a different generator output
impedance. A REFERENCE OUTPUT, consisting of two banana plugs, provides a
voltage proportional to the frequency of the SIGNAL GENERATOR output signal,
that is, 1 V per MHz of the generated signal. Consequently, the SIGNAL
GENERATOR output frequency can be measured by connecting a DC voltmeter to
the REFERENCE OUTPUT.

1-19

Introduction to the Transmission Lines Circuit Board

Figure 1-24. The SIGNAL GENERATOR.

The LOAD section, shown in Figure 1-25, consists of a network of resistors,


inductors, and capacitors that can be configured in various ways, through the setting
of toggle switches. A BNC connector located at the LOAD-section input permits
connection of this input to the common via the desired load configuration. For
example, to connect the LOAD-section input to the common via resistor R1 in series
with inductor L2, switches S1 and S8 are set to the I (ON) position, while all the other
switches are set to the O (OFF) position.

1-20

Introduction to the Transmission Lines Circuit Board

Figure 1-25. The LOADs.

Thevenin's Theorem
Thevenin's theorem is named after the French engineer M.L. Thevenin. Thevenin's
theorem allows any electrical linear circuit seen at two terminals to be represented
by a Thevenin equivalent circuit. The Thevenin equivalent circuit consists of a
voltage source, ETH, and an impedance in series with this source, ZTH. Figure 1-26
shows how a simple circuit is thevenized.

Voltage ETH is equal to the open-circuit voltage, VOC, measured across the two
terminals of the circuit to thevenize.

Impedance ZTH is the impedance seen at the two terminals when the voltage
source of the circuit to thevenize is replaced by a short circuit.

1-21

Introduction to the Transmission Lines Circuit Board

Figure 1-26. Thevenizing a simple circuit.

Thevenizing the STEP GENERATOR and the SIGNAL GENERATOR of the


TRANSMISSION LINES Circuit Board
The STEP GENERATOR of the TRANSMISSION LINES circuit board can be
represented by its Thevenin equivalent. To determine the Thevenin voltage of the
Thevenin equivalent, the STEP GENERATOR output voltage is measured with no
load connected to the generator output (that is, with the load impedance in the opencircuit condition, equal to 4 ), as Figure 1-27 shows. The measured voltage
corresponds to the Thevenin voltage, ETH.

1-22

Introduction to the Transmission Lines Circuit Board

Figure 1-27. Thevenizing the STEP GENERATOR.

Assuming that the Thevenin impedance of the STEP GENERATOR Thevenin


equivalent is purely resistive, this impedance can then be determined by connecting
a resistive load, whose resistance can be varied, to the output of the STEP
GENERATOR, as Figure 1-28 shows.

Figure 1-28. Voltage divider rule.

1-23

Introduction to the Transmission Lines Circuit Board


According to the voltage divider rule, the voltage across this load, VL, is

where

VL
ZL
ZTH
ETH

=
=
=
=

Voltage across the load (V);


Load impedance ();
Thevenin impedance ();
Thevenin voltage (V).

When the load is adjusted so that the voltage across it, VL, is equal to ETH/2 (see
Figure 1-29), the equation for calculating VL becomes:

Figure 1-29. ZTH = ZL when VL = ETH/2.

Rewriting and simplifying this equation for solving ZTH, gives:

Consequently, by adjusting the resistance of the load so that VL = ETH/2, and then
measuring this resistance, the value of ZTH can be determined.
A method identical to that just described can be used to determine the Thevenin
equivalent circuit of the SIGNAL GENERATOR of the TRANSMISSION LINES circuit
board.
As will be seen in detail in Unit 2, a transmission line acts as a load when it is
connected to a voltage source. This causes the instantaneous applied voltage to be
attenuated by a specific amount determined by the voltage divider rule.
1-24

Introduction to the Transmission Lines Circuit Board

Procedure Summary
In this procedure section, you will determine the Thevenin equivalents of the STEP
GENERATOR and SIGNAL GENERATOR on your circuit board.
PROCEDURE
Determining the Thevenin Equivalent at the STEP GENERATOR 50- BNC
Output

1. Make sure the TRANSMISSION LINES circuit board is properly installed


into the Base Unit. Turn on the Base Unit and verify that the LED's next to
each control knob on this unit are both on, confirming that the circuit board
is properly powered.

2. Referring to Figure 1-30, connect the STEP GENERATOR 50- BNC output
to the BNC connector at the LOAD-section input, using a short coaxial
cable.
Then, connect the STEP GENERATOR 100- BNC output to the trigger
input of the oscilloscope, using a coaxial cable.
Finally, using an oscilloscope probe, connect channel 1 of the oscilloscope
to the probe turret just next to the BNC connector at the LOAD-section input.
Make sure to connect the ground conductor of the probe to the associated
(nearby) common (L) turret.

3. In the LOAD section, set all the toggle switches to the O (OFF) position.
Then, connect the input of the LOAD section to the common via resistor R1
(500- potentiometer) by setting the appropriate switches in this section to
the I (ON) position. (That is, set both switches S1 and S10 to the I position.
The other switches must all be left to the O position).
Turn the knob of resistor R1 fully clockwise. This sets the impedance of the
STEP GENERATOR output load to 500 approximately.

1-25

Introduction to the Transmission Lines Circuit Board

Figure 1-30. STEP GENERATOR 50- BNC output connected to oscilloscope channel 1 and to the
LOAD-section input.

4. Make the following settings on the oscilloscope:


Channel 1
Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Normal
Sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.5 V/div
Input Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DC
Time Base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 s/div
Trigger
Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . External
Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.3 V
Input Impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 M or more
Note: Throughout this course, the oscilloscope settings for the time
base and channel sensitivity are given as a starting point for
guidance and may be modified as necessary to obtain the maximum
possible measurement accuracy.

1-26

5. Observe the STEP GENERATOR output signal on the oscilloscope screen.


Is this signal a rectangular pulse having a period of 20 s approximately, as
Figure 1-31 shows?

Introduction to the Transmission Lines Circuit Board

G Yes

G No

Figure 1-31. STEP GENERATOR output signal.

6. In the LOAD section, slowly turn the knob of resistor R1 fully


counterclockwise, which will cause the impedance of the STEP
GENERATOR output load to decrease from 500 to 0 approximately.
While doing this, observe what happens to the pulses in the STEP
GENERATOR output signal on the oscilloscope screen.
Which of the following statements best describes your observation?
a. The voltage of the pulses stays constant as the load impedance is
decreased.
b. The voltage of the pulses decreases as the load impedance is
decreased.
c. The voltage of the pulses is half the maximum voltage when the load
impedance is minimum (0 ).
d. The pulses become absent from the displayed signal when the load
impedance becomes maximum.

7. In the LOAD section, set all the toggle switches to the O (OFF) position.
This places the impedance of the load at the STEP GENERATOR 50-
output in the open-circuit condition (4 ).
1-27

Introduction to the Transmission Lines Circuit Board


Measure the voltage (height of the rising edge) of the pulses on the
oscilloscope screen. This is the Thevenin voltage, ETH, at the STEP
GENERATOR 50- BNC output.
ETH =

8. Connect the input of the LOAD section to the common via resistor R1
(500- potentiometer) by setting the appropriate switches in this section to
the I (ON) position.
Adjust the knob of resistor R1 until the voltage of the pulses on the
oscilloscope screen is equal to half the Thevenin voltage measured in the
previous step.
Record below this voltage, ETH/2.
ETH/2 =

9. Using an ohmmeter, measure the resistance between the LOAD-section


input and the common (current resistance setting of resistor R1). Since R1
has been adjusted to create a voltage drop of ETH/2 at the STEP
GENERATOR 50- BNC output, the R1-resistance setting corresponds to
the Thevenin impedance, ZTH, at this output:

Disconnect the end of the coaxial cable connected to the


BNC connector at the LOAD-section input. (Leave the other end
connected to the STEP GENERATOR 50- BNC output.)

Disconnect the oscilloscope probe from the probe turret at the LOADsection input.

Hold the tip of one of the ohmmeter probes on the probe turret at the
LOAD-section input, while touching the nearby common (L) turret with
the other ohmmeter probe.

Record below the measured resistance, ZTH.


ZTH =

G 10. Reconnect the coaxial cable coming from the STEP GENERATOR 50-
BNC output to the BNC connector at the LOAD-section input.

G 11. Connect the input of the LOAD section to the common via resistor R4
(100- resistor) by setting the appropriate switches in this section to the I
(ON) position.
Reconnect channel 1 of the oscilloscope to the probe turret at the LOADsection input.

1-28

Introduction to the Transmission Lines Circuit Board


G 12. Measure the voltage of the pulses on the oscilloscope screen. This is the
voltage across the 100- load currently connected to the STEP
GENERATOR output, VL.
VL =

G 13. Using the Thevenin voltage, ETH, and the Thevenin impedance, ZTH,

measured in steps 7 and 9 of this exercise, use the voltage divider rule to
calculate the theoretical voltage present across a 100- load, ZL, connected
to the STEP GENERATOR output:

Is your calculation result approximately equal to the practical voltage, VL,


measured in the previous step?

G Yes

G No

G 14. Disconnect the circuit by removing all the connecting cables and probes.
Determining the Thevenin Equivalent at the SIGNAL GENERATOR 50- BNC
Output

G 15. Now, determine the Thevenin equivalent at the SIGNAL GENERATOR 50-
BNC output:

Referring to Figure 1-32, connect the SIGNAL GENERATOR 50- BNC


output to the BNC connector at the LOAD-section input, using a short
coaxial cable.

Then, connect the SIGNAL GENERATOR 100- BNC output to the


trigger input of the oscilloscope, using a coaxial cable.

Finally, using an oscilloscope probe, connect channel 1 of the


oscilloscope to the probe turret just next to the BNC connector at the
LOAD-section input. Make sure to connect the ground conductor of the
probe to the associated (nearby) common (L) turret.

1-29

Introduction to the Transmission Lines Circuit Board

Figure 1-32. SIGNAL GENERATOR 50- output connected to oscilloscope channel 1 and to the
LOAD-section input.

G 16. In the LOAD section, set all the toggle switches to the O (OFF) position.
This places the impedance of the load at the SIGNAL GENERATOR 50-
output in the open-circuit condition (4 ).

G 17. Make the following settings on the oscilloscope:


Channel 1
Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Normal
Sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 V/div
Input Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . AC
Time Base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.1 s/div
Trigger
Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . External
Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.3 V
Input Impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 M or more

G 18. Adjust the frequency of the SIGNAL GENERATOR output signal to 3 MHz
approximately. To do so, adjust the FREQUENCY knob of this generator
1-30

Introduction to the Transmission Lines Circuit Board


until the period, T, of the sinusoidal signal displayed on the oscilloscope is
0.33 s, approximately, as Figure 1-33 shows. To make sure the
FREQUENCY knob is properly adjusted, you can verify that the voltage at
the REFERENCE OUTPUT of the SIGNAL GENERATOR is 3.0 V, using a
DC voltmeter.

Figure 1-33. SIGNAL GENERATOR output signal frequency set to 3 MHz approximately.

Measure the peak (positive) amplitude of the sinusoidal voltage on the


oscilloscope screen. This is the Thevenin voltage, ETH, at the SIGNAL
GENERATOR 50- BNC output.
ETH =

VPK

G 19. Connect the input of the LOAD section to the common via resistor R1
(500- potentiometer) by setting the appropriate switches in this section to
the I (ON) position.
Adjust the knob of resistor R1 until the peak (positive) amplitude of the
sinusoidal voltage on the oscilloscope screen is equal to half the Thevenin
voltage measured in the previous step. Record below this voltage, ETH/2.
ETH/2 =

VPK

G 20. Using an ohmmeter, measure the resistance between the LOAD-section


input and the common (current resistance setting of resistor R1). Since R1
has been adjusted to create a voltage drop of ETH/2 at the SIGNAL
GENERATOR 50-BNC output, the R1 resistance setting corresponds to the
Thevenin impedance, ZTH, at this output:
1-31

Introduction to the Transmission Lines Circuit Board

Disconnect the end of the coaxial cable connected to the


BNC connector at the LOAD-section input.

Disconnect the oscilloscope probe from the probe turret at the LOADsection input.

Hold the tip of one of the ohmmeter probes on the probe turret at the
LOAD-section input, while touching the nearby common (L) turret with
the other ohmmeter probe.

Record below the measured resistance, ZTH.


ZTH =

G 21. Turn off the Base Unit and remove all the connecting cables and probes.
CONCLUSION

The TRANSMISSION LINES circuit board has five sections: the


TRANSMISSION LINES, the AUXILIARY POWER INPUT, the STEP
GENERATOR, the SIGNAL GENERATOR, and the LOADs.

The Thevenin equivalent of the STEP GENERATOR or SIGNAL GENERATOR


can be determined at any of their BNC outputs. To do so, the generator output
voltage is measured with no load connected to the generator output. The
measured voltage corresponds to the Thevenin voltage, ETH.
Then, a variable load is connected to the generator output, and the load is
adjusted until the voltage across it is equal to half ETH. In this condition, the load
impedance, which corresponds to the Thevenin impedance ZTH, can be
measured with an ohmmeter. ZTH does not necessarily correspond exactly to the
nominal resistance of the BNC output where it is measured.

Once the Thevenin equivalent at a generator output is known and a load is


connected to this output, the voltage applied to the load is determined by the
voltage divider rule.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. The STEP GENERATOR on your circuit board produces a rectangular signal
a. whose frequency can be determined through measurement of the voltage
at the REFERENCE OUTPUT.
b. available at five BNC connectors, each connector corresponding to a
different line input impedance.
c. having a frequency of 50 kHz.
d. that occurs every 20 ms.
2. The TRANSMISSION LINES on your circuit board
1-32

Introduction to the Transmission Lines Circuit Board


a. have four probe turrets and their associated shield turrets that divide the line
into four segments of equal length [6 meters (19.7 feet) each].
b. can be connected end-to-end to obtain a line of 48 meters (158 feet).
c. each consists of a 75- coaxial cable of the RG-174 type.
d. each has a length of 48 meters (158 feet).
3. According to Thevenin's theorem,
a. the Thevenin impedance ZTH is the impedance seen at the two terminals of
the circuit to thevenize, when the voltage source of this circuit is replaced by
an open circuit.
b. the Thevenin voltage ETH is determined by measuring the short-circuit
voltage at the two terminals of the circuit to thevenize.
c. the Thevenin equivalent circuit consists of a voltage source, ETH, and an
impedance in parallel with this source, ZTH.
d. any electrical linear circuit seen at two terminals can be represented by a
Thevenin equivalent circuit.
4. What is the Thevenin voltage, ETH, of the STEP GENERATOR if an open-circuit
voltage VOC of 1.0 V is measured at the 5- BNC output of this generator?
a.
b.
c.
d.

5.0 V
0.2 V
0.5 V
1.0 V

5. If the Thevenin equivalent at a BNC output of the STEP GENERATOR is


ETH = 2 V and ZTH = 75 , what will be the voltage present across a 50- load
connected to this output?
a.
b.
c.
d.

0.8 V
4.0 V
2.0 V
1.2 V

1-33

1-34

Exercise

1-2

Velocity of Propagation
EXERCISE OBJECTIVE
Upon completion of this unit, you will know how to measure the velocity of
propagation of a signal in a transmission line, using the step response method.
Based on the measurements, you will know how to determine the relative permittivity
of the dielectric material used to construct this line.
DISCUSSION
Velocity of Propagation
A radio signal travels in free space at the velocity of light (approximately
3.0 @ 108 m/s, or 9.8 @ 108 ft/s). In a transmission line, a signal will travel at a relatively
lower speed. This is due mainly to the presence of the dielectric material used to
construct the line. In fact, the velocity of propagation of a signal in a transmission
line, vP, is dependent upon the distributed inductance and capacitance of the line, L'
and C' (see Figure 1-34). The equation for calculating vP is:

where

vP =
L' =
C' =

Velocity of propagation (m/s or ft/s);


Distributed inductance, in henrys per unit length (H/m or H/ft);
Distributed capacitance, in farads per unit length (F/m or F/ft).

1-35

Velocity of Propagation

Figure 1-34. Equivalent circuit of a two-conductor transmission line.

Step (Transient) Response Method


The velocity of propagation of a signal in a transmission line can be measured by
using the step response method. This methods requires that a step generator and
a high-impedance oscilloscope probe be both connected to the sending end of the
line, using a bridging connection, as Figure 1-35 shows. The receiving end of the line
is left unconnected [impedance of the load in the open-circuit condition (4 )].

1-36

Velocity of Propagation

Figure 1-35. Measuring the velocity of propagation of a signal by using the step response method.

The signal propagation through the line is described below (refer to Figure 1-35).

At time t = 0, the step generator launches a fast-rising, positive-going voltage, VI,


into the line. The rising edge of VI is called a step, or transient. This step is
incident because it comes from the generator and is going to travel down the line
toward a possibly reflecting load.

Incident step VI propagates at a certain velocity, vP, along the line. It arrives at the
receiving end of the line after a certain transit time, T. There its level has
decreased by a certain amount due to the resistance of the line.

Since the impedance of the load at the receiving end of the line is in the opencircuit condition (4 ), it does not match the characteristic impedance of the line.
This impedance mismatch causes the incident step to be reflected back toward
the generator. The reflected step, VR, gets back to the step generator after a
time equal to twice the transit time, 2T. 2T is synonymous with round-trip time,
or back-and-forth trip time.

The signal at the sending end of the line, as a function of time, is the step response
signal. As Figure 1-36 shows, this signal is the algebraic sum of the incident step
VI and reflected step VR. Step VR is superimposed on step VI, and is separated by
a time 2T from the rising edge of VI.

1-37

Velocity of Propagation

Figure 1-36. Voltage at the sending end of the open-circuit line (step response signal).

By measuring time 2T on the oscilloscope screen, the velocity of propagation of a


signal in a transmission line, vP, can be determined, using the formula below.

where

vP =
l =
2T =

Velocity of propagation (m/s or ft/s);


Length of the line (m or ft);
Round-trip time, i.e. time taken for the launched step to travel
from the generator to the line receiving end and back again to
the generator (s).

Transmission lines that are lossy, and whose series losses are predominant, will
appear as a simple RC network (resistor-capacitor network) for a short time following
the launching of a voltage step, as Figure 1-37 shows. This is due to the highfrequency components contained in the voltage step.

1-38

Velocity of Propagation

Figure 1-37. Lossy line with predominant series losses.

The time constant, , of the RC network (not to be confused with the transit time T)
is determined by constants Rs and C, which are themselves derived from the
distributed series resistance, R's, series inductance, L', and parallel capacitance, C',
of the line. Consequently, the time constant of the RC network is independent of the
length of the line.
In that case, the incident and reflected steps observed at the sending end of the line
will first rise to a certain level, and then increase exponentially at a rate determined
by the time constant of the RC network, as Figure 1-38 shows. This does not prevent
the measurement of time 2T on the oscilloscope screen for calculation of the velocity
of propagation. However, it is clear that lossy lines cause a degradation in the rise
time of voltage steps.

1-39

Velocity of Propagation

Figure 1-38. Incident and reflected steps at the sending end of a lossy line with predominant series
losses.

Velocity Factor
The velocity of propagation of a signal in a transmission line is usually expressed as
a percentage of the velocity of light in free space. This percentage is called the
velocity factor, vF. For example, a transmission line with a vF of 66% will transmit
signals at about 66% of the velocity of light.

where

1-40

vF =
vP =
c =

Velocity factor (%);


Velocity of propagation in the transmission line (m/s or ft/s);
Velocity of light in free space (about 3.0 @ 108 m/s, or
9.8 @ 108 ft/s).

Velocity of Propagation
In the case of coaxial cables, the velocity factor varies from about 66 to around 85%,
as indicated in Table 1-1.
TYPE OF COAXIAL CABLE

VELOCITY FACTOR, vF (%)

RG-8

66

RG-58

66

RG-174

66

RG-400

70

RG-11

75

RG-316

79

LMR-195

83

RG-8X

84

LMR-400

85

Table 1-1. Velocity factor of various types of coaxial cables.

TRANSMISSION LINES A and B of the circuit board are RG-174 coaxial cables.
Consequently, they have a theoretical velocity factor, vF, of 66%.
Relative Permittivity (Dielectric Constant)
The velocity of propagation of a signal in a transmission line is determined mainly by
the permittivity of the dielectric material used to construct the line. Permittivity is a
measure of the ability of the dielectric material to maintain a difference in electrical
charge over a given distance.
The permittivity of a particular dielectric material is normally expressed in relation to
that of vacuum. This ratio is called relative permittivity, or dielectric constant. When
the velocity of propagation in a transmission line is known, the relative permittivity
of the dielectric material used to construct that line, r, can be determined by using
the equation below.

where

r =
c =
vP =

Relative permittivity (dielectric constant);


Velocity of light in free space (3.0 @ 108 m/s, or 9.8 @ 108 ft/s);
Velocity of propagation (m/s or ft/m).

The formula for calculating relative permittivity indicates that a higher velocity of
propagation indicates a lower relative permittivity, since the velocity of light is a
constant value.
Table 1-2 lists the relative dielectric constants of various materials.

1-41

Velocity of Propagation
MATERIAL

RELATIVE PERMITTIVITY,
r

VELOCITY FACTOR,
vF (%)

Vacuum

1.00000

100

Air

1.0006

99.97

Teflon

2.10

69.0

Polyethylene

2.27

66.4

Polystyrene

2.50

63.2

Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)

3.30

55.0

Nylon

4.90

45.2

Table 1-2. Relative dielectric constant of various materials.

Procedure Summary
In this procedure section, you will measure the velocity of propagation of voltage
steps in the transmission lines of the circuit board. Based on the measured velocity,
you will determine the relative permittivity of the dielectric material used to construct
these lines.
PROCEDURE
Measuring the Velocity of Propagation

1. Make sure the TRANSMISSION LINES circuit board is properly installed


into the Base Unit. Turn on the Base Unit and verify that the LED's next to
each control knob on this unit are both on, confirming that the circuit board
is properly powered.

2. Referring to Figure 1-39, connect the STEP GENERATOR 50- BNC output
to the BNC connector at the sending end of TRANSMISSION LINE A.
Leave the BNC connector at the receiving end of TRANSMISSION LINE A
unconnected (open-circuit).
Then, connect the STEP GENERATOR 100- BNC output to the trigger
input of the oscilloscope, using a coaxial cable.
Finally, using an oscilloscope probe, connect channel 1 of the oscilloscope
to the 0-meter (0-foot) probe turret at the sending end of TRANSMISSION
LINE A. Make sure to connect the ground conductor of the probe to the
associated 0-meter (0-foot) shield turret.
Note: When connecting an oscilloscope probe to one of the five
probe turrets of a transmission line, always connect the ground
conductor of the probe to the associated (nearest) coaxial-shield
turret. This will minimize noise in the observed signal due to the
parasitic inductance introduced by undesired ground return paths.

1-42

Velocity of Propagation

Figure 1-39. Measuring the velocity of propagation of voltage steps through TRANSMISSION
LINE A.

3. Make the following settings on the oscilloscope:


Channel 1
Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Normal
Sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.2 V/div
Input Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DC
Time Base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.2 s/div
Trigger
Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . External
Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.3 V
Input Impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 M or more
Note: Throughout this course, the oscilloscope settings for the
time base and channel sensitivity are given as a starting point for
guidance and may be modified as necessary to obtain the
maximum possible measurement accuracy.

1-43

Velocity of Propagation
G

4. On the oscilloscope screen, observe the step response signal at the sending
end of TRANSMISSION LINE A. This signal corresponds to the step
response of TRANSMISSION LINE A. Does the reflected step appear
superimposed on the incident step, a certain time interval separating these
two steps, as Figure 1-40 shows?

G Yes

G No

Figure 1-40. Incident and reflected steps at the sending end of TRANSMISSION LINE A.

5. Observe that the incident and reflected steps first rise to a certain level, and
then increase exponentially, as the voltage across a capacitor charging
through a series resistor. Does this indicate that TRANSMISSION LINE A
have predominant series losses?

G Yes

1-44

G No

Velocity of Propagation
G

6. When the incident step arrives at the receiving end of TRANSMISSION


LINE A, it is reflected back toward the sending end because
a. TRANSMISSION LINE A is not terminated by a load impedance equal
to the Thevenin impedance of the STEP GENERATOR.
b. TRANSMISSION LINE A is not terminated by a load impedance equal
to its characteristic impedance.
c. the receiving end of TRANSMISSION LINE A is open-circuit, causing
the characteristic impedance of the line to be infinite.
d. the Thevenin impedance of the STEP GENERATOR is not equal to the
characteristic impedance of TRANSMISSION LINE A.

7. Decrease the oscilloscope time base to 0.05 s/div.


On the oscilloscope, measure the round-trip time, 2T, separating the rising
edge of the incident step from the rising edge of the reflected step, as
Figure 1-41 shows. This is the time required for the step launched by the
step generator to travel to the receiving end of TRANSMISSION LINE A and
then back to the step generator.
2T =

@ 10!9 s

Figure 1-41. Measuring time 2T.

1-45

Velocity of Propagation
G

8. Based on the round-trip time, 2T, measured in the previous step, and on a
line length, l, of 24 meters (78.7 feet), calculate the velocity of propagation,
vP, through the line.

vP =

@ 108 m/s or @ 108 ft/s

9. Express the velocity of propagation, vP, obtained in the previous step as a


percentage of the velocity of light, or velocity factor, vF, using the formula
below.
Your result should be near the theoretical value of 66% for a RG-174 coaxial
cable (type of cable used for TRANSMISSION LINES A and B of your circuit
board).

where c = velocity of light in free space (3.0 @ 108 m/s, or 9.84 @ 108 ft/s)
vF =

Determining the Relative Permittivity (Dielectric Constant)

G 10. Based on the velocity of propagation vP obtained in step 8, determine the


relative permittivity, r of the dielectric material used to construct the RG-174
coaxial cables used for TRANSMISSION LINES A and B.

The result should be quite near the theoretical value of 2.25 for polyethylene
(dielectric material used to construct the RG-174 coaxial cables used for
TRANSMISSION LINES A and B).

where c = velocity of light in free space (3.0 @ 108 m/s, or 9.84 @ 108 ft/s)
r =
Effects that a Change in Line Length Has on the Round-Trip Time (2T)

G 11. As Figure 1-42 shows, increase the length of the line from 24 to 48 meters
(78.7 to 157.4 feet) through end-to-end connection of TRANSMISSION
LINEs A and B. To do so, connect the BNC connector at the receiving end
of TRANSMISSION LINE A to the BNC connector at the sending end of
TRANSMISSION LINE B, using a short coaxial cable. Leave the

1-46

Velocity of Propagation
BNC connector at the receiving end of TRANSMISSION LINE B
unconnected (open-circuit).

Figure 1-42. Increasing the length of the line from 24 to 48 meters (78.7 to 157.4 feet).

G 12. Set the oscilloscope time base to 0.2 s/div. Observe that the round-trip
time, 2T, separating the rising edge of the incident step from the rising edge
of the reflected step has doubled, as Figure 1-43 shows.

1-47

Velocity of Propagation

Figure 1-43. The round-trip time, 2T, separating the rising edges of the incident and reflected steps
has doubled.

Time 2T has doubled because the


a.
b.
c.
d.

velocity of propagation has decreased by a factor of two.


length of the line has doubled.
relative permittivity has doubled.
characteristic impedance of the line has doubled.

G 13. On the oscilloscope screen, observe that the incident and reflected steps
first rise to a certain level, and then increase exponentially as they did with
the shorter 24-meter (78.7-foot) long line.
These steps increase at the same rate as they did with the shorter length.
This occurs because the time constant of the series RC network temporarily
presented by the line is determined by the
a. characteristic impedance, which is a constant.
b. total series resistance and parallel capacitance of the entire line.
c. series resistance, parallel capacitance, and series inductance of the line
per unit length.
d. velocity factor, which is a constant.

G 14. Turn off the Base Unit and remove all the connecting cables and probes.

1-48

Velocity of Propagation
CONCLUSION

The velocity of propagation of a signal in a transmission line can be measured


by using the step response method: a fast-rising (transient) step is launched into
the line. The time required for this step to travel from the generator to the
receiving end of the line and then back to the generator is measured. This
time, 2T, permits calculation of the velocity of propagation. 2T is synonymous
with round-trip time, or back-and-forth trip time.

The velocity of propagation of a signal in a transmission line is only a percentage


of the velocity of light in free space. The velocity of propagation in a transmission
line, when expressed as a percentage of the velocity of light in free space, is
called the velocity factor.

The velocity of propagation in a transmission line is determined mainly by the


relative permittivity (dielectric constant) of the dielectric material used to
construct that line. The lower the relative permittivity is, the higher the velocity
of propagation will be.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. In a transmission line, a signal travels at a velocity
a. that is null if the impedance of the load at the receiving end of the line is in
the open-circuit condition (4 ).
b. that is directly proportional to the relative permittivity of the dielectric material
used to construct the line.
c. that usually increases as the diameter of the line conductors is decreased.
d. relatively less than 3.0 @ 108 m/s, or 9.8 @ 108 ft/s.
2. The permittivity of the dielectric material used to construct a transmission line
a. is a measure of the ability of the material to maintain a difference in
propagation velocity over a given distance.
b. is called dielectric constant, or relative permittivity, when expressed in
relation to the permittivity of vacuum.
c. is usually expressed as a percentage of the velocity of light in free space.
d. does not determine the velocity factor of that line.
3. The velocity of propagation of a signal in a transmission line can be determined
by using
a. a high-impedance oscilloscope probe connected to the sending end of the
line and a step generator connected to the receiving end of the line.
b. a simple formula, if the time required for a voltage step to travel to the
receiving end of the line and back to the generator is known.
c. the step response method, provided that the load impedance perfectly
matches the characteristic impedance of the line.
d. a step generator and a high-impedance oscilloscope connected to the
receiving end of the line.

1-49

Velocity of Propagation
4. When the step response method is used, the signal observed on the
oscilloscope at the sending end of the line consists of
a. a reflected step superimposed on an incident step, the rising edge of the
incident step being of higher voltage than that of the reflected step due to
attenuation.
b. an incident step superimposed on a reflected step, the rising edge of the
incident step being of higher voltage than that of the reflected step due to
attenuation.
c. a reflected step superimposed on an incident step, the time separating these
steps being directly proportional to the velocity of propagation.
d. several incident steps, the time separating two successive incident steps
being determined by the length of the line.
5. When a voltage step is launched into a lossy line whose series losses are
predominant,
a. the high-frequency components contained in the voltage steps make the line
temporarily appear as a simple RC network.
b. the incident and reflected steps will first rise to a certain level and then
decrease exponentially.
c. it is not possible to measure the time separating the incident and reflected
steps.
d. the line will appear as a simple LC network from the perspective of the load.

1-50

Exercise

1-3

Transient Behavior of a Line


Under Resistive Load Impedances
EXERCISE OBJECTIVE
Upon completion of this unit, you will know how a transmission line terminated by
various types of loads behaves when voltage steps are launched into the line. You
will also know about two methods of determining the characteristic impedance of a
line.
DISCUSSION
Determining the Nature of the Load Impedance by Using the Step Response
Method
When a transmission line is terminated by a load of unknown impedance, the step
response method can be used to determine the nature of this impedance (whether
purely resistive or complex). The measurements are performed by using the step
response method.
A step generator and a high-impedance oscilloscope probe are connected to the
sending end of the line, using a bridging connection, as Figure 1-44 shows.

At time t = 0, the step generator produces an incident step, VI, that is launched
into the line.

The incident step travels down the line until it reaches the receiving end of the
line at the transit time T. If the load impedance does not perfectly match the
characteristic impedance of the line, the incident step experiences a change in
impedance as it quits the line and encounters the load. This causes part of the
energy contained in the incident step to be reflected back toward the generator
instead of being absorbed by the load. Consequently, the step response signal
observed at the sending end of the line is the algebraic sum of the incident step,
VI, and reflected step, VR.

1-51

Transient Behavior of a Line


Under Resistive Load Impedances

Figure 1-44. Determining the nature of the load impedance by using the step response method.

The step response signal can have several different shapes, this shape being
determined by the nature of the load impedance ZL. When ZL is purely resistive, the
reflected voltage has the same shape as the incident voltage, as Figure 1-45 shows.

Figure 1-45. ZL is purely resistive.

When ZL is both resistive and inductive, the reflected voltage in the step response
signal has the same shape as the voltage across a capacitor discharging through a
series resistor. Thus, this voltage decreases exponentially until it stabilizes to a
certain level, as Figure 1-46 shows.

1-52

Transient Behavior of a Line


Under Resistive Load Impedances

Figure 1-46. ZL is both resistive and inductive.

When ZL is both resistive and capacitive, the reflected voltage in the step response
signal has the same shape as the voltage across a capacitor charging through a
series resistor. Thus, this voltage increases exponentially until it stabilizes to a
certain level, as Figure 1-47 shows.

Figure 1-47. ZL is both resistive and capacitive.

1-53

Transient Behavior of a Line


Under Resistive Load Impedances
Purely Resistive Load Impedance
When the load impedance is purely resistive, the voltage step reflected from the
mismatched impedance at the receiving end of the line has the same shape as the
incident step. The magnitude (voltage) and polarity of this voltage are determined by
the relation between the load impedance ZL, and the characteristic impedance, Z0,
as indicated by the equation below:

where

VR =
ZL =
Z0 =
VI =

Voltage of the reflected step at the receiving end of the line at the
transit time T (V);
Load impedance ();
Characteristic impedance ();
Voltage of the incident step at the receiving end of the line (V).

The equation indicates that

when ZL is greater than Z0, the voltage of the reflected step, VR, is of positive
polarity. Consequently, the reflected voltage adds up to the incident step when
it gets back to the sending end of the line, as Figure 1-48 shows.

when ZL is lower than Z0, the voltage of the reflected step, VR, is of negative
polarity. Consequently, the reflected voltage subtracts from the incident step
when it reaches the sending end of the line, as Figure 1-48 shows.

when ZL is equal to Z0, the voltage of the incident step is perfectly absorbed by
the load. Consequently, there is no reflected voltage in the step response signal,
as Figure 1-48 shows.

Figure 1-48. Behavior of a line terminated by a purely resistive load.

1-54

Transient Behavior of a Line


Under Resistive Load Impedances
In part (b) of Figure 1-48, observe that the reflected voltage is approximately equal
to voltage VI when the load impedance, ZL, is infinite (4 ).
The reflected voltage, VR, is equal to VI when ZL is infinite because

Determining the Characteristic Impedance


The principles just discussed suggest that the step response method can be used
to measure the characteristic impedance of a line. To do this, a purely resistive
load, ZL, whose resistance can be varied, is connected to the receiving end of the
line, as Figure 1-49 shows.

Figure 1-49. Measuring the characteristic impedance by means of a variable resistor connected
to the receiving end of the line.

The resistance of the load is adjusted until no reflected voltage appears in the step
response signal, as Figure 1-49 shows. In this condition, ZL is equal to Z0. The load
can then be disconnected from the line, and its resistance value be measured to
determine ZL.
When the receiving end of the line is not accessible for connection to a variableresistance load, there is another way of determining the characteristic impedance of
the line. This method consists in measuring the voltage of the rising edge, Vre, of the
incident step in the step response signal. The method can be applied regardless of
the nature of the load impedance (see Figure 1-50):

capacitive;
inductive;
purely resistive.

1-55

Transient Behavior of a Line


Under Resistive Load Impedances

Figure 1-50. Measuring the voltage of the rising edge (Vre) of the incident step in order to
determine the characteristic impedance.

