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CLASSIFICATION OF TRAPS
Structural traps: These are traps formed by folding and
faulting. They can be found by surface and subsurface
mapping using geological and geophysical mapping and welllog data. Structural study of the type of folds, faults, salt and
mud intrusions are important in petroleum exploration.
Stratigraphic traps: A lateral variation in permeability due to
facies changes (i.e., lithology), truncations, onlaps and
diagenetic changes, together with the roof rock, will form an
internal barrier, or a stratigraphic trap.
Hydrodynamic traps: Difference in fluid potentials causes a
down-dip flow of water to oppose up-dip flow of HCs.
Increased fluid gradients usually exist where the flow rate is
constricted due to thinning of reservoir or reduction in its
permeability
STRUCTURAL TRAPS
These traps are formed mainly by folding and faulting, and are
recognized by structural mapping, using geological, geophysical
methods and well-log data.
Many structures change with depth in shape, size and
amplitude. Thus, the surface data may not always be reliable.
Structural traps can further be classified according to the type of
folds and faults.
Fold traps (anticlines): Anticlines are the most common type
of traps containing majority of the worlds giant oil fields.
FOLDING:
Compressional or Compactional folds
Compressional:
These folds occur by crustal shortening in or close to the
mountain chains (e.g., Taurus or Zagros mountains)
Compressional folds are elongated perpendicular to the axis of
crustal shortening (along the direction of mountain chains).
These folds are usually associated with faults. En-echelon folds
develop along transpressional segments of transform faults.
Examples: Anticlines in the Lower Miocene Asmari Lmst.
capped by evaporites of the Lower Fars Group in the Zagros
Mountain belt.
Tectonic compression
Compression
Compactional folds:
These folds are formed by crustal tension.
In extentional basins horsts and grabens develop. Anticlines
form over deep-seated horsts.
Closure may be enhanced by differential compaction and
sedimentation, the amount of compaction being greater for the
thicker flank (graben) sediments.
Examples include compactional anticlines in the Paleocene
deep sea sands draped over Mesozoic horsts in the North Sea.
Compactional folds are irregularly shaped, reflecting the
intersection of fault trends in the basement
Compactional folds
A) Deposition over topographic high and low: variable sediment thickness
B) After uniform compaction of 10% of total sediment thickness
Horst
Horst
Horst
Graben
Structural contour
Map
N
Thrust fault
Cross
section
Map
Cross
section
Differential compaction
Fault traps
Classification of fault traps
Fault traps can be classified according to the type of faults:
normal,
reverse,
thrust,
transform, and
growth faults
Faults can juxtapose (bring together) different rocks of
differing permeabilities, and can seal or allow migration
between different reservoir levels.
Fault traps:
Faulting plays an indirect role in formation of HC traps. Faults
can seal and act as a barrier to migration of fluids. However,
some faults or fault zones are permeable.
Criteria for a fault to seal or be permeable:
Permeable sand
Reservoir
STRATIGRAPHIC TRAPS
Stratigraphic traps form as a result of lateral changes in the
lithology of a reservoir rock, or a break in its continuity.
Such changes may be:
Channel traps:
River channel deposits enclosed in impervious muds provide
a trap.
Channel fills are long and narrow sand and gravel deposits.
Stream meandering back and forth within the flood plain often
changes its channel when it becomes clogged.
Channel traps have concave-down profile with a flat top and
sinuous, meandering pattern.
Channel traps
Channel traps
Sand bar
Channel sand
Isopach map
Regressive
upward coarsenning
barier bar
Cross section
Pinchout traps:
Isolated, transgressive and regressive barrier sands pass updip into lagoonal and intertidal shales, and form the pinchout
traps.
Transgressive sands form the best sealed traps.
The regressive sands develop better, but they usually lack
the up-dip seals.
The closure of sand bars may be stratigraphic if