Voltage Vre is determined by the impedance seen by the step generator immediately
after it launches the voltage step into the line, as Figure 1-50 shows. This impedance
is the input impedance of the line, that is, the characteristic impedance of the line.
Consequently, the voltage of the rising edge, Vre, is

where

Vre
ETH
ZTH
Z0

=
=
=
=

Voltage of the rising edge of the incident step (V);


Thevenin voltage of the step generator (V);
Thevenin impedance of the step generator ();
Characteristic impedance of the line ().

Rewriting and simplifying the above equation for solving Z0 gives:

Procedure Summary
In this procedure section, you will observe the step response of a transmission line
under various purely resistive load impedances. You will then measure the
characteristic impedance of this line, using two different methods.

1-56

Transient Behavior of a Line


Under Resistive Load Impedances
PROCEDURE
Step Response of a Transmission Line Under Various (Purely Resistive)
Impedances

1. Make sure the TRANSMISSION LINES circuit board is properly installed


into the Base Unit. Turn on the Base Unit and verify that the LED's next to
each control knob on this unit are both on, confirming that the circuit board
is properly powered.

2. As Figure 1-51 shows, connect the STEP GENERATOR 50- BNC output
to the BNC connector at the sending end of TRANSMISSION LINE A, using
a coaxial cable. Then, connect the BNC connector at the receiving end of
TRANSMISSION LINE A to the BNC connector at the input of the LOAD
section, using a coaxial cable.
Then, connect the STEP GENERATOR 100- BNC output to the trigger
input of the oscilloscope, using a coaxial cable.
Finally, using an oscilloscope probe, connect channel 1 of the oscilloscope
to the 0-meter (0-foot) probe turret at the sending end of TRANSMISSION
LINE A. Make sure to connect the ground conductor of the probe to the
associated shield turret.
Note: When connecting an oscilloscope probe to one of the five
probe turrets of a transmission line, always connect the ground
conductor of the probe to the associated (nearest) coaxial-shield
turret. This will minimize noise in the observed signal due to the
parasitic inductance introduced by undesired ground return paths.

1-57

Transient Behavior of a Line


Under Resistive Load Impedances

Figure 1-51. Step response of a transmission line under various (purely resistive) load
impedances.

3. In the LOAD section of the circuit board, make sure all the toggle switches
are set to the O (off) position. Then, connect the LOAD-section input to the
common via resistor R1 (500- potentiometer) by setting the appropriate
switches in this section to the I (ON) position.
Turn the knob of resistor R1 fully clockwise. This sets the impedance of the
load at the receiving end of TRANSMISSION LINE A to around 500 .

4. Make the following settings on the oscilloscope:


Channel 1
Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Normal
Sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.2 V/div
Input Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DC
Time Base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.2 s/div
Trigger
Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . External
Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.3 V
Input Impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 M or more

1-58

Transient Behavior of a Line


Under Resistive Load Impedances
Note: Throughout this course, the oscilloscope settings for the
time base and channel sensitivity are given as a starting point for
guidance and may be modified as necessary to obtain the
maximum possible measurement accuracy.

5. On the oscilloscope screen, observe the step response signal at the sending
end of the transmission line. Since the impedance of the load connected to
TRANSMISSION LINE A (about 500 ) is greater than the characteristic
impedance of this line (50 ), the reflected voltage adds up to the incident
voltage, as Figure 1-52 shows. Is this your observation?

G Yes

G No

Figure 1-52. Step response signal with R1 set to 500 approximately.

6. Slowly turn the knob of resistor R1 fully counterclockwise, which will cause
the impedance of the load connected to TRANSMISSION LINE A to
decrease from about 500 to 0 .
While doing this, observe what happens to the step response signal on the
oscilloscope screen. As the load impedance is decreased,
a. the reflected voltage, which initially subtracts from the incident voltage,
increases, becomes equal to the incident voltage, and then adds up to
the incident voltage.
b. the incident voltage, which is initially lower than the reflected voltage,
increases, becomes equal to the reflected voltage, and then adds up to
the reflected voltage.
1-59

Transient Behavior of a Line


Under Resistive Load Impedances
c. the reflected voltage, which initially adds up to the incident voltage,
decreases, becomes equal to the incident voltage, and then subtracts
from the incident voltage.
d. the incident voltage, which is initially higher than the reflected voltage,
decreases, becomes equal to the reflected voltage, and then subtracts
from the reflected voltage.
Determining the Characteristic Impedance by Using a Purely Resistive Load

7. Adjust the knob of resistor R1 until no reflected voltage appears in the step
response signal. If a small notch (discontinuity) remains in the reflected
voltage, adjust R1 in order to reduce this notch to a minimum, as
Figure 1-53 shows.

Figure 1-53. Adjust resistor R1 to reduce the reflected voltage to a minimum.

8. Using an ohmmeter, measure the resistance between the LOAD-section


input and the common (current resistance setting of resistor R1). Since R1
has been adjusted to reduce the reflected voltage to a minimum, its current
resistance should approximately correspond to the characteristic
impedance, Z0:

1-60

Disconnect the end of the coaxial cable connected to the


BNC connector at the LOAD-section input.

Transient Behavior of a Line


Under Resistive Load Impedances

Hold the tip of one of the ohmmeter probes on the probe turret just next
to the BNC connector at the LOAD-section input, while touching the
nearby common (L) turret with the other ohmmeter probe.

Record below the measured resistance, Z0. Note that Z0 could differ
fairly from the manufacturer's value of 50 , since the obtained value is
dependent upon the accuracy of measurement and on the
R1-adjustment.
Z0 =

9. Leave the connections as they are, with the BNC connector at the LOADsection input unconnected, and proceed with the exercise.

Determining the Characteristic Impedance Based on the Rising Edge of the


Incident Step

G 10. Determine the Thevenin voltage, ETH, at the STEP GENERATOR 50- BNC
output by using the following steps:

Connect the STEP GENERATOR 50- BNC output directly to the


LOAD-section input. To do so, disconnect the end of the coaxial cable
connected to the BNC connector at the sending end of TRANSMISSION
LINE A, and connect it to the BNC connector at the LOAD-section input.
Set all the toggle switches in this section to the O (OFF) position. This
sets the impedance of the load at the STEP GENERATOR 50- output
to the open-circuit condition (4 ).

Disconnect the oscilloscope probe from TRANSMISSION LINE A, and


connect it to the probe turret just next to the BNC connector at the
LOAD-section input. Connect the ground conductor of the oscilloscope
probe to the nearby common (L) turret.

On the oscilloscope screen, measure the voltage of the incident step in


the step response signal. Record below the measured voltage, ETH.
ETH =

G 11. Determine the Thevenin impedance, ZTH, at the STEP GENERATOR 50-
BNC output by using the following steps:

In the LOAD section, set the toggle switches in such a way as to


connect the input of this section to the common, via resistor R1 (500-
potentiometer). Adjust the knob of R1 until the voltage of the incident
voltage on the oscilloscope screen is equal to half the Thevenin voltage
measured in the previous step.

Disconnect the end of the coaxial cable connected to the


BNC connector at the LOAD-section input.

1-61

Transient Behavior of a Line


Under Resistive Load Impedances

Measure the resistance setting of resistor R1 by connecting an


ohmmeter across the probe turret and associated common (L) turret just
next to the BNC connector at the LOAD-section input. Record below the
measured resistance, ZTH.
ZTH =

G 12. Reconnect the coaxial cable coming from the STEP GENERATOR 50-
BNC output to the BNC connector at the sending end of TRANSMISSION
LINE A. Reconnect the coaxial cable coming from the receiving end of
TRANSMISSION LINE A to the BNC connector at the LOAD-input section.
In the LOAD section, turn the knob of resistor R1 fully clockwise.
Using an oscilloscope probe, connect channel 1 of the oscilloscope to the
0-meter (0-foot) probe turret at the sending end of TRANSMISSION LINE A.

G 13. Set the oscilloscope time base to 0.2 s/div.


G 14. On the oscilloscope screen, measure the voltage (height) of the fast-rising
edge, Vre, of the incident step, as Figure 1-54 shows. As oscillatory noise
might appear in the upper section of the rising edge, measure the
approximate voltage of this edge.
Record below the measured voltage, Vre.
Vre =

1-62

Transient Behavior of a Line


Under Resistive Load Impedances

Figure 1-54. Measuring the voltage (height) of the fast-rising edge, Vre, of the incident step.

G 15. Based on the fast-rising edge voltage Vre, and on the STEP GENERATOR
Thevenin equivalent measured in the previous steps, calculate the
characteristic impedance, Z0, of TRANSMISSION LINE A.

Z0 =

The result should be quite near the characteristic impedance of 50


specified for the RG-174 coaxial cables used as TRANSMISSION LINES
A and B. However, since your result is dependent upon the accuracy of the
measurements made on the oscilloscope and on the rounding accuracy
used for the calculations, this value may differ fairly from the manufacturer's
value of 50 .

G 16. Turn off the Base Unit and remove all the connecting cables and probes.

1-63

Transient Behavior of a Line


Under Resistive Load Impedances
CONCLUSION

The step response method can be used to determine the nature of the load
impedance terminating a line. The shape of the step response signal indicates
whether the load impedance is purely resistive or complex.

When the load impedance is purely resistive, the reflected voltage has the
same shape as the incident voltage. It adds up to or subtracts from the
incident voltage, depending on the relation between the load impedance and
the characteristic impedance of the line.

When the load impedance is both resistive and inductive, the reflected
voltage decreases exponentially until it stabilizes to a certain level, therefore
having the same shape as the voltage across a capacitor discharging
through a series resistor.

When the load impedance is both resistive and capacitive, the reflected
voltage increases exponentially until it stabilizes to a certain level, therefore
having the same shape as the voltage across a capacitor charging through
a series resistor.

The characteristic impedance of a line can be determined by connecting a


variable resistance load to the receiving end of the line and adjusting the
resistance until no reflected voltage appears in the step response signal. In this
condition, the load resistance is equal to the characteristic impedance.

When the receiving end of the line is not accessible, the characteristic
impedance can be determined by measuring the voltage of the rising-edge of the
incident voltage in the step response signal. This voltage and the Thevenin
equivalent of the step generator are then used to calculate the characteristic
impedance.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. When the load impedance is both resistive and inductive, the reflected voltage
in the step response signal
a.
b.
c.
d.

1-64

decreases more and more with time until it stabilizes to a certain level.
increases exponentially until it stabilizes to a certain level.
suddenly increases and then remains at a constant level.
has the same shape as the incident voltage.

Transient Behavior of a Line


Under Resistive Load Impedances
2. When the load impedance is purely resistive and lower than the characteristic
impedance of the line, the voltage of the reflected step is
a. of negative polarity, so that it subtracts from the voltage of the incident step
when it gets back to the sending end of the line.
b. equal to the voltage of the incident step, so that it cancels out this step when
it gets back to the sending end of the line.
c. of positive or negative polarity, depending on the extent of the mismatch
between the load and line impedances.
d. of positive polarity, so that it adds up to the incident step when it gets back
to the sending end of the line.
3. What is the voltage and polarity of the step reflected at the receiving end of the
line if the impedance of the load is perfectly equal to the load impedance?
a. The voltage of the reflected step is half the voltage of the incident step and
is of positive polarity.
b. The voltage of the reflected step is twice the voltage of the incident step and
is of negative polarity.
c. The reflected step has the same voltage and polarity as the incident step.
d. There is no reflected step.
4. What is the voltage and polarity of the step reflected at the receiving end of the
line if the impedance of the load is in the short-circuit condition (0 )?
a. The voltage of the reflected voltage is equal to the voltage of the incident
step and is of positive polarity.
b. The voltage of the reflected step is equal to the voltage of the incident step
and is of negative polarity.
c. The voltage of the reflected step is twice the voltage of the incident step and
is of negative polarity.
d. There is no reflected step.
5. What is the characteristic impedance of a line if the voltage of the rising edge of
the incident step in the step response signal is 2.5 V? Assume the Thevenin
impedance and Thevenin voltage of the step generator to be 75 and 5 V,
respectively.
a.
b.
c.
d.

100
50
75
125

1-65

1-66

Exercise

1-4

Attenuation and Distortion


EXERCISE OBJECTIVE
Upon completion of this unit, you will know what attenuation and distortion are, and
how they can affect the shape of the transmitted signal. You will be able to explain
what causes attenuation and distortion. You will know about a method of evaluating
signal quality in high-speed transmission systems.
DISCUSSION
Attenuation
In transmission lines that are lossy, the transmitted signals lose some energy as they
travel down the line. This occurs because the energy gradually dissipates in each
series resistance, R'S, and parallel resistance, R'P, per unit length of the line.
The energy lost in each R'S is by heating of the conductors (I2R losses). The energy
lost in each R'P is by heating of the dielectric material used to construct the
conductors (shunt or dielectric losses), as Figure 1-55 shows.

Figure 1-55. Signals lose some energy in each R'S and R'P.

The energy losses cause the level of the transmitted signal to gradually decrease as
the signal travels down the line, as Figure 1-56 shows. The decrease in signal level
over distance is called attenuation. Attenuation increases as the distance from the
transmission point increases.

1-67

Attenuation and Distortion

Figure 1-56. Attenuation of a rectangular signal and a sinusoidal signal.

Attenuation is normally expressed in decibels (dB). The formula for calculating the
attenuation in signal power at a distance D from the sending end of a line is as
follows:

where

A =
log =
PD =
PS =

1-68

Attenuation in signal power (dB);


Base-10 logarithm;
Signal power at a distance D from the sending end of the
line (W);
Signal power at the sending end of the line (W).

Attenuation and Distortion


Table 1-3 indicates the attenuation, A, for different PD/PS ratios. Each time the ratio
decreases by a factor of 2, the signal power is attenuated by 3 dB.
PD/PS RATIO

POWER ATTENUATION (dB)

0.5

-3

0.25

-6

0.125

-9

Table 1-3. Power attenuation for different PD/PS ratios.

For example, the attenuation in signal power at a distance D from the sending end
of the line, if the ratio PD/PS is 0.75, will be -1.25 dB.
When voltage measurements, which are most common, are performed instead of
power measurements, the formula for calculating the attenuation in signal power at
a distance D from the sending end of the line becomes:

where

A =
log =
VD =
VS =

Attenuation in signal power (dB);


Base-10 logarithm;
Signal voltage at a distance D from the sending end of the
line (V);
Signal voltage at the sending end of the line (V).

For example, the attenuation in signal power at a distance D from the sending end
of the line, if the ratio VD/VS is 0.75, will be -2.5 dB.
Line manufacturers usually provide graphs that indicate the attenuation per unit
length, , of a line as a function of signal frequency. They must do this because at
higher frequencies, the attenuation per unit length, instead of being constant,
increases with frequency due, among other things, to a phenomenon known as skin
effect.
The skin effect is illustrated on Figure 1-57. At direct current (DC) or low frequency,
the current density is quite uniform across the conductor. At higher frequencies, the
current density tends to concentrate near the surface (hence the term "skin") of the
conductor, thereby increasing the resistance to current flow and, in turn, the
attenuation per unit length, .

1-69

Attenuation and Distortion

Figure 1-57. The skin effect.

Frequency Components of a Signal


A pure sinusoidal wave is composed of a single frequency component, called a
fundamental. However, periodic signals usually consist of a superposition of several
frequency components.
These components are waves that are all sinusoidal in shape, but are of different
frequencies and amplitudes. They include a fundamental, or first harmonic, at the
frequency of the signal, and several higher-order harmonics whose frequencies are
multiples of the fundamental frequency.
Figure 1-58 shows the time-domain and frequency-domain representations of
different signals. A periodic signal can be expanded as an infinite sum of sines and
cosines of different amplitudes and frequencies, called a Fourier series.
When observing the frequency components of a signal on a spectrum analyzer, we
see that the frequency of the fundamental is the reciprocal of the signal period, T.
The magnitude of the harmonics decreases as the order, or number, of the harmonic
increases.

1-70

Attenuation and Distortion

Figure 1-58. Time-domain and frequency-domain representations of different signals.

The frequency spectrum differs from one type of signal to another, as Figure 1-58
shows. For example, a rectangular signal consists of a set of odd harmonics, while
a sawtooth signal consists of both even and odd harmonics.
Distortion
In a transmission line, the velocity of propagation of the fundamental and harmonics
that compose a transmitted signal is determined mainly by the relative permittivity
of the line dielectric material.

In lines that are lossless or that have very low losses, relative permittivity stays
approximately constant with frequency. Consequently, the fundamental and
harmonics of the transmitted signal all propagate at the same velocity along the
line. As a result, the signal at the receiving end of the line is a faithful reproduction
of the transmitted signal, as the left-hand section of Figure 1-59 shows. The
signal is said to be distortionless.

In lines that are lossy, however, relative permittivity varies with frequency.
Consequently, the fundamental and harmonics of the transmitted signal
propagate at differing velocities. This phenomenon is known as dispersion.
Dispersion causes distortion: the signal at the receiving end of the line has a
1-71

Attenuation and Distortion


shape that is quite different than that of the transmitted signal, as the right-hand
section of Figure 1-59 shows.
If, additionally, the fundamental and its harmonics are of relatively high
frequencies, they will be attenuated differently since, as earlier mentioned, the
attenuation per unit length is frequency dependent at higher frequencies. This will
tend to aggravate distortion in the received signal.

Figure 1-59. An undistorted signal versus a distorted and attenuated signal.

Thus, the change in shape of the transmitted signal in the figure occurs because the
rise time and fall time of the transients in the transmitted signal are longer in the
received signal.
Attenuation and distortion can be significant problems in today's high-speed
transmission systems, due to the high-frequency signals inherently involved in these
systems. Figure 1-60, for example, shows how distortion affects the transmission of
non-return-to-zero (NRZ) data. A comparison of the transmitted data (A) shows that
the recovered data (C) does not truly reproduce the original data, which may
introduce errors.

1-72

Attenuation and Distortion

Figure 1-60. Attenuation and distortion affect the recovery of the original NRZ data.

A popular method of evaluating signal quality in digital transmission systems is the


eye-pattern method. This method requires that a pseudo-random binary signal
(PRBS) be applied to the vertical input of an oscilloscope. The oscilloscope
horizontal sweep is triggered by a signal of the same frequency as the binary signal.
The time base is adjusted so as to see about one period of the PRBS, as Figure 1-61
shows. In this way, the oscilloscope display is a pattern that resembles an eye, due
to the superposition of the transitions and constant bit levels that occur randomly on
successive periods of the signal. The width of the eye opening indicates the degree
of distortion. The narrower the eye opening, the greater the signal distortion and,
therefore, the lower the probability of error-free data recovery.

1-73

Attenuation and Distortion

Figure 1-61. The eye pattern.

Procedure Summary
In this procedure section, you will measure the attenuation of the STEP
GENERATOR output signal at the receiving end of a 48-meter (157.4-foot) line. You
will then answer theoretical questions about distortion.
Note: Since the lines used on the TRANSMISSION LINES circuit board
are not long enough to permit observation of the effects of dispersion,
the procedural section on distortion will consist of theoretical questions.

PROCEDURE
Attenuation

1-74

1. Make sure the TRANSMISSION LINES circuit board is properly installed


into the Base Unit. Turn on the Base Unit and verify that the LED's next to
each control knob on this unit are both on, confirming that the circuit board
is properly powered.

Attenuation and Distortion


G

2. Referring to Figure 1-62, connect the STEP GENERATOR 50- output to


the sending end of TRANSMISSION LINE A, using a coaxial cable. Connect
the receiving end of TRANSMISSION LINE A to the sending end of
TRANSMISSION LINE B, using a coaxial cable. Finally, connect the
receiving end of TRANSMISSION LINE B to the input of the LOAD section,
using a coaxial cable.

Figure 1-62. Observing the attenuation of the STEP GENERATOR output voltage along the line.

Now, connect the STEP GENERATOR 100- output to the trigger input of
the oscilloscope, using a coaxial cable.
Connect channel 1 of the oscilloscope to the 0-meter (0-foot) probe turret
at the sending end of TRANSMISSION LINE A, using an oscilloscope
probe.
Finally, using another oscilloscope probe, connect channel 2 of the
oscilloscope to the 24-meter (78.7-foot) probe turret at the receiving end of
TRANSMISSION LINE B.

1-75

Attenuation and Distortion


Note: When connecting an oscilloscope probe to one of the five
probe turrets of a transmission line, always connect the ground
conductor of the probe to the associated (nearest) coaxial-shield
turret. This will minimize noise in the observed signal due to the
parasitic inductance introduced by undesired ground return paths.

3. In the LOAD section of the circuit board, make sure all the toggle switches
are set to the O (OFF) position. Then, connect the LOAD-section input to
the common via resistor R3 (50- resistor) by setting the appropriate
switches in this section to the I (ON) position.

4. Make the following settings on the oscilloscope:


Channel 1
Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Normal
Sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.2 V/div
Input Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DC
Channel 2
Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Normal
Sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.2 V/div
Input Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DC
Time Base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 s/div
Trigger
Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . External
Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.3 V
Input Impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 M or more
Note: Throughout this course, the oscilloscope settings for the
time base and channel sensitivity are given as a starting point for
guidance and may be modified as necessary to obtain the
maximum possible measurement accuracy.

1-76

5. On the oscilloscope screen, observe the signal transmitted by the STEP


GENERATOR at the sending end and receiving end of the 48-meter
(157.4-foot) line formed by TRANSMISSION LINEs A and B being
connected end-to-end.

Attenuation and Distortion

Figure 1-63. Measuring the attenuation at D = 48 meters (157.4 feet).

Note that the voltage of the pulses in the STEP GENERATOR signal is
lower at the receiving end of the line, as Figure 1-63 shows. This occurs
because
a. of the energy lost in each series inductance and parallel capacitance
per unit length of the line.
b. the pulses at the sending end of the line lost some energy as they
traveled down the line.
c. of a phenomenon known as dispersion.
d. the transmitted signal lost energy in the 50- characteristic impedance
of the line.

6. Measure the voltage (height) of the pulses at the sending end of the line, VS.
VS =

7. Measure the voltage (height) of the pulses at the receiving end of the
line, VD.
VD =

8. Using the measured voltages, VS and VD, calculate the attenuation in pulse
power at the receiving end of the 48-meter (157.4-foot) line by using the
formula below.
1-77

Attenuation and Distortion

where

A =
log =
VD =
VS =
A=

Attenuation in pulse power (dB);


Base-10 logarithm;
Signal voltage at a distance D from the sending end of the
line (V);
Signal voltage at the sending end of the line (V).
dB

Distortion

9. Which of the following signals best correspond to the frequency-domain


representation shown in Figure 1-64?
a.
b.
c.
d.

A pure sinusoidal signal having a period of 5 s.


A rectangular signal having a period of 5 s.
A sawtooth signal having a period of 0.5 s.
A rectangular signal having a period of 0.5 s.

Figure 1-64. Frequency-domain representation of a signal.

G 10. If you look at Figure 1-65, which of the following statements could explain
why the received signal has a shape that is quite different than that of the
transmitted signal?
a. The harmonics of higher order in the transmitted signal were less
attenuated than those of lower order as they traveled down the lossy
line.
b. The fundamental and harmonics of the transmitted signal propagated
at the same velocity along the lossy line.
c. The harmonics of higher order in the transmitted signal were more
attenuated than those of lower order as they traveled down the lossless
line.
d. The fundamental and harmonics of the transmitted signal propagated
at differing velocities along the lossy line.

1-78

Attenuation and Distortion

Figure 1-65. The received signal is attenuated and distorted.

G 11. If you look at Figure 1-66, which eye pattern corresponds to the best
probability of recovering the transmitted pseudo-random NRZ data without
error?
a.
b.
c.
d.

Eye pattern A
Eye pattern B
Eye pattern C
Eye pattern D

1-79

Attenuation and Distortion

Figure 1-66. Eye patterns.

G 12. Turn off the Base Unit and remove all the connecting cables and probes.
CONCLUSION

1-80

Attenuation is a decrease in the level of a transmitted signal as it travels along


a line. Attenuation occurs in lines that are lossy. It is due to the dissipation of
part of the signal energy in the distributed series and parallel resistances of the
line.

Distortion is a change in the shape of the transmitted signal that also occurs in
lines that are lossy. Distortion is caused mainly by dispersion, a phenomenon by
which the fundamental and harmonics that compose a transmitted signal
propagate at differing velocities. Distortion can also be caused by the highfrequency signal components being attenuated differently, since attenuation is
frequency dependent.

Distortion of the high-frequency components in the transmitted signals increase


the rise time and fall time of the signal transients, causing the signals to be
rounded.

Attenuation and Distortion

In a high-speed transmission system, a popular method of evaluating signal


quality is the eye-pattern method. This method provides an eye-pattern display
that resembles an eye. The width of the eye opening indicates the degree of
distortion.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. The attenuation of a transmitted signal in a lossy line
a.
b.
c.
d.

is due to the dissipation of part of the signal energy by heating of the load.
is a decrease in the signal level as the signal travels down the line.
decreases as the distance from the transmission point increases.
decreases as the signal frequency is increased.

2. The skin effect causes the


a. current density across the line conductors to remain uniform if the signal
frequency is increased.
b. resistance to current flow of the line conductors to decrease as the signal
frequency is increased.
c. current density to concentrate near the surface of the line conductors at low
signal frequencies.
d. attenuation per unit length to increase as the signal frequency is increased.
3. A periodic signal usually consists of a superposition of several frequency
components that
a. include, among others, harmonics whose frequencies are odd and/or even
multiples of the fundamental frequency.
b. include, among others, a fundamental at twice the frequency of the signal.
c. are all of the same frequency.
d. are all rectangular in shape.
4. The signal at the receiving end of a lossy line is distorted
a. when the low-frequency components of the transmitted signal are
attenuated differently, due to the skin effect.
b. mainly because the frequency components of the transmitted signal
propagate at differing velocities.
c. when it does not truly reproduce the signal applied to the line load.
d. when it has the same shape as the transmitted signal.

1-81

Attenuation and Distortion


5. The eye-pattern method of evaluating signal quality
a. provides an eye-pattern display, the width of the eye opening being
inversely proportional to the degree of distortion.
b. requires that a pseudo-random audio signal be applied to the vertical input
of an oscilloscope.
c. provides a display of the frequency components of the signal as a function
of time.
d. is used with low-speed data transmission systems.

1-82

Unit Test
1. The harmonics of a rectangular signal having a period of 0.5 s are
a.
b.
c.
d.

even multiples of 5 MHz.


odd multiples of 2 MHz.
even multiples of 2 MHz.
odd multiples of 5 MHz.

2. The velocity of propagation of a signal in a transmission line can be determined


by using
a. a high-impedance oscilloscope probe connected to the sending end of the
line and a step generator connected to the receiving end of the line.
b. a simple formula, if the time required for a voltage step to travel to the
receiving end of the line and back to the sending end is known.
c. the step response method, provided that the load impedance perfectly
matches the characteristic impedance of the line.
d. a step generator and a high-impedance oscilloscope probe connected to the
receiving end of the line.
3. When a voltage step is launched into a lossy line whose series losses are
predominant,
a. the high frequency components contained in the voltage steps make the line
temporarily appear as a simple RC network.
b. the incident and reflected steps will first rise to a certain level and then
decrease gradually.
c. it is not possible to measure the time separating the incident and reflected
steps.
d. the line will appear as a simple LC network from the perspective of the load.
4. Theoretically speaking, the characteristic impedance, Z0, of a transmission line
corresponds to the input impedance, ZIN, of a
a.
b.
c.
d.

line whose load impedance is in the short-circuit condition (0 ).


line terminated with a purely resistive load.
particular length of line.
line of infinite length.

5. According to Thevenin's theorem,


a. the Thevenin impedance ZTH is the impedance seen at the two terminals of
the circuit to thevenize, when the voltage source of this circuit is replaced by
an open circuit.
b. the Thevenin voltage ETH is determined by measuring the short-circuit
voltage at the two terminals of the circuit to thevenize.
c. the Thevenin equivalent circuit consists of a voltage source, ETH, and an
impedance in parallel with this source, ZTH.
d. any electrical linear circuit seen at two terminals can be represented by a
Thevenin equivalent circuit.
6. The eye-pattern method of evaluating signal quality
1-83

Unit Test (cont'd)


a. provides an eye-pattern display, the width of the eye opening indicating the
degree of distortion.
b. requires that a pseudo-random audio signal be applied to the vertical input
of an oscilloscope.
c. provides a display of the frequency components of the signal as a function
of time.
d. is used with low-speed data transmission systems.
7. In a transmission line, a signal travels at a velocity that
a. is directly proportional to the relative permittivity of the dielectric material
used to construct the line.
b. is null if the impedance of the load at the receiving end is in the open-circuit
condition (4 ).
c. usually increases as the diameter of the line conductors is decreased.
d. is relatively less than 3.0 @ 108 m/s, or 9.8 @ 108 ft/s.
8. The skin effect causes the
a. current density across the line conductors to remain uniform if the signal
frequency is increased.
b. resistance to current flow of the line conductors to decrease as the signal
frequency is increased.
c. current density to concentrate near the surface of the line conductors at low
signal frequencies.
d. attenuation per unit length to increase as the signal frequency is increased.
9. The step response method can be used to determine the characteristic
impedance of a transmission line
a. by connecting a purely resistive load to the receiving end of the line and
adjusting the load resistance until no reflected voltage appears in the step
response signal.
b. by connecting a resistive load having half the input impedance of the line
and measuring the voltage of the rising edge of the incident step in the step
response signal.
c. through measurement of the voltage of the rising edge of the reflected step
in the step response signal.
d. provided that the receiving end of the line can be made accessible for
connection to a specific load.

1-84

Unit Test (cont'd)


10. When the load impedance is purely resistive and lower than the characteristic
impedance of the line, the voltage of the reflected step is
a. of negative polarity, so that it subtracts from the voltage of the incident step
when it gets back to the sending end of the line.
b. equal to the voltage of the incident step, so that it cancels out this step when
it gets back to the sending end of the line.
c. of positive or negative polarity, depending on the extent of the mismatch
between the load and line impedances.
d. of positive polarity, so that it adds up to the incident step when it gets back
to the sending end of the line.

1-85

1-86

Unit

Transmission Line Measurements Under Transient


(Step Testing) Conditions
UNIT OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of this unit, you will be able to measure the distributed inductance
and distributed capacitance of a line, and then use the measured values to
determine the characteristic impedance and velocity of propagation through the line.
You will be familiar with the concept of voltage reflection coefficient. You will know
how to represent the creation of reflections and the distribution of the voltage along
a line, using a graph called the voltage reflection diagram. You will know how a line
terminated by complex load impedances behaves when voltage steps are launched
into the line. Finally, you will learn how to use time-domain reflectometry (TDR) to
locate and identify discontinuities (faults) introduced by your instructor along the
transmission lines of the circuit board.
UNIT FUNDAMENTALS
Determining Characteristic Impedance and Velocity of Propagation
The characteristic impedance, Z0, of a line is constant, regardless of how long the
line may be. This occurs because Z0 is determined by the geometrical and physical
characteristics of the line. Thus, a relationship exists between the value of Z0 and the
value of its distributed parameters, L', C', R'S, and R'p.
When the losses in a line are low and the frequency of the carried signals is relatively
high, Z0 is considered to be purely resistive. In this condition,

Moreover, the velocity of propagation of signals through the line, vP, is

Consequently, Z0 and vP can easily be calculated when L' and C' are known:

L' and C' are normally specified by the line's manufacturer.


If L' and C' are unknown, they can be measured by creating an impedance
mismatch at both ends of the line in order to obtain a step response signal with
measurable time constant, as Figure 2-1 shows. The measured time constants
permit calculation of L' and C'.

2-1

Transmission Line Measurements Under Transient


(Step Testing) Conditions

Figure 2-1. Examples of step response signals obtained for the measurement of L' and C'.

Voltage Reflection Coefficient


Whenever the signal carried by a transmission line encounters a change in
impedance, or discontinuity, a reflection is created. The reflection causes part of
the signal energy to be reflected in a direction opposite to the direction of travel of
the signal.
The ratio of the reflected voltage to incident voltage at a discontinuity is called the
voltage reflection coefficient. This coefficient is usually represented by , the
Greek capital letter "gamma". It is determined by the relationship between the
characteristic impedance, Z0, and the new impedance encountered by the signal at
the discontinuity, as Figure 2-2 shows.

Figure 2-2. Discontinuity (impedance change) at the load.

When neither the impedance of the load, ZL, and of the step generator, ZTH, match
the characteristic impedance, multiple successive reflections occur on the line until
the voltage on the line stabilizes to a final value.
2-2

Transmission Line Measurements Under Transient


(Step Testing) Conditions
In that case, a convenient way of representing the creation of the multiple reflections
and the resulting distribution of the voltage along the line as a function of time is by
using a voltage reflection diagram, as Figure 2-3 shows.

The voltage reflection diagram, on the left-hand side of the figure, is a vertically
oriented graph. It indicates each instant when a sudden change (voltage step)
occurs in the line voltage.

The voltage reflection diagram can be used conveniently to graph the voltage as
a function of time at any arbitrary point, z, along the line, as shown on the righthand side of the figure.

Figure 2-3. Voltage reflection diagram.

Transient Behavior of a Line Terminated by Complex Load Impedances


When the load connected to the end of a transmission line does not match the
characteristic impedance of the line, and the load impedance is not purely resistive,
the voltage reflected back toward the step generator varies with time, so that it does
not have the same shape as the incident voltage.
For example, Figure 2-4 shows the step response signal of a line terminated by an
inductive load impedance, and that of a line terminated by a capacitive load
impedance:

when the load impedance is mostly inductive, the reflected voltage decreases
exponentially over time;

2-3

Transmission Line Measurements Under Transient


(Step Testing) Conditions

when the load impedance is mostly capacitive, the reflected voltage increases
exponentially over time.

In both cases, the time constant of the exponentially-decreasing or increasing


voltage can be measured in order to determine the inductance or capacitance of the
load, as Figure 2-4 shows.

Figure 2-4. Examples of step response signals with inductive and capacitive load impedances.

Appendix B provides a summary of the step response signal of a line terminated by


inductive and capacitive loads.
Time-Domain Reflectometry (TDR)
Time-domain reflectometry (TDR) is a technique used to detect, locate, and
identify the nature of discontinuities (impedance changes) along a transmission line.
Discontinuities can be due, for example, to broken conductors, loose connectors,
shorted conductors, or sheath faults.
TDR requires the use of a device called a time-domain reflectometer, as Figure 2-5
shows. Conventional time-domain reflectometers consist of a built-in step generator
and an oscilloscope. They operate by using the same technique as bats or radars:
the echo technique.

2-4

The step generator launches a pulse into the line under test.

When the pulse encounters a discontinuity along the line, part of the pulse energy
is reflected back to the step generator for display on an oscilloscope.

In the displayed signal, the discontinuities encountered by the pulse appear in the
form of transients.

By measuring, on the oscilloscope screen, the time between the rising edge of
the launched pulse and the transient caused by a discontinuity, the location
(distance) of the discontinuity can be determined. Moreover, the shape and

Transmission Line Measurements Under Transient


(Step Testing) Conditions
magnitude of the transient indicate the nature and severity of the discontinuity
and, therefore, give clues to the probable cause(s) of the fault.

Figure 2-5. Using time-domain reflectometry (TDR) to detect and locate discontinuities along a
line.

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
In order to complete the exercises in this unit, you will need the following:

FACET Base Unit


TRANSMISSION LINES circuit board
Oscilloscope, dual trace, 40 MHz, (Lab-Volt P/N 797 or equivalent)

2-5

2-6

Exercise

2-1

Determining Characteristic Impedance and Velocity


of Propagation by Measuring the Distributed
Capacitance and Inductance of a Line
EXERCISE OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of this exercise, you will know how to measure the distributed
capacitance and distributed inductance of a line. You will use the measured values
to determine the characteristic impedance of the line and the velocity of propagation
of the signals along the line.
DISCUSSION
Relationship Between the Characteristic Impedance of a Line and its
Distributed Parameters
The characteristic impedance, Z0, of a line is an intrinsic property of the line.
Because of this, Z0 is determined by the geometrical and physical characteristics of
the linenot by the length of the line. Z0, therefore, is of constant value, whether the
line is short, long, or infinite.
The physical characteristics that determine Z0, which are the diameter of the
conductors, the relative spacing between the conductors, and the insulating material
used, also determine the value of the distributed parameters of the line.
Consequently, a relationship exists between the value of Z0 and the value of the
distributed parameters.

Figure 2-6. Distributed parameters of a line.

2-7

Determining Characteristic Impedance and Velocity


of Propagation by Measuring the Distributed
Capacitance and Inductance of a Line
When R'S is negligible and R'P is relatively high (G' is relatively low), and the
frequency of the carried signals, f, is relatively high (such that 2fL' o R'S and
2fC' o R'P), the reactive component of Z0 can be disregarded and Z0 be considered
as purely resistive. In this condition, it can be demonstrated that

where

Z0 =
L' =
C' =

Characteristic impedance ();


Distributed inductance, in henrys per unit length (H/m or H/ft);
Distributed capacitance, in farads per unit length (F/m or F/ft).

Measuring the Distributed Capacitance and Distributed Inductance of a Line


The theoretical values of C' and L' are normally specified by the lines manufacturer.
However, these values can also be measured by using the step response method.
To do so, a step generator and a high-impedance oscilloscope probe are both
connected to the sending end of the line, using a bridging connection.
Distributed Capacitance
To measure the distributed capacitance, the resistive component of the step
generator impedance, RTH, is set to a value that is much greater than the
characteristic impedance of the line, while the receiving end of the line is left
unconnected (open-circuit condition), as Figure 2-7 shows. This creates an
impedance mismatch at both the sending and receiving ends of the line, and permits
a step response signal with measurable time constant.

Figure 2-7. Measuring the distributed capacitance by using the step response method.

2-8

Determining Characteristic Impedance and Velocity


of Propagation by Measuring the Distributed
Capacitance and Inductance of a Line
At time t = 0, the step generator launches an incident voltage step, VI, into the line.
This step arrives at the receiving end of the line after a certain transit time, T. There,
it is reflected back toward the generator due to the impedance mismatch between
the line and the load. The reflected step, VR, which is of positive polarity, gets back
to the generator at time t = 2T (twice the transit time, equal to the round-trip time).
There, it is re-reflected down the line due to the impedance mismatch between the
line and the generator.
This phenomenon continues for a certain time, the reflected step bouncing back and
forth on the line, and becoming lower and lower in level. Consequently, the step
response signal is the algebraic sum of the incident and successive reflected steps.
This causes the rising edge of each pulse in this signal to look like the step response
of an RC series circuit, as Figure 2-8 shows.

Figure 2-8. Step response of the RC circuit made by RTH and CT.

In fact, the overall shape of the successive steps that form the rising edge of each
pulse form an exponential transition having a time constant, . The time constant, ,
is determined by the resistive component of the generator impedance, RTH
(neglecting the resistance of the line, which is low by comparison), and the total line
capacitance, CT. Consequently, the time constant is

where

=
RTH =
CT =

Time constant of the RC circuit (s);


Resistive component of the step generator Thevenin impedance
();
Total line capacitance, equal to the sum of the distributed
capacitances along the entire line length (F, i.e. s/).

2-9

Determining Characteristic Impedance and Velocity


of Propagation by Measuring the Distributed
Capacitance and Inductance of a Line
The difference between the final and initial voltages of the exponentially-rising edge
of the pulse is called voltage excursion, V, as Figure 2-9 shows:

At time t = 5, the voltage approximately reaches its final value.

At time t = 0.69, the voltage reaches 50% of the voltage excursion, as the figure
shows.

By measuring the time required for the voltage to increase by 50%, that is, from
the initial level to V/2 on the oscilloscope screen, and then dividing this time
by 0.69, the time constant, , can be determined and CT be calculated:

Figure 2-9. At time t = 0.69, the voltage reaches 50% of its excursion (V/2).

Once CT is known, the distributed capacitance of the line is determined simply by


dividing CT by the length of the line:

where

2-10

C' =
CT =
l =

Distributed capacitance of the line (F/m or F/ft);


Total line capacitance (F);
Length of the line (m or ft).

Determining Characteristic Impedance and Velocity


of Propagation by Measuring the Distributed
Capacitance and Inductance of a Line
Distributed Inductance
A similar method is used to measure the distributed inductance of the line, except
that this time, the resistive component of the step generator impedance, RTH, is set
to a value that is much lower than the characteristic impedance of the line, while the
impedance of the load at the receiving end of the line is placed in the short-circuit
condition (0 ), as Figure 2-10 shows. This creates an impedance mismatch at both
the sending and receiving ends of the line, and provides a step response signal with
measurable time constant.

Figure 2-10. Measuring the distributed inductance by using the step response method.

At time t = 0, the step generator launches an incident step, VI, into the line. This step
arrives at the receiving end of the line after a certain transit time, T. There it is
reflected back toward the generator due to the impedance mismatch. The reflected
step, VR, which is of negative polarity, gets back to the generator at time t = 2T (twice
the transit time, i.e., equal to the round-trip time). There, it is re-reflected down the
line due to the impedance mismatch.
This phenomenon continues for a certain time, the reflected step bouncing back and
forth on the line, and becoming lower and lower in level. Consequently, the step
response signal is the algebraic sum of the incident and successive reflected steps.
This causes each pulse in this signal to look like the step response of an RL circuit,
as Figure 2-11 shows.

2-11

Determining Characteristic Impedance and Velocity


of Propagation by Measuring the Distributed
Capacitance and Inductance of a Line

Figure 2-11. Step response of the RL circuit made by RTH and LT.

In fact, the overall shape of the successive steps that form the falling part of each
pulse form an exponential transition having a time constant, . The time constant is
determined by the resistive component of the generator impedance, RTH, and the
total line inductance, LT. Consequently, the time constant is

where

=
LT =
RTH =

2-12

Time constant of the RL circuit (s);


Total line inductance, equal to the sum of the distributed
inductances along the entire line length (H, i.e. @s);
Resistive component of the step generator Thevenin
impedance ().

Determining Characteristic Impedance and Velocity


of Propagation by Measuring the Distributed
Capacitance and Inductance of a Line
The difference between the initial and final voltages of the exponentially-decreasing
section of the pulse is the voltage excursion, V, as Figure 2-12 shows:

At time t = 5, the voltage approximately reaches its final value.

At time t = 0.69, the voltage reaches 50% of the voltage excursion, V.

At time t = 1.4, the voltage reaches 75% of the voltage excursion, V.

By measuring the time required for the initial voltage to decrease by, for example,
50% of V and then dividing this time by 0.69, or to decrease by 75% of V and
then dividing this time by 1.4, the time constant, , can be determined and LT be
calculated:

Figure 2-12. At time t = 0.69, the voltage reaches 50% of its excursion (0.5V). At time t = 1.4, the
voltage reaches 75% of its excursion (0.75V).

2-13

Determining Characteristic Impedance and Velocity


of Propagation by Measuring the Distributed
Capacitance and Inductance of a Line
Once LT is known, the distributed inductance of the line is determined simply by
dividing LT by the length of the line:

where

L' =
LT =
l =

Distributed inductance of the line (H/m or H/ft);


Total line inductance (H);
Length of the line (m or ft).

Calculating Characteristic Impedance and Velocity of Propagation from the


Values Measured for C' and L'
Once the distributed capacitance, C', and distributed inductance, L', of a line have
been measured, the characteristic impedance, Z0 of this line can be calculated by
using the formula earlier stated:

Moreover, the velocity of propagation of the signals, vP, in this line can also be
calculated, using the equation below:

where

vP =
L' =
C' =

Velocity of propagation (m/s or ft/s);


Distributed inductance of the line (H/m or H/ft);
Distributed capacitance of the line (F/m or F/ft).

To summarize, the characteristic impedance and velocity of propagation can be


calculated by using the values measured for L and C when 2fL' o R'S and
2fC' o R'P.
Procedure Summary
In this procedure section, you will measure the distributed capacitance and
distributed inductance of a line. You will then use the measured values to calculate
the characteristic impedance of the line and the velocity of propagation of the signals
along the line.
PROCEDURE

2-14

Determining Characteristic Impedance and Velocity


of Propagation by Measuring the Distributed
Capacitance and Inductance of a Line
Measuring the Distributed Capacitance

1. Make sure the TRANSMISSION LINES circuit board is properly installed


into the Base Unit. Turn on the Base Unit and verify that the LED's next to
each control knob on this unit are both on, confirming that the circuit board
is properly powered.

2. Referring to Figure 2-13, connect the STEP GENERATOR 500- output to


the sending end of TRANSMISSION LINE A, using a coaxial cable. Leave
the BNC connector at the receiving end of TRANSMISSION LINE A
unconnected.

Figure 2-13. Measuring the distributed capacitance.

Connect the STEP GENERATOR 100- output to the trigger input of the
oscilloscope, using a coaxial cable.
Using an oscilloscope probe, connect channel 1 of the oscilloscope to the
0-meter (0-foot) probe turret at the sending end of TRANSMISSION LINE A.
Make sure to connect the ground conductor of the probe to the associated
shield turret.
2-15

Determining Characteristic Impedance and Velocity


of Propagation by Measuring the Distributed
Capacitance and Inductance of a Line
Note: When connecting an oscilloscope probe to one of the five
probe turrets of a transmission line, always connect the ground
conductor of the probe to the associated (nearest) coaxial-shield
turret. This will minimize noise in the observed signal due to the
parasitic inductance introduced by undesired ground return paths.

The connections should now be as shown in Figure 2-13.

3. Make the following settings on the oscilloscope:


Channel 1
Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Normal
Sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.2 V/div
Input Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DC
Time Base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 s/div
Trigger
Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . External
Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.3 V
Input Impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 M or more

4. In the step response signal, note that the rising edge of the pulses increases
exponentially, going from an initial voltage of about 0 V to a final maximum
voltage, like the voltage across a capacitor charging through a series
resistor (see Figure 2-14).
The signal on the oscilloscope is the step response of the RC circuit made
by
a. the resistive component of the STEP GENERATOR impedance and the
total line inductance.
b. the reactive component of the STEP GENERATOR impedance and the
total line capacitance.
c. the resistive component of the STEP GENERATOR impedance and the
total line capacitance.
d. the resistive component of the STEP GENERATOR impedance and the
distributed line capacitance.

2-16

Determining Characteristic Impedance and Velocity


of Propagation by Measuring the Distributed
Capacitance and Inductance of a Line

Figure 2-14. Step response of the series RC circuit made by RTH and CT.

5. Decrease the oscilloscope time base to 2 s/div to better see the


exponentially-rising edge of a pulse in the step response signal, as
Figure 2-15 shows. Measure the voltage excursion, V, of the rising edge
of the pulse:

V =

2-17

Determining Characteristic Impedance and Velocity


of Propagation by Measuring the Distributed
Capacitance and Inductance of a Line

Figure 2-15. Measuring the voltage excursion, V.

6. Divide the measured voltage excursion, V, by 2. Record below this


voltage, V/2.
V/2 =

7. Decrease the oscilloscope time base to 0.5 s/div. Observe that the first
reflected steps that form the exponentially-rising edge of the pulse are
distinguishable, as Figure 2-16 shows.
Note that the reflected steps are somewhat rounded, due to a low rise time
caused by attenuation and dispersion of their high-frequency components.
Measure the time required for the exponentially-rising edge of the pulse to
rise from 0 V to V/2 as accurately as possible. This time, t50%, corresponds
to 0.69.
t50% =

2-18

@ 10-9 s

Determining Characteristic Impedance and Velocity


of Propagation by Measuring the Distributed
Capacitance and Inductance of a Line

Figure 2-16. Measuring t50% = 0.69.

8. Using t50% obtained in the previous step, calculate the time constant, , of the
RC circuit:

@ 10-9 s

9. Using the time constant, , obtained in the previous step, calculate the total
line capacitance, CT. (Consider RTH to be equal to 500 ):

CT =

@ 10-9 F

2-19

Determining Characteristic Impedance and Velocity


of Propagation by Measuring the Distributed
Capacitance and Inductance of a Line
G 10. Using the total line capacitance, CT, obtained in the previous step, calculate
the distributed capacitance of the line, C'. Consider the length of the line, l,
to be 24 m (78.7 ft).

C =

@ 10-12 F/m

Is C near the manufacturers specified value of 101 @ 10-12 F/m


(30.8 @ 10-12 F/ft)?

G Yes

G No

Measuring the Distributed Inductance

G 11. Modify the connections as indicated below in order to be able to measure


the distributed inductance (refer to Figure 2-17).

Remove the coaxial cable between the STEP GENERATOR 500-


output and the sending end of TRANSMISSION LINE A.

Connect the STEP GENERATOR 5- output to the sending end of


TRANSMISSION LINE A, using a coaxial cable.

Connect the BNC connector at the receiving end of TRANSMISSION


LINE A to the BNC connector at the LOAD-section input. In the LOAD
section, set the toggle switches in such a way as to connect the input
of this section directly to the common (i.e. via no load). This will place
the impedance of the load at the receiving end of TRANSMISSION
LINE A in the short-circuit condition (0 ).

Leave the STEP GENERATOR 100- output connected to the trigger


input of the oscilloscope. Leave the 0-meter (0-foot) probe turret at the
sending end of TRANSMISSION LINE A connected to channel 1 of the
oscilloscope via the oscilloscope probe.

The connections should now be as shown in Figure 2-17.

2-20

Determining Characteristic Impedance and Velocity


of Propagation by Measuring the Distributed
Capacitance and Inductance of a Line

Figure 2-17. Measuring the distributed inductance.

G 12. Make the following settings on the oscilloscope:


Channel 1
Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Normal
Sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.2 V/div
Input Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DC
Time Base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 s/div
Trigger
Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . External
Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.5 V
Input Impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 M or more

G 13. On the oscilloscope screen, observe that the pulses first peak very quickly
to an initial voltage, and then decrease exponentially to a final voltage,
which corresponds to the step response of an RL circuit (see Figure 2-18).

2-21

Determining Characteristic Impedance and Velocity


of Propagation by Measuring the Distributed
Capacitance and Inductance of a Line

Figure 2-18. Step response of the RL circuit made by RTH and LT.

The signal on the oscilloscope is the step response of the RL circuit made
by
a. the resistive component of the STEP GENERATOR impedance and the
total line inductance.
b. the reactive component of the STEP GENERATOR impedance and the
distributed line inductance.
c. the resistive component of the STEP GENERATOR impedance and the
total line capacitance.
d. the reactive component of the STEP GENERATOR impedance and the
total line inductance.

2-22

Determining Characteristic Impedance and Velocity


of Propagation by Measuring the Distributed
Capacitance and Inductance of a Line
G 14. Decrease the oscilloscope time base to 0.5 s/div to better see the section
of the pulse where the voltage is decreasing exponentially, as Figure 2-19
shows. Note that the first reflected steps that form this section are
distinguishable. These steps are somewhat rounded, due to some
attenuation and dispersion of their high-frequency components.

Figure 2-19. First reflected steps in the pulse section where the voltage is exponentially
decreasing.

Further decrease the oscilloscope time base to 0.1 s/div. As Figure 2-20
shows, measure the voltage (height) of the rising edge of the pulse at
midpoint between the beginning and the end of the rounded part (first
reflected step). This approximately corresponds to the initial level of the
exponentially-decreasing voltage, VINIT.
VINIT. =

G 15. Set the oscilloscope time base to 2 s/div. As Figure 2-21 shows, measure
the final level of the exponentially-decreasing voltage, VFIN..
VFIN. =

2-23

Determining Characteristic Impedance and Velocity


of Propagation by Measuring the Distributed
Capacitance and Inductance of a Line

Figure 2-20. Measuring the initial level of the exponentially-decreasing voltage.

Figure 2-21. Measuring the final level of the exponentially-decreasing voltage.

2-24

Determining Characteristic Impedance and Velocity


of Propagation by Measuring the Distributed
Capacitance and Inductance of a Line
G 16. Using the initial and final levels of the exponentially-decreasing voltage
measured in the previous steps, calculate the excursion of this voltage, V.

V =

G 17. Multiply the voltage excursion, V, by 0.75.


Note: Due to the shape and peaks of the step response signal
here, the time constant, , will be determined through
measurement of the time required for the initial voltage to
decrease by 75% (rather than by 50%, the usual method). This
will provide a better accuracy of measurement.

0.75V =

G 18. Set the oscilloscope time base to 0.2 s/div. Referring to Figure 2-22,
measure the time required for the exponentially-decreasing voltage to
decrease from the initial level (VINIT.) to VINIT. 0.75V as accurately as
possible. This time, t75%, corresponds to 1.4.
t75% =

@ 10-6 s

2-25

Determining Characteristic Impedance and Velocity


of Propagation by Measuring the Distributed
Capacitance and Inductance of a Line

Figure 2-22. Measuring t75% = 1.4.

G 19. Using the value measured for t75% in the previous step, calculate the time
constant, , of the RL circuit.

@ 10-6 s

G 20. Using the time constant, , obtained in the previous step, calculate the total
line inductance, LT. (Consider RTH to be equal to 5 ).

LT =

2-26

@ 10-6 H (or @s)

Determining Characteristic Impedance and Velocity


of Propagation by Measuring the Distributed
Capacitance and Inductance of a Line
G 21. Using the total line inductance, LT, obtained in the previous step, calculate
the distributed inductance of the line, L. Consider the length of the line, l, to
be 24 m (78.7 ft).

L =

@ 10-7 H/m

The obtained value should theoretically be near of the manufacturers


specified value of 2.52 @ 10-7 H/m (7.7 @ 10-8 H/ft). However, since the obtained
value is dependent upon the accuracy of the measurements made on the
oscilloscope (i.e. the voltage excursion and the time constant) and on the
rounding accuracy used for the calculations, this value may differ fairly from
the manufacturer's value.
Calculating Characteristic Impedance and Velocity of Propagation

G 22. Using the distributed inductance, L, and distributed capacitance, C,


obtained in the previous section, calculate the characteristic impedance, Z0,
of the line by using the formula below.

Z0 =

The obtained value for Z0 should theoretically be quite near the


characteristic impedance of 50 specified for the RG-174 coaxial cable
used as TRANSMISSION LINE A. However, since the obtained value is
dependent upon the accuracy of the measurements and calculations used
to find C' and L', Z0 may differ fairly from the manufacturer's value of 50 .

G 23. Using the distributed inductance, L, and distributed capacitance, C,


obtained in the previous section, calculate the velocity of propagation of the
signals, vP, using the formula below.

vP =

m/s (or ft/s)

The obtained value for vP should theoretically be near the theoretical velocity
of propagation of 1.96 @ 108 m/s (6.43 @ 108 ft/s) for the RG-174 coaxial cable
used as TRANSMISSION LINE A. However, since the obtained value is
dependent upon the accuracy of the measurements and calculations used to
find C' and L', vp may differ fairly from the manufacturer's value.

2-27

Determining Characteristic Impedance and Velocity


of Propagation by Measuring the Distributed
Capacitance and Inductance of a Line
G 24. Turn off the Base Unit and remove all the connecting cables and probes.
CONCLUSION

The characteristic impedance and the distributed parameters of a line are both
related to geometrical and physical properties of the line. Consequently, the
values of Z0 and of each distributed parameter are constant, regardless of how
long the line may be.

When R'S is negligible and R'P is very high (G' is very low), and the frequency of
the carried signals is relatively high, Z0 can be considered as purely resistive. In
that case, the step response method can be used to measure the distributed
capacitance, C', and distributed inductance, L', of the line.

To do so, an impedance mismatch is created at both the sending and receiving


ends of the line, in order to create multiple reflections of the incident step and
obtain a step response signal with measurable time constant. The measured
time constant permits calculation of C' or L'.

Once C' and L' are known, Z0 and vP can be calculated by using simple formulas.
This occurs because Z0 and vP are related to the distributed C' and L' of the line.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. When measuring the distributed capacitance of a line by using the step response
method,
a. the resistive component of the step generator is set to a value that is much
greater than Z0, while the impedance of the load at the receiving end of the
line is placed in the short-circuit condition (0 ).
b. the resistive component of the step generator is set to a value that is much
lower than Z0, while the receiving end of the line is in the open-circuit
condition.
c. an impedance mismatch is created at both the sending and receiving ends
of the line.
d. the impedance of the step generator and that of the load must both be equal
to Z0.
2. When R'S is negligible and R'P is very high (G' is very low), and the frequency of
the carried signals, f, is relatively high (such that 2fL' o R'S and 2fC' o R'P),
which is a common condition,
a.
b.
c.
d.

2-28

the resistive and reactive components of Z0 are perfectly equal.


the resistive component of Z0 can be disregarded.
Z0 can be considered as purely reactive.
Z0 can be considered as purely resistive.

Determining Characteristic Impedance and Velocity


of Propagation by Measuring the Distributed
Capacitance and Inductance of a Line
3. When measuring the distributed inductance of a line by using the step response
method,
a. the resistive component of the step generator is set to a value that is much
lower than Z0, while the impedance of the load at the receiving end of the
line is placed in the short-circuit condition (0 ).
b. the resistive component of the step generator is set to a value that is much
greater than Z0, while the impedance of the load at the receiving end of the
line is placed in the short-circuit condition (0 ).
c. the resistive component of the step generator is set to a value that is much
lower than Z0, while the impedance of the load at the receiving end of the
line is placed in the open-circuit condition (4 ).
d. the impedance of the step generator and that of the load must both be equal
to Z0.
4. Once C' and L' have been determined by using the step response method, it is
possible to calculate
a.
b.
c.
d.

Z0 by extracting the square root of L' divided by C'.


vP by extracting the square root of L' divided by C'.
Z0 by multiplying C' by L'.
vP by dividing L' by C'.

5. When 2fL' o R'S and 2fC' o R'P, the velocity of propagation is approximately
equal to
a.
b.
c.
d.

the reciprocal of the square root of R'S times R'P.


the reciprocal of the square root of L' times C'.
the square root of R'S divided by R'P.
the reciprocal of C' divided by L'.

2-29

Determining Characteristic Impedance and Velocity


of Propagation by Measuring the Distributed
Capacitance and Inductance of a Line

2-30

Exercise

2-2

Voltage Reflection Coefficients at the Line Load


and Generator with Purely Resistive Load Impedances
EXERCISE OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of this exercise, you will know what is the concept of voltage
reflection coefficient and why it is useful in analyzing the transient behavior of a
transmission line mismatched at both ends by purely resistive impedances. You will
also learn how to calculate the transient voltage anywhere on a transmission line,
using a reflection diagram.
DISCUSSION
Voltage Reflection Coefficient ()
As you have learned so far, it is important that the impedances of the load, ZL, and
of the step generator, ZTH, both match the characteristic impedance of the line, Z0,
in order to prevent multiple successive reflections from occurring on the line.
Consider, for example, the lossless transmission line in Figure 2-23 where neither
ZL nor ZTH matches Z0. ZL and ZTH are purely resistive, and therefore have no reactive
component.

Figure 2-23. Impedance mismatches at both the load and generator.

2-31

Voltage Reflection Coefficients at the Line Load


and Generator with Purely Resistive Load Impedances

At time t = 0, the generator produces a voltage step that is launched into the line.
As it quits the generator and encounters the line, the voltage step experiences a
change in impedance. Consequently, the voltage step is attenuated by a certain
amount, determined by the voltage divider rule. The actual voltage of the incident
step, VI, is

where

VI
Z0
ZTH
ETH

=
=
=
=

Voltage of the incident step (V);


Characteristic impedance of the line ();
Thevenin impedance of the step generator ();
Thevenin voltage of the step generator (V).

.
VI travels toward the receiving end of the line at a velocity vP =
Figure 2-24 shows VI traveling on the line at a certain instant, t, comprised within
the time range 0 # t < T (T being the transit time). The abscissa (D) indicates the
distance from the origin, which corresponds to the generator. The letter "l" on the
abscissa corresponds to the total length of the line.

Figure 2-24. Voltage on the line at a certain instant, t, comprised within the time interval 0 # t < T
(T being the transit time).

At the transit time, T, VI reaches the load end of the line, where it experiences a
change in impedance, since ZL is not equal to Z0. Because of this, part of
voltage VI is reflected down the line. How much the impedance changes
determines the magnitude of the reflected voltage. In fact, the incident voltage is
reflected by a coefficient L:

where

L =
ZL =
Z0 =

2-32

Reflection coefficient at the load (dimensionless number,


comprised between +1 and -1);
Impedance of the load ();
Characteristic impedance of the line ().

Voltage Reflection Coefficients at the Line Load


and Generator with Purely Resistive Load Impedances
Thus, when the impedance of the load, ZL, is 0 , the reflection coefficient at the
load, L, is -1. When ZL is infinite (4 ), this coefficient is 1.
Note: ZL is a complex quantity composed of a real, resistive part R, and
an imaginary, reactive part X. Consequently, when ZL is not purely
resistive, L is a vectorial quantity having both magnitude and phase
information.

As Figure 2-25 shows, the reflected voltage has the same shape as the
incident voltage, since the impedance of the load is purely resistive. This
reflected voltage is equal to the product of L and the voltage incident at the
load:

where

VI =
L =

Voltage of the step incident at the load (V);


Reflection coefficient at the load.

The product VILcan be either positive or negative (since L can be either positive
or negative). When L is positive, the reflected voltage adds up to the incident
voltage. When L is negative, the reflected voltage subtracts from the incident
voltage. Thus, the total voltage present at the load at time T is equal to the
algebraic sum: VI + VIL.

Figure 2-25. Voltage on the line at an instant t comprised within the time range T # t < 2T.

At time t = 2T, the voltage reflected from the load reaches the generator, where
it experiences a change in impedance, since ZTH is not equal to Z0. Because of
this, part of this voltage is re-reflected by a coefficient g:

where

g =
ZTH =
Z0 =

Reflection coefficient at the generator (dimensionless number,


comprised between +1 and -1);
Thevenin impedance of the step generator ();
Characteristic impedance of the line ().

2-33

Voltage Reflection Coefficients at the Line Load


and Generator with Purely Resistive Load Impedances
Coefficient g determines the voltage of the reflection created at the generator.
As Figure 2-26 shows, this voltage is equal to

where

VI =
L =
g =

Voltage of the incident step (V);


Reflection coefficient at the load.
Reflection coefficient at the generator.

VILg can be either positive or negative (since L and g can be either positive or
negative). The total voltage present at the generator at time 2T is equal to the
algebraic sum: VI + VIL + VILg. This voltage is reflected down the line toward
the load.

Figure 2-26. Voltage on the line at an instant t comprised within the time range 2T # t < 3T.

At time t = 3T, the voltage reflected from the generator reaches the receiving end
of the line. Because of the impedance mismatch, part of this voltage is rereflected down the line by coefficient L.
As Figure 2-27 shows, the voltage of the reflection created at the load at time 3T
is equal to

The total voltage present at the load at time 3T is equal to the algebraic
sum: VI + VIL + VILg + VIL2g. This voltage is reflected down the line toward the
generator.

2-34

Voltage Reflection Coefficients at the Line Load


and Generator with Purely Resistive Load Impedances

Figure 2-27. Voltage on the line at an instant t comprised within the time range 3T # t < 4T.

The process goes on for a certain time, a new reflection being created at the load or
generator at multiples of the transit time, T. The voltage of each new reflection is
always a fraction of the preceding one, since L and g are both less than unity
(except when the impedance of the load at the receiving end of the line is 0 or
infinite), and since they can be both negative.
Consequently, the voltage on the line, which is the algebraic sum of the successive
reflected voltages, eventually converges to a final, steady-state value. According to
the voltage divider rule, this value, VFIN., is given by the equation

where VFIN.
ZL
ZTH
ETH

=
=
=
=

Final, steady-state voltage (V);


Impedance of the load ();
Thevenin impedance of the step generator ();
Thevenin voltage of the step generator (V).

In this section, we have studied the reflections on a lossless transmission line. In that
particular case, the successive reflections have the same shape as the launched
voltage, and their magnitude and polarity are determined by the relationship between
ZTH, ZL, and Z0. At each odd multiple of time T, a new reflection is created at the load
whose voltage is equal to that of the reflection created at the load 2T earlier,
multiplied by L.
For lines that are lossy, the principle stays the same. Nevertheless, the calculation
of the voltage of each newly created reflection is more complex, since attenuation
and distortion cause the reflections to have a different shape than the voltage initially
launched into the line.

2-35

Voltage Reflection Coefficients at the Line Load


and Generator with Purely Resistive Load Impedances
Voltage Reflection Diagram
A convenient way of representing the creation of the reflected steps and the resulting
distribution of the voltage along the line as a function of time is by using a voltage
reflection diagram, also called a lattice diagram.
Figure 2-28 shows a voltage reflection diagram for a lossless transmission line. The
abscissa, D, denotes the distance from the generator output. The point 'l' on the
abscissa corresponds to the length of the line. The ordinate indicates the elapsed
time, t.

At time t = 0, step VI is launched into the line. VI travels down the line at a
velocity vP. It is represented by the first oblique line, marked VI, from the origin.
The slope of this line is positive, and is equal to 1/vP.

At time t = T, VI reaches the load. This creates a first reflection represented by the
oblique line marked VIL. The slope of this line is negative, and is equal to -1/vP.

At time t = 2T, the voltage reflected from the load reaches the generator. This
creates a second reflection, represented by the oblique line marked VILg. The
slope of this line is positive, and is equal to 1/vP.

Additional reflections are created at multiples of time T, until the voltage on the line
eventually converges to a final value.
As Figure 2-28 shows, the total voltage present at the load, VLOAD, changes at times
T, 3T, 5T, and so on. Between each change, this voltage stays constant. Similarly,
the total voltage present at the generator, VGEN., changes at times 2T, 4T, 6T, and so
on. Between each change, this voltage stays constant.

2-36

Between times 0 and T, VLOAD stays at 0 V approximately.

Between times T and 3T, VLOAD stays at

Between times 0 and T, VGEN. stays at VI.

Between times 4T and 6T, VGEN. stays at the total voltage created at
4T,
.

Voltage Reflection Coefficients at the Line Load


and Generator with Purely Resistive Load Impedances

Figure 2-28. Voltage reflection diagram of a lossless transmission line.

The voltage reflection diagram can be used to determine the voltage as a function
of time at an arbitrary point on the line. For example, Figure 2-29 shows how to
determine the voltage at a point z = z1, located 0.2@l from the generator. In this
example, Z0 = 50 , ZTH = 10 , and ZL = 250 .

A vertical line is first drawn, starting from point z1 on the abscissa, and
intersecting all the oblique lines.

Then, from each intersection point, a horizontal line is drawn toward the vertical
time (t) axis. The instants where each horizontal line crosses the t axis are at t1,
t2, t3, t4, t5, and so on.

2-37

Voltage Reflection Coefficients at the Line Load


and Generator with Purely Resistive Load Impedances

At each of these instants, a new reflection arrives at point z1, creating a sudden
change (step) in the voltage at that point.

The graph on the right shows the voltage at point z1 as a function of time. The
sudden changes in voltage at instants t1, t2, t3, and so on, form overshoots and
undershoots in the voltage.

Figure 2-29. Variation of the voltage as a function of time at an arbitrary point, z1, on the line for
Z0 = 50 , ZTH = 10 , and ZL = 250 .

As Figure 2-30 shows, the width of the overshoots and undershoots is determined
by the location of point z1 on the line. The nearer this point is to the generator, the
narrower the overshoots and undershoots are. Conversely, the farther this point
is from the generator, the wider the overshoots and undershoots are. In both
cases, however, the voltage eventually converges to a final, steady-state value.
Note: In this example, Z0 = 50 , ZTH = 10 , and ZL = 250 . The results under
different impedance conditions, therefore, may vary in a significant way from
those shown in the figure.

2-38

Voltage Reflection Coefficients at the Line Load


and Generator with Purely Resistive Load Impedances

Figure 2-30. The width of the overshoots and undershoots is determined by the location of point z1
on the line for Z0 = 50 , ZTH = 10 , and ZL = 250 .

The voltage at point z1 as a function of time can be determined from the voltage
reflection diagram as indicated in Table 2-1.
TIME INTERVAL

VOLTAGE AT POINT z1 (V)

VOLTAGE CHANGE (STEP)

0 # t < t1

t1 # t < t2 (t2 = 2T - t1)

VI

VI at t1

t2 # t < t3 (t3 = 2T + t1)

VI + VIL

VIL at t2

t3 # t < t4 (t4 = 4T - t1)

VI + VIL + VILg

VILg at t3

t4 # t < t5 (t5 = 4T + t1)

VI + VIL + VILg +
VIL2g

VIL2g at t4

...

...

...

...

...

...

Table 2-1. Determining the voltage at a point z = z1 as a function of time.

Procedure Summary
In this procedure section, you will observe the voltage reflections along a
transmission line under various mismatch conditions at the generator and load ends
of the line. You will compare the voltage of the observed reflections to the theoretical
voltages calculated and recorded in a reflection diagram.

2-39

Voltage Reflection Coefficients at the Line Load


and Generator with Purely Resistive Load Impedances
PROCEDURE
Voltage Reflections with the Generator Impedance ZTH n Z0 and Load
Impedance ZL = 4

1. Make sure the TRANSMISSION LINES circuit board is properly installed


into the Base Unit. Turn on the Base Unit and verify that the LED's next to
each control knob on this unit are both on, confirming that the circuit board
is properly powered.

2. Referring to Figure 2-31, connect the STEP GENERATOR 5- output to the


sending end of TRANSMISSION LINE A, using a short coaxial cable.
Connect the receiving end of TRANSMISSION LINE A to the input of the
LOAD section, using a short coaxial cable.
Using an oscilloscope probe, connect channel 1 of the oscilloscope to the
0-meter (0-foot) probe turret of TRANSMISSION LINE A. Connect the STEP
GENERATOR 50- output to the trigger input of the oscilloscope, using a
coaxial cable.
In the LOAD section, set all the toggle switches to the O (OFF) position.
This places the impedance of the load at the receiving end of
TRANSMISSION LINE A in the open-circuit condition (4 ).
The connections should now be as shown in Figure 2-31.

3. Make the following settings on the oscilloscope:


Channel 1
Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Normal
Sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.5 V/div
Input Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DC
Time Base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 s/div
Trigger
Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . External
Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.3 V
Input Impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 M or more

2-40

Voltage Reflection Coefficients at the Line Load


and Generator with Purely Resistive Load Impedances

Figure 2-31. Generator impedance ZTH (5 ) n Z0, ZL = 4 .

4. On the oscilloscope screen, observe the pulses launched into the line by the
STEP GENERATOR.
Decrease the channel-1 sensitivity to 0.2 V/div, and the time base to
0.2 s/div in order to be able to see the initial rising edge of a pulse more
distinctly, as Figure 2-32 shows.

2-41

Voltage Reflection Coefficients at the Line Load


and Generator with Purely Resistive Load Impedances
Note that, following the initial rising edge, the pulse voltage goes through
some changes (steps) until it eventually stabilizes to a certain level. These
steps, which form small overshoots and undershoots at the top of the pulse,
are due to the impedance mismatches at both the generator and load ends
of TRANSMISSION LINE A. Note that the rise time or fall time of the steps
is low, due to attenuation and dispersion of their high-frequency
components. This causes the overshoots and undershoots to be rounded
instead of being perfectly rectangular.
The first overshoot is caused by a first reflection created at the load at
time T, and by a second reflection created at the generator at time 2T. The
first overshoot may initially peak to a certain voltage before it stabilizes to
a lower level, as Figure 2-32 shows. This occurs because the point of
observation of the pulse is not at the very output of the generator, but at a
certain distance away from it. This distance corresponds to the length of the
printed circuit board traces between the generator output and its 50- BNC
output connector, added to the length of the coaxial line between this
connector and the 0-meter (0-foot) probe turret of TRANSMISSION LINE A.
Otherwise said, if the pulse were observed at the generator output, there
would theoretically be no initial peak in the first overshoot.

Figure 2-32. The rising edge of the pulse is followed by changes (steps) in the pulse voltage.

2-42

5. The voltage reflection diagram shown in Figure 2-33 will allow you to
calculate and record the theoretical reflection voltage present along the line
at multiples of the transit time T with ZTH n Z0 and ZL = 4 .

Voltage Reflection Coefficients at the Line Load


and Generator with Purely Resistive Load Impedances

Figure 2-33. Voltage reflection diagram with generator impedance ZTH (5 ) n Z0, and load
impedance ZL= 4 .

6. Measure the voltage (height) of the initial rising edge of the pulse. This is the
approximate voltage of the incident step, VI. Record this voltage in the
voltage reflection diagram of Figure 2-33, over the first oblique line.

2-43

Voltage Reflection Coefficients at the Line Load


and Generator with Purely Resistive Load Impedances
Note: In the steps to follow, you are to calculate the theoretical
reflection coefficients and reflection voltages and record your
results in the reflection diagram. Then, you will measure the
actual reflection voltages on the oscilloscope and compare them
to those recorded in the diagram.

7. Calculate the reflection coefficients at the STEP GENERATOR and load,


given a generator impedance, ZTH, of 5 , and a load impedance, ZL, of 4 .
Record your results in the corresponding fields at the bottom of the
reflection diagram of Figure 2-33.
Reflection coefficient at the STEP GENERATOR, g:

Reflection coefficient at the load, L:

8. Using the incident voltage, VI, and the reflection coefficients g and L
previously recorded in your reflection diagram, calculate the voltage of the
reflections created at the generator and load at times T, 2T, 3T, and 4T, if
the line were lossless. Record your results over the corresponding oblique
lines of the reflection diagram of Figure 2-33.
a. Reflection created at the load at time T:

b. Reflection created at the generator at time 2T:

c. Reflection created at the load at time 3T:


2-44

Voltage Reflection Coefficients at the Line Load


and Generator with Purely Resistive Load Impedances

d. Reflection created at the generator at time 4T:

Now, calculate the total voltage present at the generator and load (and
reflected down the line) at times T, 2T, 3T, 4T, and 5T, if the line were
lossless. Record your results in the proper fields of the reflection diagram
of Figure 2-33.
e. Total voltage at the load at time T (VLT):

f.

Total voltage at the generator at time 2T (VG2T):

g. Total voltage at the load at time 3T (VL3T):

h. Total voltage at the generator at time 4T (VG4T):

i.

Total voltage at the load at time 5T (VL5T):

2-45

Voltage Reflection Coefficients at the Line Load


and Generator with Purely Resistive Load Impedances
G

9. Figure 2-34 is an example of voltage reflection diagram obtained when VI


is equal to 1.13 V. The results recorded in this diagram should be quite near
those you recorded in Figure 2-33.

Figure 2-34. Example of voltage reflection diagram obtained when VI = 1.13 V.

G 10. Leave channel 1 of the oscilloscope connected to the 0-meter (0-foot) probe
turret of TRANSMISSION LINE A. Connect channel 2 of the oscilloscope to
the LOAD-section input, using an oscilloscope probe.
Make the following settings on the oscilloscope:
Channel 1
Sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.5 V/div
Channel 2
Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Normal
Sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.5 V/div
Input Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DC
On the oscilloscope, you should now see the rising edge of the pulse at both
the generator and load ends of TRANSMISSION LINE A, as Figure 2-35
shows.
2-46

Voltage Reflection Coefficients at the Line Load


and Generator with Purely Resistive Load Impedances

Figure 2-35. Pulse voltage at the generator and load ends of TRANSMISSION LINE A.

Observe that, following the rising edge, the pulse voltage at both ends of the
line goes through some changes that form overshoots and undershoots,
until it eventually stabilizes. These changes do not occur suddenly as in the
case of a lossless line, since TRANSMISSION LINE A is lossy.
Also, observe that the changes in pulse voltage at both ends of the line
occur near multiples of time T. In fact, these changes occur near
a. even multiples of time T at both the generator and load ends.
b. odd multiples of time T at the generator end, and near even multiples of
time T at the load end.
c. even multiples of time T at the generator end, and near odd multiples of
time T at the load end.
d. odd multiples of time T at both the generator and load ends.

G 11. Decrease the oscilloscope time base to 0.1 s/div in order to better see the
changes in pulse voltage that occur just after the rising edge of the pulse
(that is, between times t = 0 and 7T, approximately).
Compare the actual voltage of the pulse present at the generator and load
ends of the line at multiples of time T to the theoretical voltages previously
recorded in your voltage reflection diagram.

2-47

Voltage Reflection Coefficients at the Line Load


and Generator with Purely Resistive Load Impedances
For example, Figure 2-36 shows the actual pulse voltage at the generator
and load ends in comparison with the theoretical pulse voltage. How does
the actual pulse voltage differ from the theoretical pulse voltage at the
generator and load ends?
a. At both the generator and load ends, the actual voltage does not differ
from the theoretical voltage between times t = 0 and 7T.
b. At the load end, the actual voltage becomes closer to the theoretical
voltage beyond time 3T.
c. At the generator end, the actual voltage is significantly different than the
theoretical voltage before times t = 0 and 2T.
d. At the generator end, the actual voltage is close to the theoretical
voltage between times t = 0 and 4T.

Figure 2-36. Pulse voltage at the generator and load ends between times t = 0 and 7T with
generator impedance ZTH (5 ) n Z0 and load impedance ZL= 4 .

Voltage Reflections with the Generator Impedance ZTH n Z0 and Load


Impedance ZL = 0

G 12. Leave the connections as they are. In the LOAD section, set the toggle
switches in such a way as to connect the input of this section directly to the

2-48

Voltage Reflection Coefficients at the Line Load


and Generator with Purely Resistive Load Impedances
common (i.e. via no load). This will place the impedance of the load at the
receiving end of TRANSMISSION LINE A in the short-circuit condition (0 ).

G 13. Leave channel 1 of the oscilloscope connected to the 0-meter (0-foot) probe
turret of TRANSMISSION LINE A. Connect channel 2 of the oscilloscope to
the 12-meter (39-foot) probe turret (mid-point) of this line, using an
oscilloscope probe.
On the oscilloscope, set the sensitivity of channels 1 and 2 to 0.2 V/div, and
the time base to 0.5 s/div. Observe that, following the initial rising edge of
the pulse, the pulse voltage at both the generator end and mid-point of the
line goes through several changes, until it eventually stabilizes, as
Figure 2-37 shows.

Figure 2-37. Pulse voltage at the generator end and mid-point of TRANSMISSION LINE A.

G 14. You will use the voltage reflection diagram in Figure 2-38 to calculate and
record the voltages present along the line at multiples of the transit time T
with ZTH n Z0 and ZL = 0 .

2-49

Voltage Reflection Coefficients at the Line Load


and Generator with Purely Resistive Load Impedances

Figure 2-38. Voltage reflection diagram with generator impedance ZTH (5 ) n Z0 and load
impedance ZL= 0 .

G 15. Measure the voltage of the rising edge of the pulse, VI, at the generator end.
Then, calculate the reflection coefficients at the STEP GENERATOR and
load, given a generator impedance, ZTH, of 5 , and a load impedance, ZL,

2-50

Voltage Reflection Coefficients at the Line Load


and Generator with Purely Resistive Load Impedances
of 0 . Record your results in the corresponding fields of the voltage
reflection diagram of Figure 2-38.
Then, calculate the voltage of the reflections created at the generator or
load at times T, 2T, 3T, and 4T, if the line were lossless. Record your results
over the corresponding oblique lines of the reflection diagram of
Figure 2-38.
Finally, calculate the total voltage present at the generator or load (and
reflected down the line) at times T, 2T, 3T, 4T, and 5T, if the line were
lossless. Record your results in the proper fields of the reflection diagram
of Figure 2-38.
Figure 2-39 is an example of voltage reflection diagram obtained when VI
is equal to 1.18 V. The results recorded in this diagram should be quite near
those you recorded in your diagram of Figure 2-38.

Figure 2-39. Example of voltage reflection diagram obtained when VI = 1.18 V.

G 16. Decrease the oscilloscope time base to 0.1 s/div in order to better see the
changes (steps) in pulse voltage that occur just after the rising edge of the
pulse, as Figure 2-40 shows.

2-51

Voltage Reflection Coefficients at the Line Load


and Generator with Purely Resistive Load Impedances
The changes in pulse voltage at the generator end and mid-point of
TRANSMISSION LINE A occur near
a. whole (integer) multiples of time T at both the generator end and
midpoint.
b. even multiples of time T at mid-point of the line, and near odd multiples
of 0.5T at the generator end.
c. even multiples of time T at the generator end, and near odd multiples of
0.5T at mid-point of the line.
d. odd multiples of 0.5T at both the generator end and mid-point of the
line.

Figure 2-40. Pulse voltage at the generator end and mid-point of the line.

G 17. Compare the actual voltage of the pulse present at the generator end of the
line at even multiples of time T to the theoretical voltages previously
recorded in the voltage reflection diagram.
Then, compare the actual voltage of the pulse present at mid-point of the
line (point z1) to the theoretical voltage present at this point, given the table
below.

TIME RANGE

2-52

VOLTAGE AT MID-POINT, z1 (V)

VOLTAGE CHANGE (STEP)

Voltage Reflection Coefficients at the Line Load


and Generator with Purely Resistive Load Impedances
0 # t < 0.5T

0.5T # t < 1.5T

VI

VI at 0.5T

1.5T # t < 2.5T

VI + VIL

VIL at 1.5T

2.5T # t < 3.5T

VI + VIL + VILg

VILg at 2.5T

3.5T # t < 4.5T

VI + VIL + VILg + VILg

VILg at 3.5T

4.5T # t < 5.5T

VI + VIL + VILg + VILg +


VILg

VILg at 4.5T

...

...

...

Table 2-2. Voltage at mid-point of the line (point z1) as a function of time.

For example, Figure 2-41 shows the actual pulse voltage at the generator
end and mid-point of the line in comparison with the theoretical voltage. How
does the actual pulse voltage differ from the theoretical pulse voltage at the
generator end and mid-point of the line?
a. At both the generator end and mid-point of the line, the actual voltage
does not differ from the theoretical voltage between times t = 0 and 7T.
b. At mid-point on the line, the actual voltage becomes increasingly greater
than the theoretical voltage beyond time 1.5T.
c. At the generator end, the actual voltage is significantly different than the
theoretical voltage between times t = 0 and 2T.
d. At mid-point on the line, the actual voltage becomes significantly
different than the theoretical voltage over time, due to the cumulative
effects of attenuation and distortion on each successive reflection.

2-53

Voltage Reflection Coefficients at the Line Load


and Generator with Purely Resistive Load Impedances

Figure 2-41. Pulse voltage at the generator end and mid-point of the line between times t = 0 and
7T with generator impedance ZTH (5 ) n Z0 and load impedance ZL= 0 .

G 18. Leave channel 1 of the oscilloscope connected to the 0-meter (0-foot) probe
turret of TRANSMISSION LINE A. Connect channel 2 of the oscilloscope to
the 24-meter (79-foot) probe turret (receiving end) of this line, using an
oscilloscope probe.
Observe that narrow overshoots occur in the pulse voltage at the receiving
end of TRANSMISSION LINE A near odd multiples of time T, as Figure 2-42
shows. These narrow overshoots
a. occur because the point of observation of the pulse is not exactly at the
load, but at a short, not null distance ahead of it.
b. are abnormal since the reflection diagram previously obtained indicates
that the pulse voltage at the load should be null at odd multiples of
time T.
c. would be wider if the pulse were observed directly at the load.
d. would be even narrower if the pulse voltage was observed at the
18-meter (59-foot) probe turret of the line.

2-54

Voltage Reflection Coefficients at the Line Load


and Generator with Purely Resistive Load Impedances

Figure 2-42. Pulse voltage at the generator and sending ends of the line between times t = 0 and
6T with generator impedance ZTH (5 ) n Z0 and load impedance ZL= 0 .

Voltage Reflections with the Generator Impedance ZTH o Z0 and Load


Impedance ZL = 4 , and then with ZTH o Z0 and ZL = 0

G 19. If time permits, experiment further with voltage reflections created by


impedance mismatches at both the generator and load ends of the line by
performing the steps that follow.
Generator Impedance ZTH o Z0 and Load Impedance ZL = 4

G 20. Connect the sending end of TRANSMISSION LINE A to the STEP


GENERATOR 500- output. Connect the receiving end of this line to the
input of the LOAD section. Set all the toggle switches in this section to the
O (off) to place the impedance of the line load in the open-circuit
condition (4 ).

G 21. You will use the voltage reflection diagram in Figure 2-43 to calculate and
record the voltages present along the line at multiples of the transit time T
with ZTH o Z0 and ZL = 4 .

2-55

Voltage Reflection Coefficients at the Line Load


and Generator with Purely Resistive Load Impedances

Figure 2-43. Voltage reflection diagram with generator impedance ZTH (500 ) o Z0 and load
impedance ZL= 4 .

G 22. Using the oscilloscope, observe the pulse voltage at the generator and load
ends of TRANSMISSION LINE A. Measure the voltage of the rising edge
(VI) of the pulse at the sending end of the line. Then calculate the reflection

2-56

Voltage Reflection Coefficients at the Line Load


and Generator with Purely Resistive Load Impedances
coefficient g and L. Record your results in the corresponding fields of the
voltage reflection diagram of Figure 2-43.
Complete the other fields of the reflection diagram by calculating the
reflection coefficients created at the generator or load at time T, 2T, 3T, and
4T. Record your results in the diagram of Figure 2-43.
Finally, calculate the total voltage present at the generator or load at times
T, 2T, 3T, 4T, and 5T. Record your results in the reflection diagram of
Figure 2-43.
Figure 2-44 is an example of voltage reflection diagram obtained when VI
is equal to 0.13 V. The results recorded in this diagram should be quite near
those you recorded in your diagram of Figure 2-43.

Figure 2-44. Voltage reflection diagram with generator impedance ZTH (500 ) o Z0 and load
impedance ZL= 4 .

G 23. On the oscilloscope, compare the actual voltage of the pulse present at the
generator and load ends of the line to the theoretical voltages previously
recorded in the voltage reflection diagram.

2-57

Voltage Reflection Coefficients at the Line Load


and Generator with Purely Resistive Load Impedances
For example, Figure 2-45 shows the actual pulse voltage at the generator
and load ends in comparison with the theoretical pulse voltage. Does the
actual voltage at both the generator and load ends become increasingly
different than the theoretical voltage over time, due to the cumulative effects
of attenuation and distortion?

G Yes

G No

Figure 2-45. Pulse voltage at the generator and load ends between times t = 0 and 7T with
generator impedance ZTH (500 ) o Z0 and load impedance ZL= 4 .

Generator Impedance ZTH (500 ) o Z0 and Load Impedance ZL = 0

G 24. Leave the sending end of TRANSMISSION LINE A connected to the STEP
GENERATOR 500- output, and the receiving end of this line to the input
of the LOAD section. In the LOAD section, set the toggle switches in such
a way as to place the impedance of the line load in the short-circuit condition
(0 ).

G 25. Leave channel 1 of the oscilloscope connected to the 0-meter (0-foot) probe
turret of TRANSMISSION LINE A. Make sure channel 2 of the oscilloscope
is connected to the 24-meter (79-foot) probe turret (receiving end) of this
line.

2-58

Voltage Reflection Coefficients at the Line Load


and Generator with Purely Resistive Load Impedances
G 26. You will use the voltage reflection diagram in Figure 2-46 to calculate and
record the voltages present along the line at multiples of the transit time T
with ZTH o Z0 and ZL = 0 .

Figure 2-46. Voltage reflection diagram with generator impedance ZTH (500 ) o Z0 and load
impedance ZL= 0 .

2-59

Voltage Reflection Coefficients at the Line Load


and Generator with Purely Resistive Load Impedances
G 27. Measure the voltage of the rising edge (VI) of the pulse at the sending end

of the line. Then calculate the reflection coefficient g and L. Record your
results in the corresponding fields of the reflection diagram of Figure 2-46.
Complete the other fields of the reflection diagram by calculating the
reflection coefficients created at the generator or load at time T, 2T, 3T, and
4T. Record your results in the diagram of Figure 2-46.
Finally, calculate the total voltage present at the generator or load at times
T, 2T, 3T, 4T, and 5T. Record your results in the reflection diagram of
Figure 2-46.

Figure 2-47 is an example of voltage reflection diagram obtained when VI


is equal to 0.14 V. The results recorded in this diagram should be quite near
those you recorded in your diagram.

Figure 2-47. Voltage reflection diagram with generator impedance ZTH (500 ) o Z0 and load
impedance ZL= 4 .

G 28. On the oscilloscope, compare the actual voltage of the pulse present at the
generator end to the theoretical voltage previously recorded in the voltage
reflection diagram.

2-60

Voltage Reflection Coefficients at the Line Load


and Generator with Purely Resistive Load Impedances
For example, Figure 2-48 shows the actual pulse voltage at the generator
end in comparison with the theoretical pulse voltage. Does the actual
voltage at the generator end become smaller and smaller than the
theoretical voltage over time, due to the cumulative effects of attenuation
and distortion?

G Yes

G No

Figure 2-48. Pulse voltage at the generator and load ends between times t = 0 and 6T with
generator impedance ZTH (500 ) o Z0 and load impedance ZL= 0 .

Also, observe on the oscilloscope that some small peaks (narrow


overshoots and undershoots) occur in the pulse voltage at the receiving end
of TRANSMISSION LINE A, as the figure shows. These peaks
a. occur near even multiples of time T.
b. are abnormal since the reflection diagram previously obtained indicates
that the pulse voltage at the load should be null at odd multiples of
time T.
c. would be wider if the pulse were observed directly at the load.
d. occur because the point of observation of the pulse is not exactly at the
load, but at a short, not null distance ahead of it.

G 29. Turn off the Base Unit and remove all the connecting cables and probes.

2-61

Voltage Reflection Coefficients at the Line Load


and Generator with Purely Resistive Load Impedances
CONCLUSION

The concept of voltage reflection coefficient is useful in analyzing the transient


behavior of a transmission line terminated by a purely resistive load. It permits
calculation of the voltage of each successive reflection created at the load or
generator, when an impedance mismatch occurs at the generator or load end
of a line.

At the load, reflections are created at odd multiples of time T; at the generator,
reflections are created at even multiples of time T. Theoretically speaking, the
process should continue back and forth indefinitely. However, each newly
created reflection is usually weaker than the one previously created, which
eventually leads to a steady-state condition.

The voltage present at any given point and time on the line is the algebraic sum
of the successive reflected voltages present on the line at that point and time.

The voltage reflection diagram is a vertically oriented graph representing the


creation of the reflections and the distribution of the voltage along the line as a
function of time. It indicates each instant when a sudden change (voltage step)
occurs in the line voltage. The voltage reflection diagram can be used
conveniently to graph the voltage as a function of time at any arbitrary point on
the line.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. A reflected voltage arriving at the generator at time 2T will not be re-reflected
toward the load, if
a.
b.
c.
d.

Z0 o ZTH of the generator.


Z0 n ZTH of the generator.
ZTH of the generator = Z0.
ZL o ZTH of the generator.

2. At time t = 3T, the total voltage present at the load and reflected down the line
toward the generator is equal to
a.
b.
c.
d.

3. In a voltage reflection diagram,


a.
b.
c.
d.
2-62

the ordinate indicates the voltage along the line as a function of time.
the point 'l' on the D axis corresponds to the length of the line.
the ordinate indicates the distance from the generator output.
the abscissa indicates the elapsed time, t.

Voltage Reflection Coefficients at the Line Load


and Generator with Purely Resistive Load Impedances
4. In a voltage reflection diagram, horizontal lines are drawn from the points of
intersection that lie on the oblique lines and a vertical line starting from a point
on the abscissa, z1, corresponding to the line midpoint. The instants t1, t2, t3, and
so on, where each horizontal line crosses the ordinate (t axis) correspond to the
instants when a new reflection arrives at
a. mid-point on the line, creating a re-reflection of lower voltage toward the
load or generator.
b. mid-point on the line, creating a sudden change (step) in the voltage at that
point.
c. the generator end and re-reflected down the line toward the load.
d. the load end and re-reflected down the line toward the load.
5. In a lossless line where L is -1, at what instant between times T and 2T does a
sudden change in voltage (step) occur at mid-point on the line, and what is the
voltage of the reflection arriving at that point at that instant?
a.
b.
c.
d.

Sudden change is at t = 0.5 T, voltage of the reflection equal to VIL.


Sudden change is at t = 1.5 T; voltage of the reflection equal to -VI.
Sudden change is at t = 1.5T; voltage of the reflection equal to VI.
Sudden change is at t = T; voltage of the reflection equal to VIL.

2-63

Voltage Reflection Coefficients at the Line Load


and Generator with Purely Resistive Load Impedances

2-64

Exercise

2-3

Transient Behavior of a Line Terminated


by Complex Load Impedances
EXERCISE OBJECTIVES
In this exercise, you will study the transient behavior of a transmission line
terminated by various complex load impedances. To do so, you will observe the step
response signal of a line terminated by inductive and capacitive loads.
DISCUSSION
When the impedance of the load connected to the receiving end of a line does not
match the characteristic impedance of the line, part of the voltage incident at the load
is reflected back toward the generator by a reflection coefficient L. When the
impedance of the load is purely resistive, the reflected voltage has the same shape
as the incident voltage. If L is positive, the reflected voltage adds up to the incident
voltage. If L is negative, the reflected voltage subtracts from the incident voltage.
When the impedance of the load is not purely resistive, the reflected voltage does
not have the same shape as the incident voltage. In this discussion, you will study
the transient behavior of a line terminated by inductive and capacitive load
impedances. For each studied case, the line will be considered to be lossless.
Inductive Load Impedances
Series RL Load
Part (a) of Figure 2-49 shows a line terminated by a load consisting of a resistor, RL,
in series with an inductor, LL. In this example, RL is < Z0.
At time t = 0, a voltage step, VI, is launched into the line. When VI reaches the load
at the transit time, T, a reflection is created, due to the impedance mismatch. At that
very moment, the inductor opposes to the sudden change in current related to the
fast-rising edge of VI by acting as an open circuit. The load resistance, therefore, is
infinite, so that L is equal to 1.
The total voltage initially present at the load is, therefore,

2-65

Transient Behavior of a Line Terminated


by Complex Load Impedances

Figure 2-49. Transient behavior of a line terminated by a series RL load.

Immediately after time T, the impedance of the inductor starts to decrease. This
allows current to start flowing through the inductor and, therefore, through the
resistor. This in turn causes the load voltage to start decreasing, as part (b) of
Figure 2-49 shows.
The impedance of the inductor decreases exponentially over time, causing the load
voltage to decrease in the same way. The exponential decrease in load voltage
therefore has a time constant, , determined by the total resistance seen by the
inductor, which is RL in series with Z0:

where

LL
RL
Z0

=
=
=
=

Time constant of the exponential decrease in load voltage (s);


Inductance of the load inductor (H, i.e. @s);
Resistance of the load resistor ();
Characteristic impedance of the line, assumed to be purely
resistive ().

Five time constants after time T, the impedance of the inductor becomes
approximately null, so that the load resistance becomes equal to RL only.
Consequently, the final value of the load voltage is

Note that VFIN. can also be determined by using the equation below, derived from the
voltage divider rule:

2-66

Transient Behavior of a Line Terminated


by Complex Load Impedances
At the generator, the voltage is the algebraic sum of the incident and reflected
voltages, as part (c) of Figure 2-49 shows (assuming that the generator impedance
is matched to the line impedance).
We have now discussed the transient behavior of a lossless transmission line
terminated by a series RL load. For a lossy line, the resistance of the line plus that
of the inductor, when significant, will introduce modifications in the calculations, but
the basic concept remains the same.
Parallel RL Load
Part (a) of Figure 2-50 shows a line terminated by a load consisting of a resistor, RL,
in parallel with an inductor, LL. In this example, RL is > Z0.
At time t = 0, a voltage step, VI, is launched into the line. When VI reaches the load
at the transit time, T, a reflection is created, due to the impedance mismatch. At that
very moment, the inductor opposes to the sudden change in current related to the
fast-rising edge of VI by acting as an open circuit. The load resistance, therefore, is
determined by the load resistor only.
Consequently, the total voltage initially present at the load is

Figure 2-50. Transient behavior of a line terminated by a parallel RL load.

Note that VINIT. can also be determined by using the equation below, derived from the
voltage divider rule:

2-67

Transient Behavior of a Line Terminated


by Complex Load Impedances
Immediately after time T, the current starts to flow through the load inductor and
resistor. The impedance of the inductor decreases exponentially over time, causing
the load voltage to decrease in the same way, as part (b) of Figure 2-50 shows. The
exponential decrease in load voltage thus has a time constant determined by the
total resistance seen by the inductor, which is RL in parallel with Z0:

where

LL
RL
Z0

=
=
=
=

Time constant of the exponential decrease in load voltage (s);


Inductance of the load inductor (H, i.e. @s);
Resistance of the load resistor ();
Characteristic impedance of the line, assumed to be purely
resistive ().

Five time constants after time T, the impedance of the inductor becomes
approximately null, so that L becomes equal to -1. The final value of the load voltage
is, therefore,

Capacitive Load Impedances


Series RC Load
Part (a) of Figure 2-51 shows a line terminated by a load consisting of a resistor, RL,
in series with a capacitor, CL. In this example, RL is > Z0.
At time t = 0, a voltage step, VI, is launched into the line. When VI reaches the load
at the transit time, T, a reflection is created, due to the impedance mismatch. At that
very moment, the capacitor opposes to the sudden change in voltage (fast-rising
edge) of VI by acting as a short circuit. The load resistance, therefore, is determined
by the load resistor only.
The total voltage initially present at the load is

2-68

Transient Behavior of a Line Terminated


by Complex Load Impedances

Figure 2-51. Transient behavior of a line terminated by a series RC load.

Note that VINIT. can also be determined by using the equation below, derived from the
voltage divider rule:

Immediately after time T, the impedance of the capacitor increases exponentially,


causing the load voltage to increase in the same way, as part (b) of Figure 2-51
shows. The exponential increase in load voltage has a time constant determined by
the total resistance seen by the capacitor, which is RL in series with Z0:

where

=
RL =
Z0 =
CL =

Time constant of the exponential increase in load voltage (s);


Resistance of the load resistor ();
Characteristic impedance of the line, assumed to be purely
resistive ();
Capacitance of the load capacitor (F, i.e. s/).

Five time constants after time T, the impedance of the capacitor becomes
approximately infinite, so that L becomes equal to 1. Consequently, the final value
of the load voltage, VFIN., is

Parallel RC Load
Part (a) of Figure 2-52 shows a line terminated by a load consisting of a resistor, RL,
in parallel with a capacitor, CL. In this example, RL is > Z0.
At time t = 0, a voltage step, VI, is launched into the line. When VI reaches the load
at the transit time, T, a reflection is created, due to the impedance mismatch. At that
2-69

Transient Behavior of a Line Terminated


by Complex Load Impedances
very moment, the capacitor opposes to the sudden change in voltage (fast-rising
edge) of VI by acting as a short circuit. The load resistance, therefore, is null.
Consequently, L is equal to -1, so that the total voltage initially present at the load
is

Figure 2-52. Transient behavior of a line terminated by a parallel RC load.

Immediately after time T, the impedance of the capacitor increases exponentially,


causing the load voltage to increase in the same way, as part (b) of Figure 2-52
shows. The exponential increase in load voltage has a time constant determined by
the total resistance seen by the capacitor, which is RL in parallel with Z0:

where

=
RL =
Z0 =
CL =

Time constant of the exponential increase in load voltage (s);


Resistance of the load resistor ();
Characteristic impedance of the line, assumed to be purely
resistive ();
Capacitance of the load capacitor (F, i.e. s/).

Five time constants after time T, the impedance of the capacitor becomes
approximately infinite, so that the load resistance becomes equal to RL only.
Consequently, the final value of the load voltage is

Note that VFIN. can also be determined by using the equation below, derived from the
voltage divider rule:

2-70

Transient Behavior of a Line Terminated


by Complex Load Impedances

Appendix B provides a summary of the step response signal of a line terminated by


inductive and capacitive loads.
Procedure Summary
In this procedure, you will measure the resistance of a transmission line and inductor
of your circuit board to determine its significance with respect to the characteristic
impedance of the line.
You will then observe the step response signal of the line under inductive and
capacitive load impedances.
PROCEDURE
Measuring the Resistance of a Transmission Line and Inductor

1. Make sure the TRANSMISSION LINES circuit board is properly installed


into the Base Unit. Turn on the Base Unit and verify that the LED's next to
each control knob on this unit are both on, confirming that the circuit board
is properly powered.

2. Using an ohmmeter, measure the resistance of TRANSMISSION LINE A.

Touch the inner conductor of the BNC connector at the sending end of
TRANSMISSION LINE A with one of the ohmmeter probes, while
touching the inner conductor of the BNC connector at the receiving end
of this line with the other ohmmeter probe.

Record below the resistance of the line.


RTLA =

You should observe that TRANSMISSION LINE A has a significant


resistance with respect to its 50- characteristic impedance, making this
line lossy.

3. Measure the resistance of inductor L2 in the LOAD section.

In the LOAD section, set all the toggle switches to the O (OFF) position.

Measure the resistance of inductor L2 by touching the axial metal


conductors on each side of this inductor with the ohmmeter probes.
Record below the resistance of inductor L2.

2-71

Transient Behavior of a Line Terminated


by Complex Load Impedances
RL2 =

You should observe that inductor L2 has a certain resistance, which is low
but not null.
Inductive Load Impedances
Series RL Load

4. In the LOAD section, make sure that all the toggle switches are set to the
O (OFF) position. Connect the input of the LOAD section to the common via
resistor R1 (500- potentiometer) only by setting the appropriate switches
in this section to the I (ON) position.
Using an ohmmeter, adjust the resistance between the LOAD-section input
and the common (i.e., the setting of resistor R1) to around 15 . Then,
modify the setting of the toggle switches in order for the LOAD-section input
to be connected to the common through resistor R1 (still set to 15 ) in
series with inductor L2 (68 H).

5. Referring to Figure 2-53, connect the STEP GENERATOR 50- output to


the sending end of TRANSMISSION LINE A, using a short coaxial cable.
Connect the receiving end of this line to the input of the LOAD section, using
a short coaxial cable.
Using an oscilloscope probe, connect channel 1 of the oscilloscope to the
0-meter (0-foot) probe turret of TRANSMISSION LINE A. Connect the STEP
GENERATOR 500- output to the trigger input of the oscilloscope, using a
coaxial cable.
The connections should now be as shown in Figure 2-53. (The toggle-switch
setting is not shown).

2-72

Transient Behavior of a Line Terminated


by Complex Load Impedances

Figure 2-53. Series RL load.

6. Make the following settings on the oscilloscope:


Channel 1
Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Normal
Sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.2 V/div
Input Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DC
Time Base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 s/div
Trigger
Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . External
Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.3 V
Input Impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 M or more

7. On the oscilloscope screen, observe the step response signal at the sending
end of the line. Since the line is terminated by an inductive load, an
exponentially-decreasing reflected voltage is superimposed on top of each
pulse, as Figure 2-54 shows.

2-73

Transient Behavior of a Line Terminated


by Complex Load Impedances

Figure 2-54. Step response of TRANSMISSION LINE A with a series RL load.

8. Decrease the oscilloscope time base to 0.2 s/div to better see the rising
edge of the incident voltage in a pulse, as well as the exponentiallydecreasing voltage that follows this edge, as Figure 2-55 shows.
When the incident voltage reaches the load at the transit time T, the load
inductor acts as an open circuit (infinite resistance), so that the reflection
coefficient at the load, L, is 1. Consequently, if the line were lossless, the
rising edge (maximum height) of the exponentially-decreasing reflected
voltage, VINIT., observed on the oscilloscope screen would be equal to
a.
b.
c.
d.

2-74

0V
0.5VI
2VI
VI

Transient Behavior of a Line Terminated


by Complex Load Impedances

Figure 2-55. Rising edge of the incident voltage followed by the exponentially-decreasing voltage.

9. Measure the rising edge of the exponentially-decreasing reflected voltage,


VINIT., on the oscilloscope, and note that it is less than the theoretical value
of 2VI, due to attenuation of the reflected voltage as it travels from the load,
via lossy TRANSMISSION LINE A, back towards the generator.
After going through a rising edge, the reflected voltage decreases
exponentially because the
a.
b.
c.
d.

current through the load inductor decreases exponentially over time.


impedance of the load inductor decreases exponentially over time.
voltage across the load resistor decreases exponentially over time.
resistance of the load resistor decreases exponentially over time.

G 10. Set the oscilloscope time base to 1 s/div in order to be able to see the end
of the exponentially-decreasing voltage, as Figure 2-56 shows.

2-75

Transient Behavior of a Line Terminated


by Complex Load Impedances
Five time constants after the rising edge of this voltage, the impedance of
the load inductor becomes approximately null, so that the load resistance
becomes equal to RL only. Consequently, if the line were lossless, the final
value of the exponentially-decreasing voltage, VFIN., observed on the
oscilloscope screen would be
a. 2VI
b.
c. 0 V
d.

Figure 2-56. Final level of the exponentially-decreasing voltage.

G 11. Measure the final level of the exponentially-decreasing voltage on the


oscilloscope, and observe that it is greater than the theoretical value given
by the equation below.

This is due to attenuation of the reflected voltage caused by the combined


resistance of lossy TRANSMISSION LINE A and inductor L2, which is not
taken into account in the above equation.

2-76

Transient Behavior of a Line Terminated


by Complex Load Impedances
G 12. Figure 2-57 shows the theoretical step response of TRANSMISSION
LINE A if it were lossless as compared to the actual response of this line.
Do the curves differ in a significant way, due to the fact that the combined
resistance of the line and inductor is significant with respect to the
50- characteristic impedance of the line?

G Yes

G No

Figure 2-57. Theoretical step response of TRANSMISSION LINE A if it were lossless as compared
to the actual response of this line.

Parallel RL Load

G 13. Disconnect the end of the coaxial cable connected to the BNC connector at
the LOAD-section input.
In the LOAD section, set all the toggle switches to the O (OFF) position.
Then, connect the input of the LOAD section to the common via resistor R1
(500- potentiometer) only by setting the appropriate switches in this
section to the I (ON) position.
Using an ohmmeter, adjust the resistance between the LOAD-section input
and the common (i.e., the setting of resistor R1) to 200 . Then, modify the
setting of the toggle switches in order for the LOAD-section input to be
connected to the common through resistor R1 (still set to 200 ) in parallel
with inductor L1 (68 H).
Reconnect the coaxial cable coming from the receiving end of
TRANSMISSION LINE A to the BNC connector at the LOAD-section input.
The connections should now be as shown in Figure 2-58. (The toggle-switch
setting is not shown).

2-77

Transient Behavior of a Line Terminated


by Complex Load Impedances

Figure 2-58. Parallel RL load.

G 14. Make sure the oscilloscope is set as follows:


Channel 1
Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Normal
Sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.2 V/div
Input Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DC
Time Base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 s/div
Trigger
Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . External
Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.3 V
Input Impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 M or more

G 15. On the screen, observe the step response signal at the sending end of the
line. Since the line is terminated by an inductive load, an exponentiallydecreasing reflected voltage is superimposed on top of each pulse, as
Figure 2-59 shows.

2-78

Transient Behavior of a Line Terminated


by Complex Load Impedances

Figure 2-59. Step response of TRANSMISSION LINE A with a parallel RL load.

G 16. Decrease the oscilloscope time base to 0.2 s/div to better see the rising
edge of the incident voltage in a pulse, and the exponentially-decreasing
voltage that follows this edge, as Figure 2-60 shows.
When the incident voltage reaches the load at the transit time T, the load
inductor acts as
a.
b.
c.
d.

a short circuit, so that the load resistance is null.


an open circuit, so that the load resistance is determined by RL only.
an open circuit, so that the load resistance is infinite.
a short circuit, so that the load resistance is determined by RL only.

2-79

Transient Behavior of a Line Terminated


by Complex Load Impedances

Figure 2-60. Rising edge of the incident voltage followed by the exponentially-decreasing voltage.

G 17. If the line were lossless, the rising edge (maximum height) of the
exponentially-decreasing voltage, VINIT., observed on the oscilloscope would
be equal to
a. 2VI
b.
c.
d.

G 18. Measure the rising edge of the exponentially-decreasing voltage on the


oscilloscope, and note that it is less than the theoretical value given by the
equation below.

This is due to attenuation of the reflected voltage caused by the resistance


of lossy TRANSMISSION LINE A, which is not taken into account in the
above equation.

2-80

Transient Behavior of a Line Terminated


by Complex Load Impedances
G 19. Set the oscilloscope time base to 2 s/div in order to be able to see the end
of the exponentially-decreasing voltage, as Figure 2-61 shows. Five time
constants after its rising edge, the exponentially-decreasing voltage
a. reaches its final, maximum level because the impedance of the load
inductor becomes infinite.
b. reaches the minimum final level of 0 V.
c. reaches its final, minimum level because the impedance of the load
inductor becomes minimum.
d. becomes equal to the incident voltage since L becomes approximately
equal to 1.

Figure 2-61. Final level of the exponentially-decreasing voltage.

Capacitive Load Impedances


Series RC Load

G 20. Disconnect the end of the coaxial cable connected to the BNC connector at
the LOAD-section input.
In the LOAD section, set all the toggle switches to the O (OFF) position.
Then, connect the input of the LOAD section to the common via resistor R1
(500- potentiometer) only by setting the appropriate switches in this
section to the I (ON) position.

2-81

Transient Behavior of a Line Terminated


by Complex Load Impedances
Using an ohmmeter, adjust the resistance between the LOAD-section input
and the common (i.e., the setting of resistor R1) to 100 . Then, modify the
setting of the toggle switches in order for the LOAD-section input to be
connected to the common through resistor R1 (still set to 100 ) in series
with capacitor C2 (10 nF).
Reconnect the coaxial cable coming from the receiving end of
TRANSMISSION LINE A to the BNC connector at the LOAD-section input.
The connections should now be as shown in Figure 2-62. (The toggle-switch
setting is not shown).

Figure 2-62. Series RC load.

2-82

Transient Behavior of a Line Terminated


by Complex Load Impedances
G 21. Make sure the oscilloscope is set as follows:
Channel 1
Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Normal
Sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.2 V/div
Input Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DC
Time Base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 s/div
Trigger
Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . External
Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.3 V
Input Impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 M or more

G 22. On the oscilloscope screen, observe the step response signal at the sending
end of the line. Since the line is terminated by a capacitive load, an
exponentially-increasing reflected voltage is superimposed on top of each
pulse, as Figure 2-63 shows.

Figure 2-63. Step response of TRANSMISSION LINE A with a series RC load.

G 23. Decrease the oscilloscope time base to 0.2 s/div to better see the rising
edge of the incident voltage in a pulse, as well as the exponentiallyincreasing voltage that follows this edge, as Figure 2-64 shows.
When the incident voltage reaches the load at the transit time T, the load
capacitor acts as a short circuit (0- resistance), so that the load resistance
is determined by RL only. Consequently, if the line were lossless, the initial
2-83

Transient Behavior of a Line Terminated


by Complex Load Impedances
rising edge of the exponentially-increasing voltage, VINIT., observed on the
oscilloscope would be equal to
a.
b.
c.

d.

Figure 2-64. Rising edge of the incident voltage followed by the exponentially-increasing voltage.

G 24. Measure the rising edge of the exponentially-increasing voltage on the


oscilloscope. It is likely that the measured voltage is less than the theoretical
value given by the equation below.

This is due to attenuation of the reflected voltage caused by the resistance


of lossy TRANSMISSION LINE A, which is not taken into account in the
above equation.

2-84

Transient Behavior of a Line Terminated


by Complex Load Impedances
After going through a rising edge, the voltage increases exponentially
because the
a.
b.
c.
d.

current through the load resistor increases exponentially over time.


resistance of the load resistor decreases exponentially over time.
voltage across the load resistor increases exponentially over time.
resistance of the load capacitor increases exponentially over time.

G 25. Set the oscilloscope time base to 2 s/div in order to be able to see the end
of the exponentially-increasing voltage, as Figure 2-65 shows. Five time
constants after the rising edge of this voltage, the impedance of the load
capacitor becomes infinite, so that the reflection coefficient at the load, L,
is 1. Consequently, if the line were lossless, the final level of the
exponentially-increasing voltage, VFIN., observed on the oscilloscope screen
would be equal to
a.
b.
c.
d.

2VI
0.5VI
0V
VI

Figure 2-65. Final level of the exponentially-increasing voltage.

G 26. Measure the final level (maximum height) of the exponentially-increasing


voltage on the oscilloscope, and note that it is slightly less than the
theoretical value of 2VI, due to attenuation of the reflected voltage caused
by the resistance of lossy TRANSMISSION LINE A.
2-85

Transient Behavior of a Line Terminated


by Complex Load Impedances
Parallel RC Load

G 27. In the LOAD section, modify the setting of the toggle switches in order for
the LOAD-section input to be connected to the common through resistor R1
(still set to 100 ) in parallel with capacitor C1 (22 nF).
The circuit should now be as shown in Figure 2-66.

Figure 2-66. Parallel RC load.

G 28. Make sure the oscilloscope is set as follows:


Channel 1
Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Normal
Sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.2 V/div
Input Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DC
Time Base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 s/div
Trigger
Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . External
Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.3 V
Input Impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 M or more
2-86

Transient Behavior of a Line Terminated


by Complex Load Impedances
G 29. On the oscilloscope screen, observe the step response signal at the sending
end of the line. Since the line is terminated by a capacitive load, an
exponentially-increasing reflected voltage is superimposed on top of each
pulse, as Figure 2-67 shows.

Figure 2-67. Step response of TRANSMISSION LINE A with a parallel RC load.

G 30. Decrease the oscilloscope time base to 0.2 s/div to better see the rising
edge of the incident voltage in a pulse, as well as the exponentiallyincreasing voltage that follows this edge, as Figure 2-68 shows.
When the incident voltage reaches the load at the transit time T, the load
capacitor acts as
a.
b.
c.
d.

a short circuit, so that the load resistance is null.


an open circuit, so that the load resistance is determined by RL only.
an open circuit, so that the load resistance is infinite.
a short circuit, so that the load resistance is determined by RL only.

2-87

Transient Behavior of a Line Terminated


by Complex Load Impedances

Figure 2-68. Rising edge of the incident voltage followed by the exponentially-increasing voltage.

G 31. If the line were lossless, the initial value of the exponentially-increasing
voltage, VINIT., observed on the oscilloscope screen would be
a. 2VI
b. 0.5VI
c. 0 V
d.

G 32. Measure the initial level of the exponentially-increasing voltage on the


oscilloscope, and note that it is higher than the theoretical value of 0 V.
This is due to attenuation of the reflected voltage caused by the resistance
of lossy TRANSMISSION LINE A.

G 33. Set the oscilloscope time base to 2 s/div in order to be able to see the end
of the exponentially-increasing voltage, as Figure 2-69 shows. Five time
constants after it is at its initial level, the exponentially-increasing voltage
a. becomes equal to the incident voltage, since L becomes equal to -1.
b. reaches its final, minimum level because the impedance of the load
capacitor becomes null.

2-88

Transient Behavior of a Line Terminated


by Complex Load Impedances
c. reaches its final, maximum level of

d. reaches its final, maximum level because the impedance of the load
capacitor becomes infinite.

Figure 2-69. Final level of the exponentially-increasing voltage.

G 34. Turn off the Base Unit and remove all the connecting cables and probes.
CONCLUSION

When an impedance mismatch exists at the load end of a line, and the load
impedance is complex (either capacitive or inductive), the voltage reflected back
toward the generator does not have the same shape as the incident voltage.

When the load impedance consists of a resistor in series or in parallel with an


inductor, the reflected voltage decreases exponentially over time, at a rate
determined by the time constant of the RL circuit of the load.

When the load impedance consists of a resistor in series or in parallel with a


capacitor, the reflected voltage increases exponentially over time, at a rate
determined by the time constant of the RC circuit of the load.

Depending on whether the line is lossless or lossy, the step response signal of
the line may differ significantly in regard to the initial level, final level, and time
2-89

Transient Behavior of a Line Terminated


by Complex Load Impedances
constant of the signal voltage. However, the general shape of the signal remains
the same, regardless of the type of line.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. When a line is terminated by a capacitor in series with a load resistor RL > Z0, the
reflected voltage, after going through a
a.
b.
c.
d.

fast-falling step, increases exponentially.


fast-rising step, increases exponentially.
fast-rising step, decreases linearly.
fast-rising step, increases linearly.

2. When a line is terminated by a capacitor in parallel with a load resistor RL > Z0,
a. the capacitor acts as an open circuit (infinite resistance) when the incident
voltage step reaches the load.
b. the final value of the exponentially-increasing reflected voltage is equal to
twice the incident voltage.
c. the reflection coefficient at the load, L, is equal to 1 when the incident
voltage step reaches the load.
d. the capacitor impedance becomes infinite five time constants after time T
(transit time).
3. When a line is terminated by an inductor in parallel with a load resistor RL < Z0,
the reflected voltage, after going through a
a.
b.
c.
d.

fast-falling step, decreases exponentially.


fast-rising step, decreases exponentially.
fast-falling step, increases exponentially.
fast-rising step, increases linearly.

4. When a line is terminated by an inductor in series with a load resistor RL < Z0,
a. the inductor acts as an open circuit (infinite resistance) five time constants
after time T (transit time).
b. the reflection coefficient at the load, L, is equal to 1 when the incident
voltage step reaches the load.
c. the final value of the exponentially-decreasing reflected voltage is equal to
twice the incident voltage.
d. the reflected voltage increases exponentially over time until it reaches 2VI.
5. When a line is terminated by a capacitor in series with a load resistor RL < Z0, the
reflected voltage, after going through a
a.
b.
c.
d.
2-90

fast-falling step, increases exponentially.


fast-rising step, decreases exponentially.
fast-rising step, decreases linearly.
fast-falling step, decreases linearly.

Transient Behavior of a Line Terminated


by Complex Load Impedances

2-91

2-92

Exercise

2-4

Detection and Location of Discontinuities on a Line


by Using Time-Domain Reflectometry (TDR)
EXERCISE OBJECTIVES
In this exercise, you will learn how discontinuities along transmission lines are
detected and located, using techniques based on time-domain reflectometry (TDR).
DISCUSSION
Time-Domain Reflectometers (TDR's)
A discontinuity is a change in impedance along a transmission line. Discontinuities
can be due, for example, to broken conductors, loose connectors, shorted
conductors, sheath faults, mismatched load, etc.
If, for example, the two conductors of a twisted-pair line are spaced apart at some
point along the line, this will create an impedance discontinuity at that point and,
therefore, a reflection. Similarly, if the dielectric of a coaxial line is crushed at some
point along the line, the impedance discontinuity at that point will create a reflection.

Figure 2-70. Discontinuities along a twisted-pair line and a coaxial line.

A time-domain reflectometer is an instrument used to detect and locate


discontinuities along transmission lines. A TDR consists of a step generator and a
high-speed oscilloscope combined in a single unit, as Figure 2-71 shows.

2-93

Detection and Location of Discontinuities on a Line


by Using Time-Domain Reflectometry (TDR)

Figure 2-71. A time-domain reflectometer.

To detect and locate discontinuities, a TDR uses the same technique as bats or
radars: the echo technique.

The step generator launches a pulse into the line under test.

When the pulse encounters a discontinuity along the line, or a mismatched load
at the end of the line, part of the pulse energy is reflected back to the TDR for
display on the oscilloscope.

The signal displayed by the TDR is, therefore, the algebraic sum of the incident pulse
voltage and reflected voltage. The TDR signal is often called the signature of the
line, because it reveals the presence and nature of discontinuities, if any.
Examples of TDR Signals
Figure 2-72 shows a TDR signal for a coaxial line that is free from discontinuity, but
that is terminated by a load whose impedance does not match the characteristic
impedance of the line. The signal shows the beginning of the launched pulse.

2-94

Detection and Location of Discontinuities on a Line


by Using Time-Domain Reflectometry (TDR)

Figure 2-72. TDR signal for a coaxial line terminated by a load whose impedance does not match
the characteristic impedance of the line.

In that particular case, the actual length of the line can easily be determined, using
the steps below.

The time between the rising edge of the incident voltage and the leading or falling
edge that follows it, due to the impedance mismatch at the load, is measured on
the TDR oscilloscope.

The measured time, equal to the round-trip time, 2T, is then converted to length,
using the equation below:

where

l =
vP =
2T =

Length of the line (m or ft);


Velocity of propagation of the pulse in the line (m/s or ft/s);
Round-trip time, i.e. time taken by the launched pulse to travel
from the TDR to the receiving end of the line and back again to
the TDR (s).

Discontinuities cause voltage transients of different shapes that add up to or subtract


from the voltage in the TDR signal. For example, Figure 2-73 shows a TDR signal
for a coaxial line that has two discontinuities:

a warped area that compresses the inner conductor of the line, creating a partial
open circuit (increase in the resistance) of this conductor;

a crushed area that creates a complete short circuit across the inner and outer
(shield) conductors of the line.

2-95

Detection and Location of Discontinuities on a Line


by Using Time-Domain Reflectometry (TDR)

Figure 2-73. TDR signal for a line that has two discontinuities.

The distance from the TDR to a discontinuity can easily be determined by


measuring, on the TDR oscilloscope, the time between the rising edge of the incident
voltage and the rising or falling transient caused by the reflecting discontinuity. The
measured time can then be converted to distance, using the formula below:

where

D =
vP =
tn =

Distance from the TDR to a given discontinuity (m or ft);


Velocity of propagation in the line (m/s or ft/s);
Time taken by the launched pulse to travel from the TDR to the
discontinuity and back again to the TDR (s).

The formula indicates that the distance from the TDR to a discontinuity varies in
direct proportion to the transit time to the discontinuity.
The shape of a rising or falling transient in the TDR signal indicates the nature of the
discontinuity that causes this transient: purely resistive, mostly inductive, or mostly
capacitive. Moreover, the magnitude of the transient reveals how significant the
discontinuity is. The greater the magnitude of the transient, the more severe the
discontinuity. The nature and severity of the transient both give clues to the probable
cause(s) of the fault.
TDR's normally have a selectable pulse width. The larger the pulse width, the farther
the pulse can travel along a line and, therefore, the longer the line length that can be
tested. However, the narrower the pulse, the better the detection of discontinuities
located near the TDR or near each other. Consequently, when testing a line, the
shortest pulse width should be selected first to make sure that discontinuities located

2-96

Detection and Location of Discontinuities on a Line


by Using Time-Domain Reflectometry (TDR)
a short distance from the TDR will not go undetected. The line can then be tested
again by using larger pulse widths.
Nowadays, digital TDR's are available that use digital techniques to automatically
provide information on the location and magnitude of the major discontinuities on a
digital readout.
Procedure Summary
In this procedure, you will measure the length of a line by using time-domain
reflectometry.
PROCEDURE
Measuring the Length of a Line by Using Time-Domain Reflectometry

1. Make sure the TRANSMISSION LINES circuit board is properly installed


into the Base Unit. Turn on the Base Unit and verify that the LED's next to
each control knob on this unit are both on, confirming that the circuit board
is properly powered.

2. Referring to Figure 2-74, connect the STEP GENERATOR 50- output to


the sending end of TRANSMISSION LINE A, using a short coaxial cable.
Connect the receiving end of TRANSMISSION LINE A to the sending end
of TRANSMISSION LINE B, using a short coaxial cable. Leave the
BNC connector at the receiving end of TRANSMISSION LINE B
unconnected. This places the impedance of the load at the receiving end of
the line made by TRANSMISSION LINEs A and B connected end-to-end in
the open-circuit condition (4 ).
Using an oscilloscope probe, connect channel 1 of the oscilloscope to the
sending end of the line [that is, to the 0-meter (0-foot) probe turret of
TRANSMISSION LINE A]. Connect the STEP GENERATOR 100- output
to the trigger input of the oscilloscope, using a coaxial cable.
The connections should now be as shown in Figure 2-74.

2-97

Detection and Location of Discontinuities on a Line


by Using Time-Domain Reflectometry (TDR)

Figure 2-74. Measuring the length of a line by measuring time-domain reflectometry (TDR).

3. Make the following settings on the oscilloscope:


Channel 1
Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Normal
Sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.2 V/div
Input Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DC
Time Base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 s/div
Trigger
Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . External
Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.3 V
Input Impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 M or more

4. On the oscilloscope, observe the step response signal at the sending end
of the line.
Since the receiving end of the line is in the open-circuit condition, a reflected
voltage adds up to the voltage in the step response signal, as Figure 2-75
shows. Is this your observation?

G Yes
2-98

G No

Detection and Location of Discontinuities on a Line


by Using Time-Domain Reflectometry (TDR)

Figure 2-75. Step response signal when the receiving end of the line is left unconnected.

5. Decrease the oscilloscope time base to 0.1 s/div in order to be able to see
the initial rising edge of a pulse more distinctly, as Figure 2-76 shows.
Measure the time 2T (round-trip time) separating the rising edge of the
incident voltage from the rising edge that follows it, due to the impedance
mismatch at the load.
2T =

@ 10-9 s

2-99

Detection and Location of Discontinuities on a Line


by Using Time-Domain Reflectometry (TDR)

Figure 2-76. Measuring time 2T with TRANSMISSION LINEs A and B connected end-to-end.

6. Based on the time 2T measured in the previous step, and on a velocity of


propagation, vP, of 2.0 @ 108 m/s or 6.5 @ 108 ft/s, (i.e., 66% of the velocity of
light in free space), calculate the length of the line made by
TRANSMISSION LINEs A and B connected end-to end, lAB.

lAB =

m (or ft)

Is the obtained length near the theoretical value of 48 m (157.4 ft) [that is,
the total line length made by TRANSMISSION LINEs A and B connected
end-to-end]?

G Yes

2-100

G No

7. Reduce by half the length of the line. To do so, remove the coaxial cable
between the receiving end of TRANSMISSION LINE A and the sending end
of TRANSMISSION LINE B. Leave the BNC connector at the receiving end
of TRANSMISSION LINE A unconnected.

8. Set the oscilloscope time base to 0.05 s/div.

Detection and Location of Discontinuities on a Line


by Using Time-Domain Reflectometry (TDR)
As Figure 2-77 shows, measure the time 2T (round-trip time) separating the
rising edge of the incident voltage from the rising edge that follows it, due
to the impedance mismatch at the load.
2T =

@ 10-9 s

Figure 2-77. Measuring time 2T with a single line.

9. Based on the time 2T measured in the previous step, and on a velocity of


propagation, vP, of 2.0 @ 108 m/s, or 6.5 @ 108 ft/s (i.e., 66% of the velocity of
light in free space), calculate the length of TRANSMISSION LINE A used
alone, lA.

lA =

m (or ft)

Is the obtained length for a single line, lA, approximately half the length
previously measured when both lines A and B were connected end-toend, lAB?

G Yes

G No

2-101

Detection and Location of Discontinuities on a Line


by Using Time-Domain Reflectometry (TDR)
G 10. Set the oscilloscope time base to 2 s/div.
G 11. Using a coaxial cable, connect the receiving end of TRANSMISSION
LINE A to the BNC connector at the LOAD-section input.
Place the impedance of the load at the receiving end of TRANSMISSION
LINE A in the short-circuit condition (0 ). To do so, set the toggle switches
in the LOAD section in such a way as to connect the input of this section
directly to the common (i.e. via no load), and observe what happens to the
step response signal (see Figure 2-78).
From your observation, when the load impedance is changed from the
open- to the short-circuit condition, the polarity of the reflected voltage
a. changes from positive to negative, causing this voltage to add up to the
voltage in the step response signal.
b. changes due to a change in the nature of the load mismatch, causing
this voltage to subtract from the voltage in the step response signal.
c. remains unchanged, since the nature of the load remains unchanged.
d. changes from negative to positive, due to a corresponding reversal of
polarity of the reflection coefficient at the load.

Figure 2-78. Step response signal when the load impedance is in the short-circuit condition.

G 12. Turn off the Base Unit and remove all the connecting cables and probes.

2-102

Detection and Location of Discontinuities on a Line


by Using Time-Domain Reflectometry (TDR)
CONCLUSION

A time-domain reflectometer (TDR) is an instrument that uses the echo


technique to detect, locate, and determine the nature of discontinuities along
transmission lines.

To operate, a TDR launches pulses into the line under test and displays a step
response signal, or signature, that reveals the presence and nature of
discontinuities, if any.

The distance from the TDR to a discontinuity can be determined by measuring,


on the TDR oscilloscope, the time separating the rising edge of the incident
voltage from the rising or falling transient caused by the discontinuity, and then
converting this time to distance by using a simple equation.

The shape and magnitude of a transient in the TDR signal indicate the nature
and severity of the discontinuity that causes this transient.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. To determine the length of a line, using a time-domain reflectometer (TDR),
a. the impedance of the load at the end of the line must be perfectly equal to
the characteristic impedance of the line.
b. the velocity of propagation must be divided by the round-trip measured with
the TDR oscilloscope.
c. the round-trip time must be measured with the TDR, and the velocity of
propagation must be known.
d. the transit time to any other discontinuity must be measured with the TDR.
2. The magnitude of a rising or falling transient in the TDR signal
a. is independent of the distance to the discontinuity that causes this transient
when the line is lossy.
b. indicates whether the nature of the discontinuity is purely resistive,
capacitive, or inductive.
c. varies in reverse proportion to the voltage reflected from the discontinuity.
d. reveals how great the impedance mismatch that causes this transient is.
3. When using a TDR that has a selectable pulse width,
a. the selection of larger pulse widths can permit the detection of
discontinuities located near the TDR that would otherwise go undetected.
b. it is recommended that the line be tested with the narrowest available pulse
width first.
c. it is recommended that the line be tested with the largest available pulse
width first.
d. the selection of narrower pulse widths can permit the testing of longer line
lengths.

2-103

Detection and Location of Discontinuities on a Line


by Using Time-Domain Reflectometry (TDR)
4. A short circuit across the inner and outer (shield) conductors of a lossy coaxial
line causes
a.
b.
c.
d.

a rising voltage transient to occur in the TDR signal.


a falling voltage transient to occur in the TDR signal.
the voltage in the TDR signal to double.
the voltage in the TDR signal to fall to 0 V.

5. An open circuit of the inner conductor of a lossy coaxial line causes


a.
b.
c.
d.

2-104

a falling voltage transient to occur in the TDR signal.


a rising voltage transient to occur in the TDR signal.
the voltage in the TDR signal to double.
the voltage in the TDR signal to fall to 0 V.

Exercise

2-5

Troubleshooting
EXERCISE OBJECTIVES
In this exercise, you will locate and identify the nature of discontinuities (faults)
introduced by your instructor along the transmission lines of the circuit board, using
time-domain reflectometry.
PROCEDURE
Setting Up the Transmission Line Under Normal Operating Condition

1. Connect the STEP GENERATOR 50- output to the sending end of


TRANSMISSION LINE A, using a short coaxial cable. Connect the receiving
end of TRANSMISSION LINE A to the sending end of TRANSMISSION
LINE B, using a short coaxial cable. Connect the receiving end of
TRANSMISSION LINE B to the BNC connector at the LOAD-section input.
Make sure the STEP GENERATOR 100- output is connected to the trigger
input of the oscilloscope.
In the LOAD section, set all the toggle switches to the O (OFF) position.
Then, connect the input of the LOAD section to the common via resistor R1
(500- potentiometer) by setting the appropriate switches in this section to
the I (ON) position. Turn the knob of resistor R1 fully clockwise, which will
set the impedance of the line load to 500 approximately.
Connect channel 1 of the oscilloscope to the sending end of the line formed
by TRANSMISSION LINEs A and B connected end-to-end [that is, to the
0-meter (0-foot) probe turret of TRANSMISSION LINE A)].

2. Make the following settings on the oscilloscope:


Channel 1
Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Normal
Sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.2 V/div
Input Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DC
Time Base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 s/div
Trigger
Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . External
Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.3 V
Input Impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 M or more

2-105

Troubleshooting
G

3. On the oscilloscope, observe the step response signal at the sending end
of the line.
Since the impedance of the line load ( 500 ) is much greater than the
characteristic impedance of the line (50 ), most of the voltage incident at
the load is reflected back toward the STEP GENERATOR. Consequently,
a reflected voltage adds up to the voltage in the step response signal, as
Figure 2-79 shows. Is this your observation?

G Yes

G No

Figure 2-79. Step response signal when the load impedance is set to 500 approximately.

4. Decrease the oscilloscope time base to 0.2 s/div in order to be able to see
the initial rising edge of a pulse more distinctly. Measure the round-trip
time, 2T.
2T =

@ 10-9 s

5. Match the impedance of the line load with the characteristic impedance of
the line. To do so, adjust the knob of resistor R1 until no reflected voltage
appears in the step response signal, as Figure 2-80 shows.
Note: If a small notch remains in the reflected voltage, adjust R1
in order to reduce the notch to a minimum.

2-106

Troubleshooting

Figure 2-80. Adjust resistor R1 to reduce the reflected voltage to a minimum.

6. The transmission line circuit is now in the normal operating condition.

Fault Insertion

7. Set the oscilloscope time base to 2 s/div.


Have your instructor insert a fault along the transmission lines of your circuit
board, as indicated in the Instructor Guide (in the answers to Ex. 2-5
procedure steps questions).

8. A fault has now been introduced along the transmission lines of your circuit
board.
Examine the step response signal. Decrease the oscilloscope time base to
0.2 s/div to better see the beginning of a pulse in this signal, as
Figure 2-81 shows.

2-107

Troubleshooting

Figure 2-81. Step response signal when a fault is enabled.

Which of the following statements is false regarding the effect of the


discontinuity created by the fault?
a. A voltage of negative polarity is reflected from the discontinuity back
toward the STEP GENERATOR.
b. The time separating the rising edge of the incident voltage from the
falling edge caused by the discontinuity is less than half the round-trip
time, 2T, indicating that the discontinuity is located along the first line
segment (TRANSMISSION LINE A).
c. The reflected voltage is almost equal to the incident voltage, indicating
a discontinuity of the short-circuit type across the inner and outer
(shield) conductors of the line.
d. The reflected voltage is almost equal to the incident voltage, indicating
that the discontinuity is due to an almost complete open circuit across
the inner and outer (shield) conductors of the line.

2-108

Troubleshooting
G

9. Determine the approximate distance from the generator output to the


discontinuity. To do so, measure, on the oscilloscope, the time td between
the rising edge of the incident voltage and the falling edge that follows it,
due to the discontinuity. Convert the measured time into distance, using the
formula below.

where

D =
vP =
td =

Distance from the generator output to the discontinuity (m or ft);


Velocity of propagation in the line [2.0 @ 108 m/s (6.5 @ 108 ft/s)];
Time between the rising edge of the incident voltage and the
falling edge that follows it, due to the discontinuity (s).

What is the approximate distance from the generator output to the


discontinuity?
a.
b.
c.
d.

12.2 m (40.0 ft)


6.2 m (20.3 ft)
3.2 m (10.5 ft)
24.2 m (79.4 ft)

G 10. Set the oscilloscope time base to 2 s/div.


Have your instructor confirm that you have properly located and identified
the nature of the discontinuity created by the fault. Then, ask your instructor
to disable this fault and insert the new fault indicated in the Instructor Guide.

G 11. A new fault has now been introduced along the transmission lines of your
circuit board. Examine the step response signal. Decrease the oscilloscope
time base to 0.2 s/div to better see the beginning of a pulse in this signal,
as Figure 2-82 shows.

2-109

Troubleshooting

Figure 2-82. Step response signal when the fault is enabled.

Which of the following statements is false regarding the effect of the


discontinuity created by the fault?
a. A voltage of negative polarity is reflected from the discontinuity back
toward the STEP GENERATOR.
b. The reflected voltage is about half the incident voltage, indicating that
the discontinuity is due to a partial open circuit of the line inner
conductor.
c. The time separating the rising edge of the incident voltage from the
falling edge caused by the discontinuity is about half the round-trip time,
2T, indicating that the discontinuity is located near the junction between
TRANSMISSION LINEs A and B.
d. The reflected voltage is about half the incident voltage, indicating that
the discontinuity is due to a partial short circuit across the inner and
outer (shield) conductors of the line.

G 12. Determine the approximate distance from the generator output to the
discontinuity. What is the approximate distance?
a.
b.
c.
d.

2-110

12.2 m (40.0 ft)


6.2 m (20.3 ft)
24.2 m (79.4 ft)
32.3 m (105.9 ft)

Troubleshooting
G 13. Set the oscilloscope time base to 2 s/div.
Have your instructor confirm that you have properly located and identified
the nature of the discontinuity created by the fault. Then, ask your instructor
to disable this fault and insert the new fault indicated in the Instructor Guide.

G 14. A new fault has now been introduced along the transmission lines of your
circuit board. Examine the step response signal. Decrease the oscilloscope
time base to 0.1 s/div to better see the beginning of a pulse in this signal,
as Figure 2-83 shows.

Figure 2-83. Step response signal when the fault is enabled.

Which of the following statements is false regarding the effect of the


discontinuity created by the current fault?
a. The time separating the rising edge of the incident voltage and the rising
edge that follows it, due to the discontinuity, is less than three quarters
of the round-trip time, 2T.
b. The discontinuity is located along TRANSMISSION LINE A.
c. A voltage of positive polarity is reflected from the discontinuity back
toward the STEP GENERATOR.
d. The reflected voltage is a significant proportion of the incident voltage,
indicating a discontinuity of the open-circuit type along the line inner
conductor.

2-111

Troubleshooting

G 15. Determine the approximate distance from the generator output to the
discontinuity. What is the approximate distance?
a.
b.
c.
d.

30.3 m (99.4 ft)


6.2 m (20.3 ft)
44.3 m (145.3 ft)
12.2 m (40.0 ft)

G 16. Set the oscilloscope time base to 2 s/div.


Have your instructor confirm that you have properly located and identified
the nature of the discontinuity created by the fault. Then, ask your instructor
to disable this fault and insert the new fault indicated in the Instructor Guide.

G 17. A new fault has now been introduced along the transmission lines of your
circuit board. Examine the step response signal. Decrease the oscilloscope
time base to 0.5 s/div to better see the beginning of a pulse in this signal,
as Figure 2-84 shows.

Figure 2-84. Step response signal when the fault is enabled.

Which of the following statements is false regarding the effect of the


discontinuity created by the current fault?

2-112

Troubleshooting
a. The time separating the rising edge of the incident voltage and the rising
edge that follows it, due to the discontinuity, is more than three quarters
of the round-trip time, 2T.
b. The reflected voltage is a significant proportion of the incident voltage,
indicating that the discontinuity is due to a partial open circuit of the load
at the end of the line.
c. The discontinuity is located near the end of TRANSMISSION LINE B.
d. The reflected voltage is a significant proportion of the incident voltage,
indicating a discontinuity of the short-circuit type across the inner and
outer (shield) conductors of the line.

G 18. Determine the approximate distance from the generator output to the
discontinuity. What is the approximate distance?
a.
b.
c.
d.

12.2 m (40.0 ft)


38.3 m (125.6 ft)
29.3 m (96.1 ft)
48.3 m (158.4 ft)

G 19. Have your instructor confirm that you have properly located and identified
the nature of the discontinuity created by the fault. Then, ask your instructor
to disable this fault.
Now that the circuit has returned to the normal operating condition, turn off
the Base Unit and remove all the connecting cables and probes.

2-113

Troubleshooting

2-114

Unit Test
1. The distance from the TDR to a discontinuity varies
a.
b.
c.
d.

in direct proportion to the width of the pulse launched into the line.
in reverse proportion to the velocity of propagation in the line.
in direct proportion to the transit time to the discontinuity.
in reverse proportion to the length of the line.

2. When a line is terminated by an inductor in series with a load resistor RL < Z0,
a. the inductor acts as an open circuit (infinite resistance) five time constants
after time T (transit time).
b. the reflection coefficient at the load, L, is equal to 1 when the incident
voltage step reaches the load.
c. the final value of the exponentially-decreasing reflected voltage is equal to
twice the incident voltage.
d. the reflected voltage increases exponentially over time until it reaches 2VI.
3. When the distributed parameters R'S and R'P of a line are insignificant, and the
frequency of the carried signals, f, is relatively high (such that 2fL' o R'S and
2fC' o R'P),
a.
b.
c.
d.

the resistive and reactive components of Z0 are perfectly equal.


the resistive component of Z0 can be disregarded.
Z0 can be considered as purely reactive.
Z0 can be considered as purely resistive.

4. Once C' and L' have been determined by using the step response method, it is
possible to calculate
a.
b.
c.
d.

Z0 by extracting the square root of L' divided by C'.


vP by extracting the square root of L' divided by C'.
Z0 by multiplying C' by L'.
vP by dividing L' by C'.

5. In a voltage reflection diagram, horizontal lines are drawn from the points of
intersection that lie on the oblique lines and a vertical line starting from a
point, z1, located at mid-point on the line. The instants t1, t2, t3, and so on, where
each horizontal line crosses the ordinate (t axis) correspond to the instants when
a new reflection arrives at
a. mid-point on the line, creating a re-reflection of lower voltage toward the
load or generator.
b. mid-point on the line, creating a sudden change (step) in the voltage at that
point.
c. the generator end and re-reflected down the line toward the load.
d. the load end and re-reflected down the line toward the load.

2-115

Unit Test (cont'd)


6. To determine the length of a line, using a time-domain reflectometer (TDR),
a. the impedance of the load at the end of the line must be perfectly equal to
the characteristic impedance of the line.
b. the velocity of propagation must be divided by the round-trip measured with
the TDR oscilloscope.
c. the round-trip time must be measured with the TDR, and the velocity of
propagation must be known.
d. the transit time to any other discontinuity must be measured with the TDR.
7. When 2fL' o R'S and 2fC' o R'P, the velocity of propagation is approximately
equal to
a.
b.
c.
d.

the reciprocal of the square root of R'S times R'P.


the reciprocal of the square root of L' times C'.
the square root of R'S divided by R'P.
the reciprocal of C' divided by L'.

8. The magnitude of a rising or falling transient in the TDR signal


a. is independent of the distance to the discontinuity that causes this transient
when the line is lossy.
b. indicates whether the nature of the discontinuity is purely resistive,
capacitive, or inductive.
c. reveals how great the impedance mismatch that causes this transient is.
d. varies in reverse proportion to the voltage reflected from the discontinuity.
9. A reflected voltage arriving at the generator at time 2T will not be re-reflected
toward the load, if
a.
b.
c.
d.

Z0 o ZTH of the generator.


Z0 n ZTH of the generator.
ZTH of the generator = Z0.
ZL o ZTH of the generator.

10. In a lossless line where L is -1, at what instant between times T and 2T does a
sudden change in voltage (step) occur at mid-point on the line, and what is the
voltage of the reflection arriving at that point at that instant?
a.
b.
c.
d.

2-116

Sudden change is at t = 1.5 T; voltage of the reflection equal to -VI.


Sudden change is at t = 0.5 T, voltage of the reflection equal to VIL.
Sudden change is at t = 1.5T; voltage of the reflection equal to VI.
Sudden change is at t = T; voltage of the reflection equal to VIL.

Unit

Transmission Line Measurements


Under Sinusoidal (Steady-State) Conditions

UNIT OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of this unit, you will know what standing waves are and how the
voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR) can be used to determine if a line is properly
matched to a line. You will be able to define and calculate important parameters
related to the transfer and loss of power in transmission lines: insertion loss, return
loss, and mismatch loss. You will know what a Smith Chart is, and how to use it to
determine the impedance at any point along a mismatched line, for various electrical
lengths and load impedances. Finally, you will know how quarter-wavelength (/4)
line sections are used for impedance transformation and matching.
UNIT FUNDAMENTALS
Transient and Steady-State Conditions
In many applications, such as telephone or computer networks, transmission lines
are used to carry digital signals. These lines are said to operate under transient
conditions, because it takes a certain time, or transitional period, for the pulses in
digital signals to reach a steady value.
In other applications, transmission lines are used to carry analog signals. These lines
are said to operate under steady-state conditions when the carried signals, which
consist of a sum of homogeneous frequency components that repeat periodically,
show only negligible change over a relatively long period of time.
In this unit, we will study the behavior of transmission lines that carry sinusoidal
signals under steady-state conditions. The basic concepts of distributed parameters
and characteristic impedance studied under transient conditions remain applicable
under steady-state conditions:

A transmission line carrying a sinusoidal signal can be viewed as many tiny


sections distributed evenly along the entire length of the line. Each section
contains the same combination of discrete components per unit length: R'S, R'P
(reciprocal of G'), L', and C'.

When R'S is negligible and R'P is very high, Z0 is usually considered to be purely
resistive. In this condition,

3-1

Transmission Line Measurements


Under Sinusoidal (Steady-State) Conditions

When R'S is high and R'P is relatively low, the line is lossy, so that

where L' =
C' =

Reactance of inductance L' at the frequency (in ohms, );


Reactance of capacitance C' at the frequency (in ohms, ).

Additionally, new concepts that would have no meaning under transient conditions
must be introduced when studying the behavior of a line carrying sinusoidal signals:
standing-wave ratio, attenuation constant, return and mismatch losses, and the
Smith chart.
Period and Wavelength of a Sinusoidal Voltage
A sinusoidal voltage cyclically varies as a function of time, following a sinusoidal
pattern, as Figure 3-1 shows. The time required for one cycle of variation to occur
is called the period, T.

where

T =
f =

Period of the sinusoidal voltage (s);


Frequency of the sinusoidal voltage (Hz, or rad/s).

Figure 3-1. Period of a sinusoidal voltage.

For example, the period of a sinusoidal voltage whose frequency is 4.0 MHz is
0.25 s.
In the context of transmission lines, the variation of a sinusoidal voltage traveling
down a line is usually considered as a function of distance rather than time. The
distance over which one cycle of variation occurs is called the wavelength.
Wavelength is represented by the Greek lowercase letter lambda, .
3-2

Transmission Line Measurements


Under Sinusoidal (Steady-State) Conditions
The wavelength corresponds to the distance between two successive points at
exactly the same voltage, such as between two successive positive peaks. For every
wavelength traveled along the line, the sinusoidal voltage therefore goes through a
phase change of 2 radians, or 360E, as Figure 3-2 shows.

Figure 3-2. Wavelength of a sinusoidal voltage traveling along a line.

The formula for calculating the wavelength of a sinusoidal voltage along a line is:

where

=
vP =
f =

Wavelength of the voltage (m or ft);


Velocity of propagation of the voltage in the line (m/s or ft/s);
Frequency of the voltage (Hz, or rad/s).

For example, consider a 4.1-MHz sinusoidal voltage propagating through the


transmission lines of your circuit board. Since these lines have a velocity of
propagation of 1.96 @ 108 m/s (6.43 @ 108 ft/s), the wavelength of the voltage is

or

Besides, a wavelength of 192 m (629.8 ft) propagating through the transmission lines
of your circuit board corresponds to a frequency of 1.02 MHz.

3-3

Transmission Line Measurements


Under Sinusoidal (Steady-State) Conditions
Electrical Length of a Line
An important characteristic of a transmission line is its electrical length, l. The
electrical length is the ratio of the actual physical length of the line to the wavelength
of the signal it carries:

As the formula shows, the electrical length is expressed as a fraction or multiple of


the wavelength, . Note that any given electrical length corresponds to a single,
specific frequency.
For example, Figure 3-3 shows the electrical length of a 48-meter (157.4-foot) line
for two different wavelengths of a sinusoidal voltage.

Figure 3-3. The electrical length of a line is determined by the wavelength of the carried signal.

3-4

Transmission Line Measurements


Under Sinusoidal (Steady-State) Conditions

When the wavelength of the sinusoidal voltage is 96 meters (314.9 feet), the line
has an electrical length of /2, as the upper part of Figure 3-3 shows.

When the wavelength of the sinusoidal voltage is 24 meters (78.7 feet), the line
has an electrical length of 2, as the lower part of Figure 3-3 shows.

Given a velocity of propagation of 1.96 @ 108 m/s (6.43 @ 108 ft/s), for example, the
electrical length of the 48-meter (157.4 ft) line of your circuit board at 2 MHz is
approximately /2.
The electrical length of a line (rather than its actual physical length) determines
whether the line is short or long with respect to the frequency of the signal it carries.

A line is considered to be short when the voltage remains relatively constant


along the line. For example, a /16 line is a short line.

A line is considered to be long when the voltage varies noticeably along the line.
For example, a /2 line is a long line. At very short wavelengths (i.e. at very high
frequencies), a few centimeters may represent a long line.

For example, a 75-m (246-ft) line carrying a sinusoidal voltage whose wavelength
is 100 m (328 ft) is considered to be long, because the sinusoidal voltage goes
through three quarters of its complete cycle of variation as it travels down the line.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
In order to complete the exercises in this unit, you will need the following:

FACET Base Unit


TRANSMISSION LINES circuit board
Oscilloscope, dual trace, 40 MHz, (Lab-Volt P/N 797 or equivalent)

3-5

3-6

Exercise

3-1

Standing Waves and Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR)


EXERCISE OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of this exercise, you will know how standing waves are created on
transmission lines. You will be able to describe the characteristics of a standing wave
based on the nature of the impedance mismatch at the origin of this wave. You will
know what is the standing-wave ratio and how to measure it.
DISCUSSION
Standing Waves on an Open-Ended Line
Figure 3-4 shows a sinusoidal-voltage generator connected to a transmission line.
The receiving end of the line is in the open-circuit condition (ZL = 4 ).

At time t = 0, the generator produces a sinusoidal voltage that is launched into the
line.

After a certain transit time, T, the voltage reaches the receiving end of the line,
where it is reflected back to the generator due to the impedance mismatch. At
that very moment, the incident and reflected voltages have the same phase,
because the incident voltage is reflected with the same phase as if it would have
continued if the line had not ended.

Figure 3-4. Creation of a standing wave on an open-ended line (ZL = 4 ).

After time T, the reflected and incident voltages travel through each other, but in
opposite directions, along the line, thereby combining vectorially. This results in
3-7

Standing Waves and Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR)


the creation of a standing wave of voltage along the line (the boldest line in
Figure 3-4). The standing wave is the algebraic sum of the instantaneous values
of the incident and reflected voltages at each point all along the line. This wave
does not move or travel along the line, hence the term "standing".
Figure 3-5 shows standing waves on an open-ended line versus distance (D) at
different instants of time. The amplitude of the standing wave is different in each
case, due to the fact that the incident voltage has a different phase when it reaches
the receiving end.

At the receiving end, the incident and reflected voltages are always in phase,
whatever the phase of the incident voltage may be.

Along the line, the voltage of the standing wave can vary between twice the
positive maximum and twice the negative maximum of the incident voltage
(assuming a lossless line), depending on the phase of the incident voltage (or
time of observation) of the incident voltage.

Along the line, the voltage of the standing wave invariably reaches a minimum or
maximum at multiples of /4 from the receiving end of the line, as Figure 3-5
shows.
At odd multiples of /4 from the receiving end, the incident and reflected
voltages are 180E out of phase. Consequently, the voltage of the standing
wave is at a minimum.
At even multiples of /4 from the receiving end, the incident and reflected
voltages have the same phase. Consequently, the voltage of the standing
wave is at a maximum (positive or negative).

3-8

Standing Waves and Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR)

Figure 3-5. Standing waves on an open-ended line versus distance (D) at three different
instants, tn.

Even if the voltage of standing waves continually changes polarity with time, the
conventional way of representing these waves is with their negative and positive halfcycles pointing upward.
Figure 3-6 shows the conventional representation of a standing wave on an openended line. This representation actually corresponds to the result obtained when
measuring the amplitude of a standing wave after rectification and filtering as with
a peak detector.

The points where the voltage is minimum are called nodes. At a node, the
voltage is null if the line is lossless. A node occurs at every odd multiple of /4
from the receiving end. Since Z = V/I, the input impedance of an open-ended
lossless line that is exactly /4 long (or 3/4, 5/4, 7/4 long, ...) is null (0 ).

The points where the voltage is maximum are called loops, or antinodes. A loop
occurs at every even multiple of /4 from the receiving end. At a loop, the current
is null if the line is lossless. Consequently, the input impedance line of an openended lossless line that is exactly /2 long (or , 3/2, 5/2 long, ...) is infinite
(4 ).

3-9

Standing Waves and Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR)


The higher the frequency of the sinusoidal voltage launched into a line, the longer
the electrical length of the line and, therefore, the greater the number of loops and
nodes along the line.

Figure 3-6. Conventional representation of a standing wave of voltage on an open-ended lossless


line.

Standing Waves on a Short-Ended Line


Figure 3-7 shows a sinusoidal-voltage generator connected to a transmission line.
The receiving end of the line is in the short-circuit condition (ZL = 0 ).

3-10

At time t = 0, the generator produces a sinusoidal voltage that is launched into the
line.

After a certain transit time, T, the voltage reaches the receiving end of the line,
where it is reflected back to the generator due to the impedance mismatch. At
that very moment, the incident and reflected voltages are 180E out of phase,
because the incident voltage is reversed (shifted in phase) as it is reflected.

After time T, the reflected and incident voltages travel through each other, but in
opposite directions, thereby combining vectorially. This results in the creation of
a standing wave of voltage along the line. The standing wave is the algebraic sum
of the instantaneous values of the incident and reflected voltages at each point
all along the line.

Standing Waves and Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR)

Figure 3-7. Creation of a standing wave on a short-ended line (ZL = 0 ).

Figure 3-8 shows standing waves on a short-ended line versus distance (D) at
different instants of time. The amplitude of the standing wave is different in each
case, due to the fact that the incident voltage has a different phase when it reaches
the receiving end of the line at time T.

At the receiving end, the incident and reflected voltages are always 180E out of
phase, whatever the phase of the incident voltage may be. Consequently, the
voltage of the standing wave is always 0 V (assuming a lossless line).

Along the line, the voltage of the standing wave invariably reaches a minimum or
maximum at multiples of quarter-wavelengths (/4) from the receiving end of
the line, as Figure 3-8 shows.
At odd multiples of /4 from the receiving end (/4, 3/4, 5/4, etc.), the
incident and reflected voltages have the same phase. Consequently, the peak
voltage of the standing wave is at a maximum.
At even multiples of /4 (2/4, 4/4, 6/4, etc.) from the receiving end, the
incident and reflected voltages are 180E out of phase. Consequently, the peak
voltage of the standing wave is at a minimum.

3-11

Standing Waves and Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR)

Figure 3-8. Standing waves on a short-ended line versus distance (D) at different instants of time.

Figure 3-9 shows the conventional representation of a standing wave of voltage on


a short-ended line.

3-12

On a short-ended line, a node invariably occurs at the receiving end of the line.

Nodes also occur at every even multiple of /4 from the receiving end. At a node,
the voltage is null if the line is lossless. Consequently, the input impedance of a
short-ended lossless line whose electrical length is an even multiple of /4 is null
(0 ).

Loops occur at every odd multiple of /4 from the receiving end. At a loop, the
voltage is maximum, and the current is null if the line is lossless. Consequently,
the input impedance of a short-ended lossless line whose electrical length is an
odd multiple of /4 is infinite (4 ).

Standing Waves and Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR)

Figure 3-9. Conventional representation of a standing wave of voltage on a short-ended lossless


line.

Voltage Standing-Wave Ratio (VSWR)


The ratio of the loop voltage to the node voltage of a standing wave is called the
voltage standing-wave ratio (VSWR). In equation form:

where VSWR = Voltage standing-wave ratio (dimensionless number) ;


V LOOP = Voltage of the standing wave at a loop, = VMAX. (V);
V NODE = Voltage of the standing wave at a node, = V MIN. (V).
The VSWR indicates the degree of mismatch between the load impedance and the
characteristic impedance of the line. The higher the VSWR, the more severe the
impedance mismatch. Conversely, the lower the VSWR, the better the impedance
match and, therefore, the better the efficiency of power transfer.

When a line is properly matched, all the transmitted energy is transferred to the
load. There is no reflection and, therefore, no standing waves. The voltage
remains constant along the line. Consequently, the ratio VLOOP/VNODE is equal to
unity if the line is lossless. Consequently, the VSWR is 1, and the efficiency is
optimum.

In the worst situation, the load is in the open- or short-circuit condition, so that the
node voltage is equal to 0 V (if the line is lossless). Consequently, the VSWR is
infinite (4).

In any other situation, the VSWR is comprised between 1 and 4.

3-13

Standing Waves and Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR)


Note: So far, we have been talking in terms of energy transfer, and
energy transfer efficiency through transmission lines that carry transient
(short-duration) signals. From now on, however, we will use the terms
power transfer and power transfer efficiency instead, because power,
which is energy per unit of time, is more relevant to the transfer of
signals that repeat periodically and that show negligible change over a
relatively long period of time.

Line Terminated by ZL > Z0


Figure 3-10 shows a standing wave on a lossless line terminated by a purely
resistive load having an impedance ZL > Z0, in comparison to that obtained when the
line is in the open-circuit condition (ZL = 4 ).
The wave obtained with ZL < Z0 is weaker than for the open-ended line, because part
of the received voltage is absorbed by the load. Thus, the maximum voltage of the
wave is not as high as when the line is open-ended. Moreover, the minimum voltage
of the wave is not as low as when the line is open-ended. Consequently, the VSWR
is lower than for an open-ended line (ZL = 4 ).
In fact, when ZL > Z0,

In Figure 3-10, for example, ZL = 2Z0, so that the VSWR = 2. If ZL is increased to 4Z0,
then the VSWR will be 4, and so on.

Figure 3-10. Standing waves on a line when ZL > Z0, as compared to when ZL = 4 .

3-14

Standing Waves and Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR)


Line Terminated by ZL < Z0
Figure 3-11 shows a standing wave on a lossless line terminated by a purely
resistive load having an impedance ZL < Z0, in comparison to that obtained when the
line is in the short-circuit condition (ZL = 0 ).
The wave obtained with ZL < Z0 is weaker than for the short-ended line, because part
of the received voltage is absorbed by the load. Thus, the maximum voltage of the
wave is not as high as when the line is short-ended. Moreover, the minimum voltage
of the wave is not as low as when the line is short-ended. Consequently, the VSWR
is lower than for a short-ended line (4).
In fact, when ZL < Z0,

In Figure 3-11, for example, ZL = Z0/2, so that VSWR = 2. If ZL is decreased to Z0/4,


then the VSWR will be 4, and so on.

Figure 3-11. Standing waves on a line when ZL < Z0, as compared to when ZL = 0 .

The VSWR is a scalar quantity: it consists of a real number that does not take
account of the phase of the incident voltage as it reaches the load. This implies that
a same VSWR can be caused by different load impedances.
For example, as you have seen, a VSWR of 2 can be caused by a load impedance
of 2Z0 (i.e. higher than Z0) or of Z0/2 (i.e. lower than Z0). However, the standing
waves produced in each case differ in the location of their loops and nodes:

With a load impedance higher than Z0, the situation is similar to that of an openended line: the nodes occur at odd multiples of /4, while the loops occur at
even multiples of /4.

3-15

Standing Waves and Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR)

With a load impedance lower than Z0, the situation is similar to that of a shortended line: the loops occur at odd multiples of /4, while the nodes occur at
even multiples of /4.

Procedure Summary
In this procedure section, you will determine the effect that a change in electrical
length has on the characteristics of the standing wave created on a short-ended line.
You will then observe the differences between the standing waves and the VSWR
that occur on a line of given electrical length when ZL < Z0 and when ZL > Z0.
PROCEDURE
Standing Waves on a Short-Ended Line for Different Electrical Lengths

1. Make sure the TRANSMISSION LINES circuit board is properly installed


into the Base Unit. Turn on the Base Unit and verify that the LED's next to
each control knob on this unit are both on, confirming that the circuit board
is properly powered.

2. Referring to Figure 3-12, connect the SIGNAL GENERATOR 50- output


to the sending end of TRANSMISSION LINE A, using a short coaxial cable.
Connect the receiving end of TRANSMISSION LINE A to the sending end
of TRANSMISSION LINE B, using a short coaxial cable. Connect the
receiving end of TRANSMISSION LINE B to the input of the LOAD
SECTION, using a short coaxial cable.
Using an oscilloscope probe, connect channel 1 of the oscilloscope to the
0-meter (0-foot) probe turret of TRANSMISSION LINE A. Connect the
SIGNAL GENERATOR 100- output to the trigger input of the oscilloscope,
using a coaxial cable.
In the LOAD section, set the toggle switches in such a way as to connect
the input of this section directly to the common (i.e. via no load). This places
the impedance of the load at the receiving end of the line made by
TRANSMISSION LINEs A and B connected end-to-end in the short-circuit
condition (0 ).
The connections should now be as shown in Figure 3-12. (The toggle-switch
setting is not shown). In the exercise, the oscilloscope probe will be
successively connected to each probe turret along the transmission line, as
indicated by the dashed lines in Figure 3-12.

3-16

Standing Waves and Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR)

Figure 3-12. Measuring the standing-wave voltage along a short-ended line for different electrical
lengths.

3. Make the following settings on the oscilloscope:


Channel 1
Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Normal
Sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 V/div
Input Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . AC
Time Base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.5 s/div
Trigger
Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . External
Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.5 V
Input Impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 M or more

4. In the SIGNAL GENERATOR section, set the FREQUENCY knob to the


fully clockwise (MAX.) position. This sets the frequency of the sinusoidal
voltage produced by this generator to a maximum (about 5 MHz).
The voltage present at the sending end of the line (as displayed on the
oscilloscope) should be as shown in Figure 3-13.

3-17

Standing Waves and Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR)

Figure 3-13. The frequency of the sinusoidal voltage observed at the sending end of the line is
maximum (5 MHz approximately).

5. Decrease the frequency of the SIGNAL GENERATOR voltage from


maximum to minimum (i.e. from 5 MHz to 5 kHz approximately). To do this,
very slowly turn the FREQUENCY knob of this generator fully
counterclockwise. As you do this, observe the voltage present at the
sending end of the line on the oscilloscope.
You should observe that, as the frequency is decreased, the amplitude of
the displayed voltage continually varies, alternating between some
maximum and some minimum values.
This occurs because, as the frequency of the generator voltage is
decreased, the wavelength of this voltage increases, causing the electrical
length of the line, l, to decrease, as Figure 3-14 shows. This decrease in
electrical length causes the frequency of the standing wave present along
the line to decrease, causing the voltage at any given point, z, along the line
to vary in consequence.

3-18

Standing Waves and Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR)

Figure 3-14. The voltage at point z continually varies as the frequency of the standing wave
decreases.

6. Make sure the FREQUENCY knob of the SIGNAL GENERATOR is set to


the fully counterclockwise (MIN.) position.
While observing the voltage on the oscilloscope, slowly turn the
FREQUENCY knob clockwise and stop turning it as soon as the amplitude
of the voltage reaches a first maximum.
The frequency of the voltage should now be nearly 1 MHz approximately
(T 1 s), as Figure 3-15 shows.
Since the frequency of the voltage is around 1 MHz, and the theoretical
velocity of propagation is 1.96 @ 108 m/s (6.43 @ 108 ft/s), the wavelength of
the voltage, , is 196 m (643 ft) approximately. Consequently, the electrical
length of the 48-m (157.4-ft) line made by TRANSMISSION LINEs A and B
connected end-to-end is about
a.
b.
c.
d.

2
/2
/4

3-19

Standing Waves and Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR)

Figure 3-15. The amplitude of the voltage reaches a maximum at around 1 MHz.

7. Measure the peak (positive) amplitude of the sinusoidal voltage along the
entire length of the line. To do so, connect the oscilloscope probe to each
of the probe turrets listed below, and record the amplitude at each distance
from the sending end in the graph of Figure 3-16.

3-20

0-m (0-ft) turret of line A (sending end);


6-m (19.7-ft) turret of line A;
12-m (39.4-ft) turret of line A;
18-m (59.0-ft) turret of line A;
24-m (78.7-ft) turret of line A;
6-m (19.7-ft) turret of line B [30 m (98.4 ft) from the sending end)];
12-m (39.4 -ft) turret of line B;
18-m (59.0-ft) turret of line B;
24-m (78.7-ft) turret of line B (receiving end);

Standing Waves and Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR)

Figure 3-16. Standing waves on a short-ended line for different electrical lengths.

8. Connect the dots your recorded in the graph of Figure 3-16. The obtained
curve corresponds to the standing wave on the short-ended line when the
electrical length is /4. This should resemble that shown in Figure 3-17.

3-21

Standing Waves and Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR)

Figure 3-17. Standing wave on a short-ended /4 line.

9. Connect channel 1 of the oscilloscope to the 0-meter (0-foot) probe turret


of TRANSMISSION LINE A. Set the oscilloscope time base to 0.2 s/div.
Increase the frequency of the generator voltage. To do this, slowly turn the
FREQUENCY knob clockwise and stop turning it as soon as the amplitude
of the displayed voltage reaches a minimum. The frequency of this voltage
should be around 2 MHz approximately (T 0.5 s), as Figure 3-18 shows.

3-22

Standing Waves and Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR)

Figure 3-18. The amplitude of the voltage reaches a minimum at around 2 MHz.

G 10. Since the frequency of the voltage is 2 MHz approximately, the wavelength
of the voltage is around 98 m (321 ft). Consequently, the line is nearly
/2 long.
Measure the peak (positive) amplitude of the voltage along the /2 line.
Record your results in the graph of Figure 3-16. Then, connect the dots to
obtain the standing wave for the /2 line.

G 11. Connect channel 1 of the oscilloscope to the 0-meter (0-foot) probe turret
of TRANSMISSION LINE A.
Further increase the generator frequency until the amplitude of the
displayed voltage reaches a new maximum. The frequency of this voltage
should now be around 3 MHz (T 0.33 s), as Figure 3-19 shows.

3-23

Standing Waves and Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR)

Figure 3-19. The amplitude of the voltage reaches another maximum at around 3 MHz.

G 12. Since the frequency of the voltage is 3 MHz approximately, the wavelength
of the voltage is 65 m (213 ft) approximately. Consequently, the line is
nearly 3/4 long.
Measure the peak (positive) amplitude of the voltage along the 3/4 line.
Record your results in the graph of Figure 3-16. Then, connect the dots to
obtain the standing wave for the 3/4 line.

G 13. Connect channel 1 of the oscilloscope to the 0-meter (0-foot) probe turret
of TRANSMISSION LINE A.
Further increase the generator frequency until the amplitude of the
displayed voltage reaches a new minimum. The frequency of this voltage
should now be around 4 MHz (T 0.25 s), as Figure 3-20 shows.

3-24

Standing Waves and Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR)

Figure 3-20. The amplitude of the voltage reaches another minimum at around 4 MHz.

G 14. Since the frequency of the voltage is 4 MHz approximately, the wavelength
of the voltage is 49 m (161 ft) approximately. Consequently, the line is
nearly 4/4 long, i.e. long.
Measure the peak (positive) amplitude of the voltage along the entire length
of the -long line. Record your results in the graph of Figure 3-16. Connect
the dots to obtain the standing wave of the -long line.

G 15. The four standing waves you plotted in the graph of Figure 3-16 should be
similar to those shown in Figure 3-21.
As the frequency of the generator voltage is increased,
a.
b.
c.
d.

the wavelength of the generator voltage decreases.


the electrical length of the line increases.
the frequency of the standing wave increases.
All of the above.

3-25

Standing Waves and Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR)

Figure 3-21. Standing waves on a short-ended line for different electrical lengths.

G 16. On your graph of Figure 3-16, locate the points of minimum voltage (nodes)
in the standing waves plotted for the /2, 3/4, and lines. Observe that the
voltage at the nodes is not null (0 V), due to the resistance of lossy
TRANSMISSION LINEs A and B.
According to the plotted waves, a node occurs at
a.
b.
c.
d.

/4 from the receiving end of the line, for any electrical length.
/2 from the receiving end of the line, for any electrical length.
/2 from the receiving end of the line for the /2 line only.
/4 from the receiving end of the line for the 3/4 line only.

G 17. On your graph of Figure 3-16, locate the points of maximum voltage (loops)
in each standing wave. Note that as the electrical length increases, the
voltage at the loop(s) of a standing wave decreases, due to the fact that
attenuation through lossy TRANSMISSION LINEs A and B increases with
frequency.

3-26

Standing Waves and Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR)


According to the plotted waves, a loop occurs at
a.
b.
c.
d.

/2 from the receiving end of the line, for any electrical length.
/4 and /2 from the receiving end of the line for the 3/4 line.
/4 from the receiving end of the line, for any electrical length.
/2 from the receiving end of the line for the /4 line.

G 18. Based on your graph of Figure 3-16, the distance between two successive
loops, or between two successive nodes in any standing wave is invariably
equal to
a.
b.
c.
d.

2.
/2.
/4.
.

G 19. Based on your graph of Figure 3-16, for which electrical length is the voltage
at the sending end of a short-ended line maximum and, therefore, the input
impedance of the line maximum?
a.
b.
c.
d.

/4
Odd multiples of /2, such as /2, 3/2, 5/2, etc.

Odd multiples of /4, such as /4, 3/4, 54, etc.

G 20. Leave the connections set as they are. Proceed with the exercise.
Standing Waves on a Line for ZL < Z0 and ZL > Z0

G 21. Connect channel 1 of the oscilloscope to the 0-meter (0-foot) probe turret
of TRANSMISSION LINE A.
Make sure the frequency of the displayed voltage is 4 MHz approximately
(T 0.25 s), in order for the line to be long. Make sure the impedance of
the line load is in the short-circuit condition (ZL = 0 ).
Measure the peak (positive) amplitude of the sinusoidal voltage along the
line. In the graph of Figure 3-22, record the measured amplitude at each
distance from the sending end. Then, connect the dots to obtain the
standing wave for ZL = 0 .

3-27

Standing Waves and Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR)

Figure 3-22. Standing waves on a -long line for ZL < Z0 and ZL > Z0.

G 22. In the LOAD section, modify the setting of the toggle switches in order for
the LOAD-section input to be connected to the common through resistor R2
(25 ).
Measure the peak (positive) amplitude of the voltage along the line. Record
your results in the graph of Figure 3-22. Then, connect the dots to obtain the
standing wave for ZL = 25 .

G 23. In the LOAD section, modify the setting of the toggle switches in order for
the LOAD-section input to be connected to the common through resistor R4
(100 ).
Measure the peak (positive) amplitude of the sinusoidal voltage along the
line. Record your results in the graph of Figure 3-22. Then, connect the dots
to obtain the standing wave for ZL = 100 .

G 24. In the LOAD section, set all the toggle switches to the O (OFF) position.
This places the impedance of the load in the open-circuit condition (4 ).
Measure the peak (positive) amplitude of the sinusoidal voltage along the
line. Record your results in the graph of Figure 3-22. Then, connect the dots
to obtain the standing wave for ZL = 4 .
3-28

Standing Waves and Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR)

G 25. The standing waves you plotted in the graph of Figure 3-22 should resemble
those shown in Figure 3-23:

The wave obtained for ZL = 100 is weaker than for the open-ended
line (ZL = 4 ), because part of the voltage is absorbed by the 100-
load;

Similarly, the wave obtained for ZL = 25 is weaker than for the shortended line (ZL = 0 ), because part of the voltage is absorbed by the
25- load.

Figure 3-23. Standing waves on a -long line for ZL < Z0 and ZL > Z0.

G 26. Locate the nodes and loops in each of the standing waves you plotted in the
graph of Figure 3-22. Observe that for any given wave, the voltage at the
loops and nodes of the wave decreases over distance from the sending end
of the line, due to attenuation through the line.

3-29

Standing Waves and Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR)


Also, observe that the waves differ in the location of their loops and nodes,
depending on whether ZL is lower or greater than Z0. In fact,
a. loops occur at even multiples of /4 when ZL < Z0.
b. nodes occur at odd multiples of /4 when ZL < Z0, whereas they occur
at even multiples of /4 when ZL > Z0.
c. loops occur at odd multiples of /4 when ZL > Z0.
d. loops occur at odd multiples of /4 when ZL < Z0, whereas they occur at
even multiples of /4 when ZL > Z0.

G 27. Based on the standing wave you plotted in the graph of Figure 3-22 for
ZL = 0 , calculate the VSWR at this impedance. To do so, use the loop
voltage measured at 3/4 from the receiving end and the node voltage
measured at the sending end.

Note: The voltage at the loops and nodes of the standing wave
decreases over distance from the sending end, due to attenuation
through lossy TRANSMISSION LINEs A and B. Consequently,
the VSWR varies over distance, depending on the loop and
adjacent node used for its calculation. The loop and node used
here have been chosen arbitrarily, just for the sake of showing
how the VSWR is calculated.

VSWR (0 ) =
According to your result, the VSWR for ZL = 0 is
a.
b.
c.
d.

not equal to the theoretical value of 1 because the line is lossy.


much lower than the theoretical value of 4 because the line is lossy.
nearly 4.
lower than the theoretical value of 1 for a lossless line.

G 28. Based on the standing wave you plotted in the graph of Figure 3-22 for
ZL = 4 , calculate the VSWR at this impedance. To do so, use the loop
voltage measured at the sending end and the node voltage measured at
3/4 from the receiving end.
VSWR (4 ) =
According to your result, the VSWR for ZL = 4 is
a.
b.
c.
d.

nearly 4.
not equal to the theoretical value of 1 because the line is lossy.
lower than the theoretical value of 1 for a lossless line.
lower than the theoretical value of 4 because the line is lossy.

G 29. Based on the standing waves you plotted in the graph of Figure 3-22 for
ZL = 25 and ZL = 100 , calculate the VSWR for each of these
3-30

Standing Waves and Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR)


impedances. To do so, use the loop and node voltages measured at the
sending end and at 3/4 from the receiving end.
VSWR (25 ) =
VSWR (100 ) =

G 30. Compare the VSWR's obtained in the previous steps for ZL = 25 and
ZL = 100 to those obtained for ZL = 0 and ZL = 4 .

The VSWR's for ZL = 25 and ZL = 100 are both


a.
b.
c.
d.

lower than those for ZL = 0 and ZL = 4 .


greater than 1.
lower than 4.
All of the above.

G 31. Turn off the Base Unit and remove all the connecting cables and probes.
CONCLUSION

When a line is mismatched at its load, standing waves are created along the
line. The points of maximum voltage in a standing wave are called loops. Those
of minimum voltage are called nodes.

When ZL is higher than Z0, loops occur at even multiples of /4 from the receiving
end, and nodes at odd multiples of /4 from the receiving end. This implies that
the input impedance of an open-ended lossless line is null when the line is /4
long, and infinite when the line is /2 long.

When ZL is lower than Z0, nodes occur at even multiples of /4 from the receiving
end, and loops at odd multiples of /4 from the receiving end. This implies that
the input impedance of a short-ended lossless line is infinite when the line is /4
long, and null when the line is /2 long.

The ratio of the loop voltage to node voltage is called the voltage standing-wave
ratio (VSWR). The VSWR is comprised between 1 (no standing wave) and 4
(short- or open-circuit load). The closer the VSWR is to 1, the better the
impedance match between the line and load and, therefore, the better the
efficiency of power transfer on the line.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. The electrical length of a line is determined by the actual (physical) length of the
line and on the
a.
b.
c.
d.

amplitude of the standing wave present on the line.


severity of the impedance mismatch at the load.
frequency of the sinusoidal voltage it carries.
amplitude of the sinusoidal voltage it carries.
3-31

Standing Waves and Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR)

2. If the electrical length of a lossless line with standing waves is an exact odd
multiple of quarter wavelengths (/4) and is open-ended, its input impedance
looks like
a.
b.
c.
d.

a partial short circuit.


a partial open circuit.
a short circuit.
an open circuit.

3. If the electrical length of a lossless line with standing waves is an odd multiple
of quarter wavelengths (/4) long and is short-ended, its input impedance looks
like
a.
b.
c.
d.

a partial short circuit.


a partial open circuit.
a short circuit.
an open circuit.

4. What voltage standing-wave ratio (VSWR) would a lossy line have if it were
partially short- or open-ended?
a.
b.
c.
d.

A value that is higher than 1 but lower than 4.


A value lower than 1.
1
4

5. A line can have the same VSWR for both ZL < Z0 and ZL > Z0the difference
lying in the location of the loops and nodes in the standing wave created. For
example, a lossless line will have the same VSWR if
a.
b.
c.
d.

3-32

ZL = 3Z0 or ZL = Z0/3.
ZL = 0.25 @ Z0 or ZL = 2Z0.
ZL = 0.25 @ Z0 or ZL = 4Z0.
Both (a) and (c)

Exercise

3-2

Effects of Attenuation on the VSWR


EXERCISE OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of this exercise, you will know what the attenuation constant is and
how to measure it. You will be able to define important terms related to the transfer
and loss of power in mismatched transmission lines: insertion loss, return loss, and
mismatch loss. You will know how to calculate the VSWR in a lossless line in terms
of the reflection coefficient at the load. Finally, you will know how attenuation
modifies the VSWR in lines that are lossy.
DISCUSSION
Attenuation of Sinusoidal Signals
As for transient (pulsed) signals, sinusoidal signals always lose some power as they
travel down a line. The power losses cause the transmitted signal to become more
and more attenuated over distance from the generator.
The power is lost in the distributed series resistance, R'S, and parallel resistance, R'p,
of the line conductors. Usually, R'S is responsible for most of the losses. This occurs
because the shunt losses in the dielectric between the conductors are low as
compared to the I2R losses of the conductors.

R'S decreases as the diameter of the conductors is increased, and therefore so


does attenuation.

R'S increases as the frequency of the carried signal is increased, and therefore
so does attenuation.

In the theoretical example of an infinite line, the transmitted signal would gradually
lose all of its power. Consequently, there would be no power reflection toward the
generator, as if a perfectly matched load were continually absorbing all the received
power.
Attenuation Constant
Figure 3-24 shows a sinusoidal signal propagating down a line between two points,
a and b. Due to attenuation over distance, the amplitude of the voltage at point a (Va)
is higher than the amplitude of the voltage at point b (Vb).

3-33

Effects of Attenuation on the VSWR

Figure 3-24. Attenuation of the voltage over distance.

The attenuation of the voltage between points a and b is determined by the


quantity e-D:

where

e =
=
D =

Base of the Napierian logarithm (2.71);


Attenuation constant, in nepers (Np);
Distance between the two points.

The attenuation constant, , in nepers (Np), is specific to the particular line being
used. This constant is determined by the geometrical and physical characteristics of
the line. It is therefore related to the distributed parameters of the line at the
frequency of the carried signals.
Rearranging the attenuation equation just stated in order to isolate gives:

where

=
ln =

Attenuation constant, in nepers (Np);


Napierian (base-2.71) logarithm.

Manufacturers often specify the attenuation constant of a line per unit length.
Consequently, if D is a unit length in the attenuation-constant equation just stated,
then

where = Distributed attenuation constant per unit length (Np/m, or Np/ft).


3-34

Effects of Attenuation on the VSWR


The distributed attenuation constant of a line can also be expressed as "decibels
(dB) per unit length". 1 neper equals 8.686 decibels. Consequently, multiply nepers
by 8.686 to obtain decibels.
Due to the skin effect, the attenuation constant of a line increases with frequency.
For this reason, manufacturers provide graphs or tables indicating the attenuation
constant as a function of frequency.
Figure 3-35, for example, shows the attenuation constant of two typical coaxial
cables as a function of frequency.

For both cables, the attenuation constant increases as the frequency of the
carried signal increases.

The attenuation constant of the RG-58 cable is lower than that of the RG-174, for
any given frequency. This occurs because the conductors of the RG-58 cable
have a larger diameter than those of the RG-174.

Note that, in this example, the American Wire Gauge (AWG) standard is used to
specify the conductor diameters. The lower the AWG of a conductor, the greater the
diameter of the conductor.

Figure 3-25. Attenuation constant-versus-frequency for two typical coaxial cables.

3-35

Effects of Attenuation on the VSWR


Insertion Loss
The insertion loss is measured in decibels (dB). It corresponds to the total loss that
occurs along the entire length of a line. The insertion loss can be determined by
measuring the power or voltage of the signal at the sending and receiving ends of
the line:

where

log
PR
PS
VR
VS

=
=
=
=
=

Base-10 logarithm;
Power of the signal at the receiving end (V);
Power of the signal at the sending end (V).
Amplitude of the voltage at the receiving end (V);
Amplitude of the voltage at the sending end (V).

Since the power or voltage ratio is always lower than 1, the insertion loss always has
a negative value. Dividing the insertion loss by the length of the line gives the
distributed attenuation constant of the line, '.
For example, the insertion loss in the 24-m coaxial cable used as TRANSMISSION
LINE A of your circuit board, will be 2.4 dB if ' at the frequency of the carried signal
is 0.1 dB/m.
Return Loss and Mismatch Loss
Part of the power transmitted on a line, in addition to being lost through the
distributed series and parallel resistances of the line, is also lost by reflection
whenever a discontinuity, or impedance change, occurs along the line.
If, for example, the impedance of the load does not perfectly match the characteristic
impedance of the line, not all the voltage incident at the load is absorbed by the load.
Instead, part of this voltage is reflected back toward the generator by a reflection
coefficient L:

where

L =
ZL =
Z0 =

Reflection coefficient at the load (dimensionless number,


comprised between +1 and -1);
Impedance of the load ();
Characteristic impedance of the line ().

Note: ZL is a complex quantity composed of a real, resistive part R, and an


imaginary, reactive part X. Consequently, when ZL is not purely resistive, L is
a vectorial quantity having both magnitude and phase information.

Important terms relating to the loss of power must be known when studying the
behavior of lines with mismatched load impedances. These terms include the return
loss and the mismatch loss.

3-36

Effects of Attenuation on the VSWR


Return Loss
The return loss is the ratio of the power or voltage incident at the load to the power
or voltage reflected at the load:

Since the power or voltage ratio is always lower than 1 (except when the impedance
of the load is 0 or 4), the return loss always has a negative value. The greater the
absolute value of the return loss, the lower the power or voltage lost by reflection at
the load.
If, for example, the return loss is -10 dB, then about 30% of the voltage incident at
the load is reflected, as shown below:
Since

then

When the reflection coefficient at the load, L, is known, the return loss can also be
calculated in terms of this coefficient:

Mismatch Loss
The mismatch loss is the difference between the power or voltage incident at the
load and the power or voltage reflected at the load. When there is no impedance
mismatch, there is no reflection, so that all the power received at the load is
absorbed by the load.
A formula for calculating the mismatch loss, in terms of L, is

For example, given a load impedance of 25 and a characteristic impedance of


50 , the return loss and mismatch loss will be -9.5 dB and -0.51 dB, respectively.

3-37

Effects of Attenuation on the VSWR


Relationship Between L and the VSWR
You will recall that when an impedance mismatch occurs at the load, a standing
wave is created on the line. The voltage standing-wave ratio (VSWR) is the ratio of
the loop voltage to the node voltage of the standing wave:

When the line is lossless, the VSWR, which stays constant along the line, can be
calculated in terms of the reflection coefficient at the load L, using a simple formula:

Note: ZL is a complex quantity composed of a real, resistive part R, and an


imaginary, reactive part X. Consequently, when ZL is not purely resistive, L is
a vectorial quantity having both magnitude and phase information.

Effect of Attenuation on the VSWR


The closer to 1 the VSWR is, the better the impedance match between the line and
load and, therefore, the better the efficiency of power transfer from the generator to
the load.

In a lossless line, the VSWR remains constant over distance from the generator,
so that VSWR measurements are useful to determine how efficiently the power
is transferred from the generator to the load.

In a lossy line, however, attenuation makes it difficult to use VSWR


measurements as a direct indication of the efficiency of power transfer. This
occurs because attenuation causes the incident power to become weaker as it
travels toward the load, as Figure 3-26 shows. Consequently, the reflected power
becomes weaker as it travels back toward the generator.
The lost power is by heating of the line, which can result in the need for special
cooling mechanisms such as copper tubing soldered along the sides of the guide,
and carrying a liquid such as water or ethylene glycol.

3-38

Effects of Attenuation on the VSWR

Figure 3-26. Attenuation causes the incident and reflected power to become weaker over distance.

The result of the power gradually becoming weaker and weaker is that the VSWR
decreases (become better and better) as we approach the sending end of the
line. Consequently, a VSWR measurement made at the sending end can give an
illusion of having a good VSWR and, therefore, an efficiency that is much better
than reality.
Figure 3-27 shows how attenuation improves the VSWR. For example, assume
an insertion loss of 12 dB. The line has a VSWR of 1.09 (good) if measured at the
sending end. However, the line will have a VSWR of 5 (poor) at the load.
Because of this, the VSWR should be measured at the receiving end rather than
at the sending end.

3-39

Effects of Attenuation on the VSWR

Figure 3-27. Attenuation improves the VSWR.

Procedure Summary
In the first part of this procedure section, you will measure the insertion loss in a line.
You will then double the length of the line and see the effect that this has on the
insertion loss.
In the second part of this procedure section, you will measure the VSWR at the
sending end and receiving end of a lossy line terminated by a mismatched load. This
will allow you to see the effect that attenuation has on the VSWR.
PROCEDURE
Measuring the Insertion Loss

1. Make sure the TRANSMISSION LINES circuit board is properly installed


into the Base Unit. Turn on the Base Unit and verify that the LED's next to
each control knob on this unit are both on, confirming that the circuit board
is properly powered.

2. Referring to Figure 3-28, connect the SIGNAL GENERATOR 50- output


to the sending end of TRANSMISSION LINE A, using a short coaxial cable.
Connect the receiving end of this line to the input of the LOAD SECTION,
using a short coaxial cable.
Using an oscilloscope probe, connect channel 1 of the oscilloscope to the
sending end of TRANSMISSION LINE A [0-meter (0-foot) probe turret].

3-40

Effects of Attenuation on the VSWR


Using another probe, connect channel 2 of the oscilloscope to the receiving
end of TRANSMISSION LINE A [24-meter (78.7-foot) probe turret]. Connect
the SIGNAL GENERATOR 100- output to the trigger input of the
oscilloscope, using a coaxial cable.
In the LOAD section, set the toggle switches in such a way as to connect
the input of this section to the common through resistor R3 (50 ).
The connections should now be as shown in Figure 3-28.

Figure 3-28. Measuring the insertion loss of a transmission line.

3-41

Effects of Attenuation on the VSWR


G

3. Make the following settings on the oscilloscope:


Channel 1
Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Normal
Sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 V/div
Input Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . AC
Channel 2
Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Normal
Sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 V/div
Input Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . AC
Time Base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.1 s/div
Trigger
Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . External
Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.5 V
Input Impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 M or more

4. Adjust the FREQUENCY knob of the SIGNAL GENERATOR until the


frequency of the voltage at the sending end of the line [0-meter (0-foot)
probe turret of TRANSMISSION LINE A] is 4.0 MHz (T 0.25 s), as
Figure 3-29 shows.

Figure 3-29. The frequency of the voltage at the sending end of the line is set to 4.0 MHz
approximately.

3-42

Effects of Attenuation on the VSWR


G

5. On the oscilloscope, measure the peak (positive) amplitude of the sinusoidal


voltage at the sending end (VS) and receiving end (VR) of TRANSMISSION
LINE A. Record your measurements below.
VS =

VR =

6. Using the voltages measured in the previous step, calculate the insertion
loss of TRANSMISSION LINE A.

Insertion loss (24 m/78.7 ft)

dB

7. Referring to Figure 3-30, double the length of the transmission line by using
the following steps:

Remove the coaxial cable between the receiving


TRANSMISSION LINE A and the LOAD-section input.

end

of

Connect the receiving end of TRANSMISSION LINE A to the sending


end of TRANSMISSION LINE B, using a short coaxial cable. Connect
the receiving end of TRANSMISSION LINE B to the LOAD-section
input, using a short coaxial cable.

Leave channel 1 of the oscilloscope connected to the sending end of


the line [0-meter (0-foot) probe turret of TRANSMISSION LINE A].
Connect channel 2 of the oscilloscope to the receiving end of the line
[24-meter (78.7-foot) probe turret of TRANSMISSION LINE B].

The connections should now be as shown in Figure 3-30.

3-43

Effects of Attenuation on the VSWR

Figure 3-30. Measuring the insertion loss of both transmission lines connected end-to-end.

8. On the oscilloscope, the frequency of the voltage at the sending end of the
line should still be set to 4.0 MHz (T 0.25 s).
Measure the peak amplitude of the sinusoidal voltage at the sending end
(VS) and receiving end (VR) of the line. Record your measurements below.

VS =

VR =

9. Using the voltages measured in the previous step, calculate the insertion
loss of TRANSMISSION LINEs A and B connected end-to-end.

Insertion loss (48 m/157.4 ft)

3-44

dB

Effects of Attenuation on the VSWR


G 10. Compare the insertion loss obtained for a single transmission line (as
recorded in step 6) to that obtained for both transmission lines connected
end-to-end (as recorded in step 9).
Does the insertion loss double approximately when the length of the line is
doubled?

G Yes

G No

G 11. Calculate the distributed attenuation constant, ', of the 48-m (157.4-ft) line
by dividing the insertion loss of this line by the length of the line.

where

=
l =

Distributed attenuation constant per unit length (dB/m).


Length of the line (m).

dB/m

G 12. Leave all the connections as they are and proceed to next section of the
procedure.
Effect of Attenuation on the VSWR
Measuring the VSWR at the Sending End

G 13. In the LOAD section, set all the toggle switches to the O (OFF) position.
This places the impedance of the load at the receiving end of the 48-m
(157.4-ft) in the open-circuit condition (4 ). This also sets the reflection
coefficient at the load to 1 and, therefore, the theoretical return loss at the
load to 0 dB.

G 14. With channel 1 of the oscilloscope connected to the sending end of the line,
adjust the FREQUENCY knob of the SIGNAL GENERATOR in order for the
frequency of the voltage at that point to be 3.0 MHz (T = 0.33 s)
approximately. This makes the line 3/4 long approximately.
Since ZL is higher than Z0, nodes occur at odd multiples of /4 from the
receiving end of the line. Consequently, a node occurs at the sending end
of the line (i.e., at 3/4 from the receiving end).
Measure the peak (positive) amplitude of the voltage at the sending end.
Record your measurement below.
VNODE (3/4) =

3-45

Effects of Attenuation on the VSWR


G 15. Adjust the FREQUENCY knob of the SIGNAL GENERATOR in order for the
frequency of the voltage at the sending end of the line to be 4.0 MHz
(T = 0.25 s) approximately. This makes the line 4/4 long approximately.
Since ZL is higher than Z0, loops occur at even multiples of /4 from the
receiving end of the line. Consequently, a loop occurs at the sending end of
the line (i.e., at 4/4 from the receiving end).
Measure the peak (positive) amplitude of the voltage at the sending end.
Record your measurement below.
VLOOP (4/4)

G 16. Calculate the VSWR at the sending end of the line, based on the loop
voltage previously measured at 4/4 and on the node voltage previously
measured at 3/4.

Note: Assume the attenuation constant of the line to remain


approximately constant when the signal frequency is increased
from 3 MHz to 4 MHz.

VSWR (SENDING END) =


Measuring the VSWR at the Receiving End

G 17. Connect channel 2 of the oscilloscope to the 12-m (39.4-ft) probe turret of
TRANSMISSION LINE B. Since the line is 4/4 long approximately, this
turret is located at /4 from the receiving end.
Since ZL is higher than Z0, a node occurs at /4 from the receiving end of the
line. Very slightly readjust, if necessary, the FREQUENCY knob of the
SIGNAL GENERATOR in order for the voltage at that node to be minimum.
Then, measure the peak (positive) amplitude of this voltage, and record your
measurement.
VNODE (/4)

G 18. Connect channel 2 of the oscilloscope to the receiving end of the line [24-m
(78.7-ft) probe turret of TRANSMISSION LINE B].
Since ZL is higher than Z0, a loop occurs at the receiving end of the line.
Measure the peak (positive) amplitude of this voltage, and record your
measurement.
VLOOP (RECEIVING END) =

3-46

Effects of Attenuation on the VSWR


G 19. Calculate the VSWR at the receiving end of the line, based on the loop
voltage measured at that end, and on the node voltage measured at /4.
Note: For this calculation, we will use the node voltage
measured at /4, and therefore neglect the attenuation undergone
by the incident voltage in transit between /4 and the receiving
end of the line (around 1dB), as well as the attenuation
undergone by the reflected voltage in transit between the
receiving end of the line and /4 (around 1 dB).

VSWR (RECEIVING END) =


VSWRs Comparison

G 20. Compare the VSWR measured at the sending end of the line to that
measured at the receiving end of the line, and observe they are different.
Which of the following best describes your observation?
a. The VSWR at the sending end is closer to reality than that measured at
the receiving end.
b. The improvement in VSWR caused by the insertion loss is more
apparent at the receiving end of the line.
c. The VSWR at the receiving end is higher than that at the sending end,
due to attenuation.
d. A poorer VSWR occurs at the receiving end of the line, because the
insertion loss causes the difference in voltage at a loop and adjacent
node to be lower at the receiving end of the line.

G 21. Turn off the Base Unit and remove all the connecting cables and probes.
CONCLUSION

As for pulsed signals, sinusoidal signals undergo attenuation as they travel down
a line. Usually, the distributed series resistance of the line, R's, is responsible for
most of the attenuation. Power is lost by heating of the line.

The attenuation constant of a line is a measure of the attenuation per unit length
of the line. The attenuation constant increases with frequency. Consequently,
manufacturers provide graphs or tables indicating the attenuation constant of a
line as a function of frequency.

Important terms relating to the loss of power are the insertion loss, the return
loss and the mismatch loss, all expressed in decibels (dB). The insertion loss is
the total loss occurring along the line. The return loss is the ratio of the voltage
incident at the load to the voltage reflected at the load. The mismatch loss is the
difference between the voltage incident at the load and the voltage reflected at
the load.
3-47

Effects of Attenuation on the VSWR

When a standing wave is present on a line, the VSWR can be calculated in


terms of the reflection coefficient at the load, L, if the line is lossless or the
losses can be neglected.

In lines that are lossy, attenuation improves the VSWR. The improvement in
VSWR by attenuation is greater at the sending end of the line than at the
receiving end. Consequently, it is preferable to measure the VSWR at the
receiving end of the line, or to measure the insertion loss of the line rather than
the VSWR per se.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. The attenuation constant of a line
a. decreases as the frequency of the carried signal is increased, due to the
skin effect.
b. increases as the AWG of the line conductors is increased.
c. corresponds to the quantity e-D.
d. usually specified per unit length.
2. How much of the voltage incident at the load of a mismatched line is reflected
toward the generator, if the return loss is -6 dB?
a.
b.
c.
d.

25%
50%
75%
100%

3. What are the VSWR, return loss, and mismatch loss of a lossless line whose
reflection coefficient at the load, L, is 0.333?
a.
b.
c.
d.

2, -0.51 dB, and -9.55 dB, respectively.


0.5, -11.3 dB, and -0.336 dB, respectively.
2, -9.55 dB, and -0.51 dB, respectively.
0.5, -14 dB, and -0.177 dB, respectively.

4. When a line is improperly terminated, standing waves will result and the line can
have high losses. If the line is lossless, the VSWR can be calculated, using a
simple equation, in terms of the
a.
b.
c.
d.

loop and maximum voltages measured at the receiving end of the line.
distributed attenuation constant of the line.
reflection coefficient at the load.
insertion loss along the line.

5. In a lossy line with standing waves, the


a. VSWR measured at the receiving end can give an illusion of having an
efficiency of power transfer that is much better than if the VSWR is
measured at the sending end.
3-48

Effects of Attenuation on the VSWR


b. incident voltage becomes weaker as it travels back toward the generator,
and the reflected voltage decreases as it travels back toward the generator.
c. VSWR decreases as we approach the receiving end of the line.
d. VSWR is better at the receiving end of the line.

3-49

Effects of Attenuation on the VSWR

3-50

Exercise

3-3

The Smith Chart, Resonant Lines,


and Impedance Transformation
EXERCISE OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of this exercise, you will know how the input impedance of a
mismatched line varies as a function of the electrical length of the line. You will know
what a Smith Chart is, and how it is used to determine the input impedance of a line
that is not terminated by its characteristic impedance. You will know how quarterwavelength (/4) line sections can be used for impedance transformation and
matching.
DISCUSSION
Resonant and Nonresonant Lines
When the input impedance of a line, ZIN, is equal to the characteristic impedance Z0
and the load impedance ZL, there are no standing waves on the line. Changing the
frequency of the generator will not change the input impedance of the line. In this
case, the maximum possible power is transmitted to the load, and the line is said to
be flat, or nonresonant.
When the impedance of the load ZL is not perfectly equal to the characteristic
impedance of the line, the line may appear like a parallel or resonant circuit, or as
an off-resonance or reactive circuit to the generator input, depending on the electrical
length of the line. Consequently, the input impedance of the line will vary as a
function of the electrical length and, therefore, of the frequency of the carried signal.
In this case, the line is said to be resonant.
Input Impedance of a Line as a Function of Electrical Length
It is easy to determine the input impedance of the line for specific load impedances,
if the electrical length is an odd multiple of /4:

When the line is open-ended, the input impedance is minimum for lengths that
are odd multiples of /4; it is maximum for lengths that are even multiples of /4.

When the line is short-ended, the input impedance is maximum for lengths that
are even multiples of /4; it is minimum for lengths that are odd multiples of /4.

Very often, however, it is necessary to know the value of the input impedance for line
lengths that are not exact multiples of /4.
Figure 3-31 shows how the input impedance, ZIN, of an open-ended line varies as
a function of electrical length. ZIN varies according to a specific pattern that repeats
at every half of wavelength. The figure shows that

3-51

The Smith Chart, Resonant Lines,


and Impedance Transformation

ZIN is purely resistive at resonance, that is, for lengths that are either odd or even
multiples of /4. Thus, ZIN is minimum for odd multiples of /4; conversely, ZIN is
maximum for even multiples of /4.

ZIN is capacitive (R - jXC) for lengths that are between 0 and /4, or between an
even /4 and the next longer odd /4;

ZIN is inductive (R + jXL) for lengths that are between an odd /4 and the next
longer even /4.

Figure 3-31. Input impedance as a function of electrical length for open-ended lines.

Figure 3-32 shows how the input impedance, ZIN, of a short-ended line varies as a
function of electrical length. ZIN varies according to a specific pattern that repeats at
every half of wavelength. The figure shows that

3-52

ZIN is purely resistive at resonance, that is, for lengths that are either odd or even
multiples of /4. Thus, ZIN is minimum for even multiples of /4. Conversely, ZIN
is maximum for odd multiples of /4.

ZIN is inductive (R + jXL) for lengths that are between 0 and /4, or between an
even /4 and the next longer odd /4.

The Smith Chart, Resonant Lines,


and Impedance Transformation

ZIN is capacitive (R - jXC) for lengths that are between an odd /4 and the next
longer even /4.

Figure 3-32. Input impedance as a function of electrical length for short-ended lines.

If, for example, the electrical length of an open-ended line is increased from /2 to
nearly, but less that 3/4, the input impedance of the line will change from purely
resistive to capacitive.
The Smith Chart
The Smith Chart is a graphical computation tool developed by Dr. P.H. Smith in
1939. This chart greatly simplifies evaluation of transmission line parameters, such
as the VSWR caused by a given load and the impedance at any point along a line
for various line lengths and various load impedances.

3-53

The Smith Chart, Resonant Lines,


and Impedance Transformation

Figure 3-33. The Smith Chart.

3-54

The Smith Chart, Resonant Lines,


and Impedance Transformation
Figure 3-33 shows a Smith Chart. It consists of a set of impedance coordinates
used to represent impedance at any point along a line in rectangular form: R jX:

R is the purely resistive component of the impedance;

jX is the reactive component (reactance) of the impedance.

All resistance and reactance values on the chart are normalized to the characteristic
impedance of the line, Z0. Resistance values correspond to R/Z0. Reactance values
correspond to jX/Z0. This allows the chart to be used with transmission lines of any
characteristic impedance.
As Figure 3-34 shows, the "R" coordinates are a set of circles tangent at the right
end of the horizontal centerline of the chart. The point of tangency is called the
common point, or infinity point.
Each circle represents a constant resistance (R) value:

the largest circle, which outlines the chart, corresponds to a constant R value of
0 ;

the smaller circles correspond to higher, constant R values.

Figure 3-34. Circles of constant resistance.

3-55

The Smith Chart, Resonant Lines,


and Impedance Transformation

Figure 3-35. Circles of constant R/Z0 values.

3-56

The Smith Chart, Resonant Lines,


and Impedance Transformation
As Figure 3-35 shows, the horizontal centerline of the chart represents pure
resistance, or zero reactance. The normalized values for R/Z0 are marked all along
this line. These values range between 0 and 50. The figure shows the circles for
constant R/Z0 values of 0, 0.3, 1.0, 2.0, and 5.0 emphasized.
As Figure 3-36 shows, the " jX" coordinates are a set of arcs starting from the
common, or infinity point. Each arc represents a constant reactance value.

The upper half of the chart contains coordinates for inductive reactance (+ jXL).
Thus, each arc curving upward represents a constant inductive reactance.

The lower half of the chart contains coordinates for capacitive reactance (- jXL).
Thus, each arc curving backward represents a constant capacitive reactance.

Figure 3-36. Arcs of constant reactance.

3-57

The Smith Chart, Resonant Lines,


and Impedance Transformation

Figure 3-37. Arcs of constant jX/Z0 values.

3-58

The Smith Chart, Resonant Lines,


and Impedance Transformation
As Figure 3-37 shows, the normalized values for jX/Z0 are marked on the inner
scale just beneath the 0- R circle of the chart. These values range between 0 and
50. The figure shows the arcs for constant jX/Z0 values of +0.4, +1.2, +3.0, !0.6,
!1.0, and !2.0 emphasized.

3-59

The Smith Chart, Resonant Lines,


and Impedance Transformation
The Smith Chart and Its Applications
This section consists of examples indicating how to perform various measurements
with the Smith Chart. The given examples are for a lossless line (and, therefore, a
constant VSWR throughout the line).
Reading Off an Impedance Value
Referring to Figure 3-38, find the normalized impedance corresponding to the point
marked "A" on the Smith Chart. Then, convert this impedance to actual impedance,
given a characteristic impedance of 50 .
1. Point A is at the intersection of the 1.2 resistance circle and the 0.8 capacitive
reactance arc. The normalized impedance for this point is, therefore, 1.2 - j0.8.
2. Calculate the actual impedance as follows:

3-60

The Smith Chart, Resonant Lines,


and Impedance Transformation

Figure 3-38. Reading off a normalized impedance value.

3-61

The Smith Chart, Resonant Lines,


and Impedance Transformation
Plotting a Normalized Impedance
The following impedance is measured at a particular point along a 50- line:
30 + j10 . Plot this impedance on the Smith Chart of Figure 3-39.
1. First, normalize the impedance as follows:

2. From the left-hand extremity [zero (0) point] of the horizontal centerline, move to
the right to find the 0.6 resistance circle, as shown on the chart.
3. Move up around the 0.6 resistance circle to the point intersecting the 0.2 inductive
reactance arc. This point, marked "A" on the chart, represents the normalized
impedance 0.6 + j0.2.

3-62

The Smith Chart, Resonant Lines,


and Impedance Transformation

Figure 3-39. Plotting a normalized impedance.

3-63

The Smith Chart, Resonant Lines,


and Impedance Transformation
Drawing the VSWR Circle of a Line
A lossless line can be represented by a circle having its origin at the center point
of the Smith Chart, when the load impedance ZL is known. This circle is called the
VSWR circle.
For example, draw the VSWR circle of a 50- line terminated by a load
impedance ZL = 65 + j20 on the Smith Chart of Figure 3-40.
1. Normalize the load impedance and then plot this impedance on the Smith Chart
(point marked "A" on the chart).

2. Using a compass, draw a circle having its origin at the center point of the chart
[the mark "1.0" (i.e., 1 + j0)] on the horizontal centerline], and with a radius such
that the circle crosses the load impedance (point A). This circle is a constant
VSWR circle: all impedances on this circle would produce the same VSWR.
3. Read the VSWR from this circle at the point where it cuts the horizontal centerline
on the right side of this line (VSWR = 1.55).
Another way of determining the VSWR and the corresponding dB value is by
using the SWR scale in the RADIALLY SCALED PARAMETERS section below
the Smith Chart, as Figure 3-40 shows. To do so, first set the compass for the
distance from the center point of the Smith Chart to point A. Then, place one leg
of the compass on the CENTER line (VSWR value of 1) of the RADIALLY
SCALED PARAMETERS and determine where the other leg cuts the SWR scale.
This scale gives the ratio and the dB value. (VSWR = 1.55 or 3.75 dB).

3-64

The Smith Chart, Resonant Lines,


and Impedance Transformation

Figure 3-40. Drawing the VSWR circle of a line.

3-65

The Smith Chart, Resonant Lines,


and Impedance Transformation
Determining Impedance at Any Point Along a Line
Referring to Figure 3-41, locate the dual-scale wavelength circle just beneath the
outer rim of the Smith Chart. This circle has an outer and inner scales that permit
measurement of the distance between any two points of a line, in wavelength ()
units.
Both scales start at the same point: the zero (0) point of the horizontal centerline.
They are graduated in hundredths of a wavelength, going from 0 to 0.50.

The outer scale is marked "WAVELENGTHS TOWARD GENERATOR" (that is,


from the load). The values on this scale increase when moving around the circle
in a clockwise (CW) direction.

The inner scale is marked "WAVELENGTHS TOWARD LOAD" (that is, from the
generator). The values on this scale increase when moving around the circle in
a counterclockwise (CCW) direction.

The reason the maximum value of each scale is 0.5 is that the impedance variation
along a line invariably follows a precise pattern that repeats cyclically at every halfwavelength. Consequently, distances greater than 0.5 are measured by turning
around the circle as many times as necessary.

3-66

The Smith Chart, Resonant Lines,


and Impedance Transformation

Figure 3-41. The wavelength circle.

3-67

The Smith Chart, Resonant Lines,


and Impedance Transformation
Once a lossless line has been represented by its VSWR circle, the impedance at any
point along the line can be determined. This occurs because moving around the
VSWR circle corresponds to traveling down the lossless line.
For example, the Smith Chart of Figure 3-42 shows the VSWR circle of a line, based
upon a normalized load impedance of 1.3 + j0.45 (point A). Since ZL > Z0, the VSWR
is 1.6 (point B). Note that a same VSWR of 1.6 would be obtained for ZL < Z0, i.e.
ZL = 30 .
Determine the input impedance of the line if it is 0.45 long.
1. Draw a line from the center point of the chart through point A to the wavelength
circle. This line intersects the wavelength circle at 0.186 on the CW (clockwise)
scale, which is the scale to use in order to measure a distance toward the
generator (from the load). 0.186 is the load end of the line (point C).
2. The input of the line is at 0.45 from the load end, that is, at 0.636
(0.186 + 0.45) or 0.136 clockwise from the zero (0) point of the horizontal
centerline. Find this point on the CW scale (point D) and draw a line to the center
point of the chart.
3. The point where this line crosses the VSWR circle (point E) corresponds to the
normalized input impedance. Read off this impedance: 0.94 + j0.47.
A similar procedure can be used to find the impedance at a distance (n) from the
load.

3-68

The Smith Chart, Resonant Lines,


and Impedance Transformation

Figure 3-42. Determining the input impedance of a 0.45 line.

3-69

The Smith Chart, Resonant Lines,


and Impedance Transformation
Impedance Transformation and Matching Using Quarter-Wavelength (/4) Line
Sections
Line sections that are exactly a quarter-wavelength (/4) long can be used to
achieve impedance transformation and matching.
For example, consider an open-ended lossless line whose length is an odd multiple
of /4: the input impedance of the line is null. Adding a /4 open-ended line section
to this line causes the line length to become an even multiple of /4. As a result, the
input impedance of the line, which was initially null, is now infinite. The computation
of this example is shown on the Smith Chart of Figure 3-43.
1. Point "A" corresponds to the load impedance (4 ) of the open-ended line in the
initial condition (that is, before the addition of the /4 line section). The VSWR
circle of this line therefore corresponds to the largest constant resistance circle
(0- R circle).
2. Since the line length is an odd multiple of /4, the input impedance is 0.25
clockwise from the load impedance, that is, at the zero (0) point of the horizontal
centerline (point B).
3. The addition of a /4 open-ended line section moves the input impedance of the
line 0.25 clockwise from the zero (0) point of the horizontal centerline, that is, to
0.25 (point C). Consequently, the input impedance of the line, which was initially
null, is now infinite.

3-70

The Smith Chart, Resonant Lines,


and Impedance Transformation

Figure 3-43. Transformation of the line input impedance, using a /4 open line.

/4 line sections can also be used for impedance matching. For example,
Figure 3-44 shows a 100- transmission line that must transmit power to a 25-
resistive load at around 2.0 MHz.

3-71

The Smith Chart, Resonant Lines,


and Impedance Transformation

Figure 3-44. Using a /4 line section to match a 100- transmission line to a 25- resistive load.

In spite of the impedance mismatch between the line and load in Figure 3-44, an
effective transmission can be obtained if the transmission line is connected to the
load through a /4 line section having an impedance Z/4 and length l/4 of

where

Z/4
Z0
ZL
l/4
vP
f

=
=
=
=
=
=

Characteristic impedance of the /4 line section.


Characteristic impedance of the transmission line.
Impedance of the load.
Length of the /4 line section (m or ft);
Velocity of propagation in the /4 line section (m/s or ft/s);
Frequency of the carried signal (Hz).

Therefore, the line will see an impedance of 100 if the impedance of the
/4 section is

and if the length of the /4 section is

Now let's look at the Smith Chart of Figure 3-45 to see the computation of this
example.
1. The load impedance is normalized with respect to the characteristic impedance
of the /4 line section, and then plotted on the chart (point A).

3-72

The Smith Chart, Resonant Lines,


and Impedance Transformation
2. The VSWR circle corresponding to point A is drawn on the chart.
3. The addition of a /4 line section moves the load impedance 0.25 clockwise from
point A. Consequently, the point where the VSWR circle crosses the right-hand
side of the horizontal centerline (point B) corresponds to the normalized
impedance seen by the transmission line. This impedance is 2.0 + j0. The actual
impedance is

Therefore, the impedance seen by the 100- transmission line is 100 . Indeed, it
is as if the line is matched to the load, thereby permitting the effective transfer of
power from the line to the load.

3-73

The Smith Chart, Resonant Lines,


and Impedance Transformation

Figure 3-45. Matching a 100- transmission line to a 25- resistive load, using a /4 line section.

3-74

The Smith Chart, Resonant Lines,


and Impedance Transformation
It is obvious that the impedance-transformation and impedance-matching properties
of a quarter-wavelength line section are valuable only around a single, unique
frequency, that is, the frequency at which the line section is /4 long.
Half-Wavelength (/2) Line Sections
Line sections that are exactly /2 long can be used to achieve impedance
transformation and matching. /2 line sections are often used to create DC (direct
current) and RF (radio-frequency) short circuits:

/2 open-ended line sections can be used to create short circuits to RF signals,


while remaining open to DC (direct current).

/2 shorted line sections can be used to create short circuits to DC, while
remaining open to RF signals.

Corrections on the Smith Chart for Lossy Lines


In the above examples, ideal conditions were assumed: a lossless line of constant
VSWR throughout the line. With a lossy line, the VSWR decreases as we approach
the generator, so that the VSWR is represented as a spiral, rather than a circle, on
the Smith Chart. Because of this, corrections must be made to impedance
measurements, using the ATTEN. [dB] horizontal scale at the bottom of the chart.
For example, the Smith Chart of Figure 3-46 shows the effect that a 2.1 dB insertion
loss has on the impedance of a 50- open-ended line having a length of /4. Without
losses, the VSWR circle of the line would correspond to the 0- R circle. Due to the
insertion loss, however, a correction must be made to find the actual impedance of
the line. This is performed by using the following steps:
1. From the right-hand extremity of the 0- R circle, drop a vertical down to the 0-dB
mark of the ATTEN. [dB] scale.
2. Moving toward the generator (to the left), locate the point on the ATTEN. [dB]
scale which is 2.1 dB away (point B). Measure the distance between points A and
B on this scale.
3. The measured distance, carried over the horizontal centerline of the chart,
specifies the normalized line impedance seen by the generator (point C):
0.24 + j0. This gives an actual impedance of

Thus, the open-ended /4 lossy line, which would normally appears as a short circuit
to the generator, acts as a resistive load of about 12 .

3-75

The Smith Chart, Resonant Lines,


and Impedance Transformation

Figure 3-46. Correction made to find the actual impedance of a lossy line.

3-76

The Smith Chart, Resonant Lines,


and Impedance Transformation
Procedure Summary
In the first part of the procedure, you will observe the effect that adding a /4 line
section to an open-ended line has on the location of the loop and node of the
standing wave.
In the second part of the exercise, you will verify that a /4 line section can be used
to match the Thevenin impedance of a generator to a load impedance.
In the last part of the exercise (optional), you will solve a theoretical problem, using
a Smith Chart. The problem will consist in determining the impedance at a given
point on a lossless line.
PROCEDURE
Impedance Transformation Using a /4 Line Section

1. Make sure the TRANSMISSION LINES circuit board is properly installed


into the Base Unit. Turn on the Base Unit and verify that the LED's next to
each control knob on this unit are both on, confirming that the circuit board
is properly powered.

2. Referring to Figure 3-47, connect the SIGNAL GENERATOR 50- output


to the sending end of TRANSMISSION LINE A, using a short coaxial cable.
Connect the receiving end of this line to the input of the LOAD SECTION,
using a short coaxial cable.
Using an oscilloscope probe, connect channel 1 of the oscilloscope to the
sending end of TRANSMISSION LINE A [0-meter (0-foot) probe turret].
Using another probe, connect channel 2 of the oscilloscope to the receiving
end of TRANSMISSION LINE A [24-meter (78.7-foot) probe turret]. Connect
the SIGNAL GENERATOR 100- output to the trigger input of the
oscilloscope, using a coaxial cable.
In the LOAD section, set the toggle switches to the O (OFF) position. This
places the impedance of the load at the receiving end of TRANSMISSION
LINE A in the open-circuit condition (4 ).
The connections should now be as shown in Figure 3-47.

3-77

The Smith Chart, Resonant Lines,


and Impedance Transformation

Figure 3-47. TRANSMISSION LINE A in the open condition (before impedance transformation).

3. Make the following settings on the oscilloscope:


Channel 1
Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Normal
Sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 V/div
Input Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . AC
Channel 2
Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Normal
Sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 V/div
Input Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . AC
Time Base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 s/div
Trigger
Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . External
Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.5 V
Input Impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1M or more

3-78

4. In the SIGNAL GENERATOR section, set the FREQUENCY knob to the


fully counterclockwise (MIN.) position.

The Smith Chart, Resonant Lines,


and Impedance Transformation
Slowly turn the FREQUENCY knob clockwise and stop turning it as soon as
the amplitude of the voltage at the sending end of the line [0-meter (0-foot)
probe turret of TRANSMISSION LINE A] becomes minimum.
The frequency of the voltage should now be nearly 2 MHz (T 0.5 s), as
Figure 3-48 shows. Consequently, TRANSMISSION LINE A is
approximately /4 long. Since this line is open-ended,

a node occurs at the sending end of the line (that is, at /4 from the
receiving end), causing the amplitude of the voltage (and therefore the
impedance) at that point to be minimum;

a loop occurs at the receiving end of the line, causing the amplitude of
the voltage (and therefore the impedance) at that point to be maximum.

Measure the peak (positive) amplitude of the voltage at the sending end (VS)
and receiving end (VR) of TRANSMISSION LINE A. Record your
measurements below.
VS (BEFORE IMPEDANCE TRANSFORMATION) =

VR (BEFORE IMPEDANCE TRANSFORMATION) =

Figure 3-48. A node occurs at the sending end of line A, while a loop occurs at the receiving end
of this line.

5. Perform impedance transformation of TRANSMISSION LINE A. To do so,


connect the receiving end of this line to a /4 open-ended line section (i.e.,
3-79

The Smith Chart, Resonant Lines,


and Impedance Transformation
TRANSMISSION LINE B), in order to obtain the circuit shown in
Figure 3-49. Use the following steps:

Remove the coaxial cable between the receiving


TRANSMISSION LINE A and the LOAD-section input.

end

of

Connect the receiving end of TRANSMISSION LINE A to the sending


end of TRANSMISSION LINE B, using a short coaxial cable. Connect
the receiving end of TRANSMISSION LINE B to the LOAD-section
input, using a short coaxial cable. Leave all the toggle switches in this
section set to the O (OFF) position.

Leave channels 1 and 2 of the oscilloscope connected to the sending


end and receiving end of TRANSMISSION LINE A.

The connections should now be as shown in Figure 3-49.

Figure 3-49. Impedance transformation of TRANSMISSION LINE A, using a /4 line section.

3-80

6. On the oscilloscope, the frequency of the voltage at the sending end of the
TRANSMISSION LINE A should still be set to 2.0 MHz approximately
(T 0.5 s).

The Smith Chart, Resonant Lines,


and Impedance Transformation
With the additional /4-line section, the voltages at the sending and
receiving ends of the line should now look like those shown in Figure 3-50.
Observe that

a loop now occurs at the sending end of TRANSMISSION LINE A


instead of a node (you may want to slightly readjust the FREQUENCY
knob to confirm this).

a node now occurs at the receiving end of this line instead of a loop.

Figure 3-50. With impedance transformation using a /4 open line section, a loop now occurs at
the sending end of TRANSMISSION LINE A, while a node occurs at the receiving end of this line.

7. Measure the peak (positive) amplitude of the voltage at the sending end (VS)
and receiving end (VR) of TRANSMISSION LINE A.
VS (AFTER IMPEDANCE TRANSFORMATION) =

VR (AFTER IMPEDANCE TRANSFORMATION) =

8. Compare the voltages measured at the sending and receiving ends of the
transmission line, before and after impedance transformation.
From your comparison, did impedance transformation, through the addition
of a /4 open-ended section to TRANSMISSION LINE A, cause the node to
be replaced by a loop at the sending end of this line, and the loop to be
replaced by a node at its receiving end?
3-81

The Smith Chart, Resonant Lines,


and Impedance Transformation
G Yes
G

G No

9. Disconnect all the cables and probes. Proceed with the exercise.

Impedance Matching Using a /4 Line Section

G 10. Measure the Thevenin voltage, ETH, at the SIGNAL GENERATOR 100-
BNC output:

Connect the SIGNAL GENERATOR 100- BNC output to the


BNC connector at the LOAD-section input, using a short coaxial cable.

Connect the SIGNAL GENERATOR 50- BNC output to the trigger


input of the oscilloscope, using a coaxial cable.

Using an oscilloscope probe, connect channel 1 of the oscilloscope to


the probe turret just next to the BNC connector at the LOAD-section
input. In this section, make sure all the toggle switches are set to the O
(OFF) position.

G 11. Make the following settings on the oscilloscope:


Channel 1
Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Normal
Sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 V/div
Input Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . AC
Time Base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.2 s/div
Trigger
Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . External
Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.5 V
Input Impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1M or more

G 12. Make sure the frequency of the SIGNAL GENERATOR output signal is
2.0 MHz approximately (T 0.5 s), as Figure 3-51 shows.
Measure the peak (positive) amplitude of the voltage on the oscilloscope
screen. This is the Thevenin voltage, ETH, at the SIGNAL GENERATOR
100- BNC output.
ETH =

3-82

The Smith Chart, Resonant Lines,


and Impedance Transformation

Figure 3-51. SIGNAL GENERATOR 100- output signal set to 2.0 MHz approximately.

G 13. Remove the coaxial cable between the SIGNAL GENERATOR 100- BNC
output and the LOAD-section input.
Connect the SIGNAL GENERATOR 100- BNC output to the sending end
of TRANSMISSION LINE A, using a short coaxial cable. Connect the
receiving end of this line to the input of the LOAD SECTION, using a short
coaxial cable. In the LOAD section, set the toggle switches in such a way
as to connect the input of this section to the common through resistor R2
(25 ).
Using an oscilloscope probe, connect channel 1 of the oscilloscope to the
sending end of TRANSMISSION LINE A [0-meter (0-foot) probe turret].
The connections should now be as shown in Figure 3-52.

3-83

The Smith Chart, Resonant Lines,


and Impedance Transformation

Figure 3-52. Impedance matching using a /4 line section.

G 14. Measure the peak (positive) amplitude of the voltage at the sending end of
TRANSMISSION LINE A on the oscilloscope screen. Record your result
below.
VS =

G 15. Compare the voltage measured at the sending end of the line, VS, to the
Thevenin voltage of the STEP GENERATOR 100- output, ETH, previously
measured.

You should observe that VS is approximately equal to half VTH. This indicates
a relatively efficient transfer of power between the generator and the load,
in spite of the impedance mismatch between the generator Thevenin
impedance (100 ) and load impedance (25 ).
This occurs because TRANSMISSION LINE A, which is 24-m (78.7-ft) long,
makes a /4 section when operated at f 2.0 MHz, as Figure 3-53 shows.

3-84

The Smith Chart, Resonant Lines,


and Impedance Transformation
Consequently, the impedance of this section (50 ) and that of the load
(25 ), when taken together, is approximately equal to 100 when seen
from the generator's point of view:

where

ZIN

Z/4 =
ZL =

Impedance of the /4 line section and load taken together, as


seen by the generator;
Characteristic impedance of the /4 line section.
Impedance of the load.
Note: The above equation is derived from that used to calculate
the impedance that a /4 line section must have to properly adapt
the impedance of a generator, ZTH, to that of a mismatched load
impedance, ZL, as previously seen in the DISCUSSION section
of this exercise:

The 100- impedance seen by the generator therefore forms a one-half


voltage divider with the 100- Thevenin impedance of the generator, as
Figure 3-53 shows. This is the reason why the voltage at the sending end
of TRANSMISSION LINE A is approximately half the Thevenin voltage of
the 100- generator output.

Figure 3-53. TRANSMISSION LINE A is used as a /4 section for matching the 100- Thevenin
impedance of the SIGNAL GENERATOR to the 25- impedance of the load.

Determining the Impedance at a Given Point Along a Lossless Line

G 16. The Smith Chart in Figure 3-54 will allow you to perform the steps to follow.

3-85

The Smith Chart, Resonant Lines,


and Impedance Transformation

Figure 3-54. Smith Chart.

3-86

The Smith Chart, Resonant Lines,


and Impedance Transformation
G 17. A 50- lossless line is terminated by a load ZL = 60 + j15.0 . Using the
Smith Chart of Figure 3-54, find the impedance at a point X located 1.4
near the load.
a. Calculate the normalized load impedance:

b. Plot the normalized load impedance on the chart (point A) of


Figure 3-54.
c. Draw the VSWR circle corresponding to the plotted impedance
(point A), assuming no losses.
d. Draw a line from the center of the VSWR circle through point A to
intersect the wavelength circle at 0.18 on the CW scale, since
impedance toward the generator (from the load) is to be measured.
Mark the point where the drawn line intersects the CW scale as "B".
e. The point where the impedance must be determined (point X) is 1.4
from point B. Locate point X on the wavelength circle at a distance (CW)
corresponding to 1.4 from point B, and mark point X on the chart.
f. Draw a line from point X to the center of the SWR circle. The point
where this line crosses the VSWR (X') gives the normalized impedance
value at point X. This impedance is approximately
a.
b.
c.
d.

0.79 + j0.24
1.15 - j0.35
0.79 - j0.24
1.15 + j0.35

g. The actual impedance at point X is


a.
b.
c.
d.

39.5 - j12
57.5 - j17.5
39.5 + j12
57.5 + j17.5

G 18. Figure 3-55 shows computation of the problem performed in the previous
step. The data on this chart should resemble the data you plotted on the
chart of Figure 3-54.

3-87

The Smith Chart, Resonant Lines,


and Impedance Transformation

Figure 3-55. Determining the impedance at a given point along a lossless line.

G 19. Turn off the Base Unit and remove all the connecting cables and probes.

3-88

The Smith Chart, Resonant Lines,


and Impedance Transformation
CONCLUSION

When a transmission line is not terminated by its characteristic impedance, the


impedance seen at the input of the line varies depending on the electrical length
of the line and, therefore, on the frequency of the generated signal.

The Smith Chart is a graphical computation tool that permits evaluation of the
VSWR and impedance at any point along a line, for various electrical lengths
and load impedances. It consists of a set of impedance coordinates used to
represent normalized impedance. The "R" coordinates are represented by
circles of constant resistance values. The "jX" coordinates are represented by
arc of constant reactance values.

Applications of the Smith Chart include: determining the VSWR of a line,


determining the impedance at any point along a line, correcting mismatch
conditions, etc.

Quarter-wavelength (/4) line sections can be used to perform impedance


transformation and impedance matching, in order for the generator to transmit
the maximum possible power to the load (for resistive loads only).

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is the normalized value of the impedance 80 + j40 , given a characteristic
impedance of 75 ?
a.
b.
c.
d.

0.94 + j1.88
1.06 + j0.53
1.6 + j0.8
0.625 + j1.25

2. The center point of a Smith Chart represents a purely resistive, normalized value
of
a.
b.
c.
d.

0
4
1
50

3. When looking at a Smith Chart, the circles that are all tangent at the right end of
the horizontal centerline each represent a
a.
b.
c.
d.

constant resistance (R) value.


variable resistance (R) value.
constant reactance (jX) value.
variable reactance (jX) value.

4. Assuming that the normalized load impedance on a lossless line is 0.85 - j0.3,
the VSWR on this line is approximately

3-89

a.
b.
c.
d.

1.1
1.4
2.2
3.1

5. If the line of review question 4 were a 150- line /4 long, its input impedance
for the load condition and VSWR stated would be
a.
b.
c.
d.

3-90

132 + j34.3
75 - j15.2
87 - j13.1
161 + j52.5

Unit Test
1. A wavelength of 192 m (629.8 ft) propagating through the transmission lines of
your circuit board corresponds to a frequency of
a.
b.
c.
d.

10.2 kHz
102 kHz
1.02 MHz
10.2 MHz

2. When a transmission line is short-ended,


a. the standing wave voltage is at a loop at all even multiples of /4 from the
receiving end.
b. the standing wave is at a node at all odd multiples of /4 from the receiving
end.
c. the standing wave voltage is always at a loop at the receiving end of the
line.
d. the incident voltage is reflected 180E reversed.
3. How much of the voltage incident at the load of a mismatched line is reflected
toward the generator, if the return loss is -6 dB?
a.
b.
c.
d.

25%
50%
75%
100%

4. When looking at a Smith Chart, the circles that are all tangent at the right end of
the horizontal centerline each represent a
a.
b.
c.
d.

constant resistance (R) value.


variable resistance (R) value.
constant reactance (jX) value.
variable reactance (jX) value.

5. In the theoretical example of an infinite line, the transmitted signal would


gradually lose all of its power. Consequently, there would be no power reflection
toward the generator, as if
a.
b.
c.
d.

a perfectly matched load were continually absorbing all the received power.
the line were short-ended.
the line were open-ended.
None of these.

3-91

Unit Test (cont'd)


6. In a lossy line with standing waves, the
a. VSWR measured at the receiving end can give an illusion of having an
efficiency of power transfer that is much better than if the VSWR is
measured at the sending end.
b. incident voltage becomes weaker as it travels back toward the generator,
and the reflected voltage decreases as it travels back toward the generator.
c. VSWR decreases as we approach the receiving end of the line.
d. VSWR is better at the receiving end of the line.
7. The normalized impedance 1.4 - j1.6 is located on the Smith Chart in the
a.
b.
c.
d.

upper left quadrant.


lower left quadrant.
upper right quadrant.
lower right quadrant.

8. A line can have the same VSWR for both ZL < Z0 and ZL > Z0the difference
lying in the location of the loops and nodes in the standing wave created. For
example, a lossless line will have a same VSWR if
a.
b.
c.
d.

ZL = 3Z0 or ZL = Z0/3.
ZL = 0.25 @ Z0 or ZL = 2Z0.
ZL = 0.25 @ Z0 or ZL = 4Z0.
Both (a) and (c)

9. The horizontal centerline and the 0- R circle of the Smith Chart bear marks that
are used to measure values of
a.
b.
c.
d.

normalized resistance and normalized reactance, respectively.


normalized reactance and normalized resistance, respectively.
actual resistance and actual reactance, respectively.
actual reactance and actual resistance, respectively.

10. Given a load impedance of 25 and a characteristic impedance of 50 , what


are the return loss and mismatch loss?
a.
b.
c.
d.

3-92

-3.5 dB and -2.55 dB, respectively.


-9.5 dB and -0.51 dB, respectively.
-11.3 dB and -0.336 dB, respectively.
-14.0 dB and -0.177 dB, respectively.

Appendix

New Terms and Words


Attenuation (in a transmission line): the gradual decrease in the level of a
transmitted signal as the signal travels down the transmission line. The attenuation
per unit length of a line increases with frequency, due to the skin effect.
Attenuation constant: the attenuation per unit length of a transmission line. Usually
expressed as "decibels (dB) per unit length", or "nepers (Np) per unit length". The
attenuation constant is determined by the geometrical and physical characteristics
of the line. It increases with frequency. For this reason, manufacturers usually
provide graphs or tables indicating the attenuation constant as a function of
frequency.
Back-and-forth trip time (2T): see Round-trip time (2T).
Bandwidth (of a transmission line): range of frequencies throughout which a line
meets specific performance characteristics (e.g., the frequency range for which
attenuation is less than a specific value).
Braid: a woven fibrous protective outer covering over an insulated conductor or
cable.
Centerline (of a Smith Chart): a horizontal line in the middle of the chart
representing pure resistance, or zero reactance. The normalized values for the ratio
of R to the characteristic impedance are marked on this line. These values range
between 0 and 50.
Center point (of a Smith Chart): the point marked "1.0" (i.e., 1 + j0) on the horizontal
centerline of the chart.
Characteristic impedance: theoretically speaking, the input impedance of a
transmission line of infinite length. Practically speaking, the input impedance of a
transmission line of finite length when the impedance of the load is perfectly equal
to the characteristic impedance. The characteristic impedance is determined mainly
by: the diameter and shape of the conductors; the relative spacing between the
conductors; and the type of insulating material that separates the conductors.
Cladding (of an optical fiber): the light-transmitting material that surrounds the core
of an optical fiber, and which has an index of refraction different from that of the core.
Coaxial line: a transmission line consisting of an inner conductor surrounded by a
tubular outer conductor. The coaxial line comes in two types: rigid and flexible.
Common (infinity) point (of a Smith Chart): the point of tangency of the circles of
constant resistance (R) values, and also the originating point of the arcs of constant
reactance values. The common point is located at the rightmost of the centerline of
the chart.
Conductors: materials within which electric current can flow by application of a
voltage between points on or within the materials.
Core (of an optical fiber): the central portion of an optical fiber through which light is
transmitted.
A-1

New Terms and Words (cont'd)


Dielectric material: a material which is a poor conductor of electric current, but
which can maintain an electrostatic field while dissipating minimal power in the form
of heat.
Discontinuity: any change in impedance encountered by a signal traveling down a
transmission line, resulting in the creation of a reflection. Discontinuities can be due,
for example, to a broken conductor, a loose connector, a shorted conductor, or a
sheath fault.
Dispersion: phenomenon by which the fundamental and harmonics of a signal
propagate at differing velocities down a transmission line. Dispersion is due to the
fact that relative permittivity varies with frequency.
Distortion: the change in shape of a transmitted signal as it travels down a
transmission line, due to unequal velocity of propagation and unequal attenuation of
the fundamentals and harmonics that compose the signal.
Distortionless: said of a signal at the receiving end of a transmission line when this
signal is a faithful reproduction of the transmitted signal.
Distributed parameters: when viewing a transmission line as many tiny sections
distributed evenly along the entire length of the line, the value of each discrete
component in a same combination per unit length: that is, the series resistance; the
series inductance; the parallel resistance (reciprocal of the distributed conductance);
and the parallel capacitance.
Electrical length: the ratio of the actual physical length of a transmission line to the
wavelength of the signal it carries.
Electrical shield: a material used to reduce the tendency of a cable to produce
electromagnetic interference and reduce the sensitivity of the cable to outside
interference.
Electromagnetic frequency spectrum: the entire range of frequencies at which
electromagnetic waves can travel. Most of the electromagnetic spectrum is invisible.
The lower frequencies of the spectrum include radio waves, microwaves, and
infrared radiations. Visible light falls within a very narrow range. The highest
frequencies include ultraviolet (UV) light, x-rays, and gamma rays.
Electromagnetic waves: waves of energy produced by oscillation of an electric
charge that propagate at a very high speed. They include radio waves, infrared,
visible, and ultraviolet light waves, as well as X-, gamma, and cosmic rays.
Eye-pattern method: a popular method of evaluating signal quality in digital
transmission systems is the eye-pattern method. This method requires that a
pseudo-random binary signal be applied to the vertical input of an oscilloscope. The
oscilloscope horizontal sweep is triggered by a signal of the same frequency as the
binary signal. The time base is adjusted so as to see about one period of the
pseudo-random signal. In this way, the oscilloscope display is a pattern that
resembles an eye, due to the superposition of the transitions and constant bit levels
that occur randomly on successive periods of the signal. The width of the eye
opening indicates the degree of distortion. The narrower the eye opening, the greater
the signal distortion and, therefore, the lower the probability of error-free data
recovery.
A-2

New Terms and Words (cont'd)


Fourier series: when performing the mathematical analysis of a periodic signal, the
expansion of this signal as an infinite sum of sines and cosines of different
amplitudes and frequencies.
Fundamental : the component of order 1 of the Fourier series of a periodic signal.
A pure sinusoidal wave is composed of a single frequency component, which is the
fundamental. However, periodic signals usually consist of a superposition of several
frequency components, including a fundamental, or first harmonic, at the frequency
of the signal, and several higher-order harmonics whose frequencies are multiples
of the fundamental frequency.
Harmonic: frequency component of a signal whose frequency is a whole multiple of
the fundamental frequency.
Imaginary axis: on a rectangular coordinate chart representing impedance as a
vector, the vertical axis that corresponds to the reactance (jX) axis.
Impedance: in alternating-current (AC) circuits, the opposition of a component to the
flow of current. Impedance is measured in ohms, and is quantified by a complex
number that can be expressed in polar form (i.e., a resistance value, R, and an angle
in degrees or radians) or rectangular form (i.e., a resistance value, R, and a reactive
component, jX).
Impedance match: ideal condition under which the impedance of the load
connected to a transmission line is perfectly equal to the characteristic impedance
of the line. This is the preferred condition, by far, because the power that reaches the
receiving end of the line is perfectly absorbed by the load. The line therefore appears
infinitely long from the perspective of the source, because the load has the ability to
continually absorb all the received power.
Impedance mismatch: condition under which the impedance of the load connected
to a transmission line is not equal to the characteristic impedance of the line. In this
case, not all the received power is absorbed by the load. Instead, part of this power
is reflected back toward the source, resulting in a loss due to reflection. If,
additionally, an impedance mismatch occurs at the source (the impedance of the
source is not equal to characteristic impedance of the line), the reflected power,
when it gets back to the source, will be partly re-reflected down the line. The
reflected power will continue to bounce back and forth on the line for a certain time,
increasing the losses between the point of transmission and the point of use, and
resulting in transmission inefficiency.
Impedance transformation and matching: the use of a lambda/4 or lambda/2 line
section to change or adapt impedance between two devices and obtain a better
transfer of power between them.
Insertion loss: the total loss that occurs along the entire length of a transmission
line, in decibels (dB).
Insulating material: a material for preventing or reducing the passage of electric
current.
Loops (antinodes): the points of maximum voltage in a standing wave. When the
load impedance is higher than the characteristic impedance, loops occur at even
multiples of lambda/4 from the receiving end of the transmission line. When the load
A-3

New Terms and Words (cont'd)


impedance is lower than the characteristic impedance, loops occur at odd multiples
of lambda/4 from the receiving end of the line.
Lossless: said of a transmission line whose distributed series resistance can be
neglected, and whose distributed parallel resistance is very high.
Lossy: said of a transmission line whose distributed series resistance is significant,
and whose distributed parallel resistance is relatively low. This causes some part of
the transmitted power to be lost through the distributed series resistance due to the
series losses, and also through the distributed parallel resistance due to insulation
leakage losses (shunt losses). The losses are converted into heat.
Mismatch loss: the difference between the power or voltage incident at the line load
and the power or voltage reflected at this load, in decibels (dB). When there is no
impedance mismatch, there is no reflection, so that all the power received at the load
is absorbed by the load.
Nodes: the points of minimum voltage in a standing wave. The minimum voltage is
null only for a lossless line. When the load impedance is higher than the
characteristic impedance, nodes invariably occur at odd multiples of lambda/4 from
the receiving end of the transmission line. When the load impedance is lower than
the characteristic impedance, nodes invariably occur at even multiples of lambda/4
from the receiving end of the line.
Nonresonant (flat): said of a line whose input impedance is equal to the
characteristic impedance and to the load impedance. In this case, the maximum
possible power is transmitted to the load. Changing the frequency of the generator
will not change the input impedance of the line.
Non-return-to-zero (NRZ) data: a binary code with two logic states (1 and 0) and
no neutral state between bits.
Normalized: said of the resistance and reactance values on a Smith Chart. These
impedances are normalized to the characteristic impedance of the line: resistance
values therefore correspond to the ratio of R to the characteristic impedance, while
reactance values correspond to the ratio of jX to the characteristic impedance. This
allows the chart to be used with transmission lines of any characteristic impedance.
Optical fiber: a transmission line designed specifically for transmitting light, which
can be modeled as an electromagnetic wave. The optical fiber consists of a central
conductor, or core, made of glass or plastic surrounded by a protective cladding. The
whole assembly is housed in a protective sheath.
Overshoot: transient exaggeration of a voltage from a lower value to a higher value
(the transitory higher value exceeding the final, steady-state value).
Period (of a signal): the time required for one cycle of variation of the signal to occur.
Permittivity: a measure of the ability of the dielectric material to maintain a
difference in electrical charge over a given distance. The permittivity of the dielectric
material used to construct a transmission line is the determinant of the velocity of
propagation of a signal in the line.

A-4

New Terms and Words (cont'd)


Polar form: a way of expressing impedance, with some resistance value R, in ohms,
and a given angle in degrees or radians.
Pseudo-random binary signal (PRBS): said of a binary code whose two logic
states (1 and 0) occur randomly on successive periods of the signal.
Purely resistive: said of a device, such as a load, that consists mainly of resistor(s),
without inductors or capacitors, causing the voltage and current waveforms to be in
phase with one another.
Radio-frequency (RF) range: part of the frequency spectrum including frequencies
of 20 kHz and higher.
Reactive: said of a device, such as a load, that consists mainly of inductor(s) or
capacitor (s), causing the voltage and current waveforms to be out of phase.
Real axis: on a rectangular coordinate chart representing impedance as a vector,
the horizontal axis that corresponds to the resistance (R) axis.
Rectangular form: a way of expressing impedance, with a true or purely resistive
component R, and a reactive component (jX), both expressed in ohms.
Relative permittivity (or dielectric constant): the permittivity of a particular dielectric
material expressed in relation to that of vacuum.
Resonant: said of a line whose load impedance is not perfectly equal to the
characteristic impedance. In this case, the line may appear like a parallel or resonant
circuit, or as an off-resonance or reactive circuit to the generator input, depending
on the electrical length of the line. Consequently, the input impedance of the line will
vary as a function of the electrical length and, therefore, of the frequency of the
carried signal.
Return loss: the ratio of the power or voltage incident at the line load to the power
or voltage reflected at this load, in decibels (dB). Since the power or voltage ratio is
always lower than 1 (except when the impedance of the load is 0 ohm or infinite), the
return loss always has a negative value. The greater the absolute value of the return
loss, the lower the power or voltage lost by reflection at the load.
Round-trip time (2T): when the step response method is used, time required for the
launched voltage step to travel to the receiving end of the transmission line and then
back to the generator. The round-trip time is equal to twice the transit time, 2T. 2T
is therefore synonymous with round-trip time, or back-and-forth trip time.
Sets of arcs (of a Smith Chart): all arcs representing constant reactance values on
the chart. The upper half of the chart contains the arcs of inductive reactance. The
lower half of the chart contains the arcs of capacitive reactance.
Set of circles (of a Smith Chart): all circles representing constant resistance (R)
values on the chart. The largest circle, which outlines the chart, corresponds to a
constant R value of 0 ohms. The smaller circles correspond to higher, constant R
values.
Sheat: a covering material surrounding a transmission line for insulation and
protection purposes.
A-5

New Terms and Words (cont'd)


Signature (of a line): the signal displayed by a TDR, that is, the algebraic sum of the
incident pulse voltage and reflected voltage. The signature reveals the presence and
nature of discontinuities, if any, along the line under test. (Nowadays, digital TDR's
are available that use digital techniques to automatically provide information on the
location and magnitude of the major discontinuities on a digital readout).
Skin effect: the non-uniform distribution of currents in a conductor. At direct current
(DC) or low frequency, the current density is quite uniform across the conductor. At
higher frequencies, the current density tends to concentrate near the surface (hence
the term "skin") of the conductor, thereby increasing the resistance to current flow.
Smith Chart: a graphical computation tool developed by Dr. P.H. Smith in 1939 that
greatly simplifies evaluation of transmission line parameters, such as the VSWR
caused by a given load and the impedance at any point along a line for various line
lengths and various load impedances.
Spectrum analyzer: a device used to display the amplitude of the frequency
components of a signal as a function of frequency.
Standing wave: a stationary wave on a transmission line mismatched at its load.
This wave is produced by the vectorial summing of the incident and reflected
voltages traveling through each other, but in opposite directions, along the line.
Steady-state: said of a system or conditions exhibiting only negligible change over
a relatively long period of time. For example, transmission lines used to carry
sinusoidal signals are said to operate under steady-state conditions if the carried
signals, which consist of a sum of homogeneous frequency components that repeat
periodically, show only negligible change over a relatively long period of time.
Step response method: method commonly used to measure various transmission
line parameters: velocity of propagation, nature and magnitude of the load
impedance, as well as detection and location of discontinuities. This method requires
that a step generator and a high-impedance oscilloscope probe be both connected
to the sending end of the line, using a bridging connection. The signal at the sending
end of the line is called the step response signal.
Step response signal: signal observed at the sending end of a transmission line
under test as a function of time, when using the step response method.
Thevenin's theorem: theorem named after the French engineer M.L. Thevenin. This
theorem allows any electrical linear circuit seen at two terminals to be represented
by a Thevenin equivalent circuit. The Thevenin equivalent circuit consists of a
voltage source, and an impedance in series with this source.
Time-domain reflectometer: instrument used to detect and locate discontinuities
along transmission lines. A TDR consists of a step generator and a high-speed
oscilloscope combined in a single unit. The step generator launches a pulse into the
line under test. When the pulse encounters a discontinuity along the line, or a
mismatched load at the end of the line, part of the pulse energy is reflected back to
the TDR for display on the oscilloscope. The signal displayed by the TDR is,
therefore, the algebraic sum of the incident pulse voltage and reflected voltage.

A-6

New Terms and Words (cont'd)


Time-domain reflectometry (TDR): a technique used to detect, locate, and identify
the nature of discontinuities (impedance changes) along a transmission line. To
permit the detection and location of discontinuities, time-domain reflectometry uses
the same technique as bats or radars: the echo technique: a step generator launches
a pulse into the line under test; when the pulse encounters a discontinuity along the
line, part of the pulse energy is reflected back to the step generator for display on an
oscilloscope. In the displayed signal, the discontinuities encountered by the pulse
appear in the form of transients. By measuring the time between the rising edge of
the launched pulse and the transient caused by a discontinuity, the location
(distance) of the discontinuity can be determined. Moreover, the shape and
magnitude of the transient indicate the nature and severity of the discontinuity and,
therefore, give clues to the probable cause(s) of the fault.
Transient: said of a temporary phenomenon occurring in a system before a steadystate condition is reached. For example, transmission lines used to carry digital
signals, such as telephone or computer network lines, are said to operate under
transient conditions because it takes a certain time, or transitional period, for the
pulses in digital signals to reach a steady value.
Transit time (T): when using the step response method, time required for the
voltage step launched by the generator to reach the receiving end of the
transmission line.
Undershoot: transient exaggeration of a voltage from a higher to a lower value (the
transitory lower value being less than the final, steady-state value).
Velocity factor: the velocity of propagation of a signal in a transmission line,
expressed as a percentage of the velocity of light in free space. For example, a
transmission line with a velocity factor of 66% will transmit signals at about 66% of
the velocity of light.
Voltage excursion: the difference (in absolute value) between the final and initial
voltages of an exponentially-rising or exponentially-decreasing voltage.
Voltage reflection coefficient: the ratio of the reflected voltage to incident voltage
at a discontinuity along a transmission line. This coefficient is usually represented
by the Greek capital letter "gamma". It is determined by the relationship between the
characteristic impedance of the line and the new impedance encountered by the
signal at the discontinuity.
Voltage reflection diagram (or lattice diagram): a vertically oriented graph used to
represent the creation of the multiple reflections and the resulting distribution of the
voltage along a line as a function of time. This graph indicates each instant when a
sudden change (voltage step) occurs in the line voltage. This graph can be used
conveniently to graph the voltage as a function of time at any arbitrary point along
the line.
Voltage standing-wave ratio (VSWR): the ratio of the loop voltage to the node
voltage of a standing wave. The VSWR is comprised between 1 (no standing wave)
and infinite (open- or short-ended lossless line). The higher the VSWR, the more
severe the impedance mismatch at the load. In lines that are lossy, attenuation
improves the VSWR. The improvement in VSWR by attenuation is greater at the
sending end of the line than at the receiving end.

A-7

New Terms and Words (cont'd)


VSWR circle: circle having its origin at the center point of the Smith Chart and
representing a lossless line of known load impedance. Moving around the VSWR
circle corresponds to traveling down the lossless line. Consequently, the impedance
at any point along the line can be read off on the chart, using this circle.
Waveguide: a transmission medium that confines and guides propagating
electromagnetic waves. The waveguide normally consists of a hollow metallic
conductor, usually cylindrical, rectangular, or elliptical in cross section.
Wavelength (of a signal traveling down a line): the distance over which one cycle
of variation of the signal occurs. Wavelength is represented by the Greek lowercase
letter lambda.
Wavelength circle (of a Smith Chart): circle located just beneath the outer rim of the
Smith Chart. This circle has an outer and an inner scales that permit measurement
of the distance between any two points of a line, in wavelength (lambda) units.

A-8

Appendix

Step Response Signal For Various Load Impedances

Figure B-1. Step response signal of a lossless line terminated by various load impedances, ZL.

B-1

B-2

Appendix

The Voltage Reflection Diagram

Figure C-1. The Voltage Reflection Diagram.

C-1

C-2

Appendix

Graph for Plotting the Standing Waves


on the Trainer Transmission Lines

Figure D-1. Graph for plotting the standing waves on a 48-m (157.4-ft) transmission line.

D-1

D-2

Appendix

The Smith Chart

Figure E-1. The Smith Chart.

E-1

Bibliography
Field and Electromagnetic Waves, David Keun Cheng, Addison-Wesley Publishing
Company Inc., 1993, ISBN 0-201-12819-5
Elements of Electromagnetics, Matthew N.O. Sadiku, Saunders College Publishing,
a division of Holt, Rinehart and Winston Inc., 1989, ISBN 0-03-013484-6
Communications Electronics Circuits, J. J. DeFrance, Rinehart Press, a Division of
Holt, Rinehart and Winston Inc., 1972, ISBN 0-03-083139-3
Electronics Principles, Albert Paul Malvino, Ph. D., McGraw Hill Book Inc., 1983,
ISBN 0-07-039912-3
Introduction to Wave Propagation, Transmission Lines, and Antennas- Module 10,
Navy Electricity and Electronics Training Series.
Fundamentals of transmission lines and electromagnetic fields, S.R. Seshadri,
Addison-Wesley, 1971, 598 p.
High-Speed Digital Design - A Handbook of Black Magic Design, H. Johnson, M.
Graham, Ch. 4, Prentice-Hall, 1993.
Time Domain Reflectometry, Application Note 62, Hewlett-Packard Company, 1964.

COMPUTER-BASED ELECTRONICS
TRAINING SYSTEM FACET
TRANSMISSION LINES IN COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
36970-00
First Edition: December 2005
Printed: December 2005

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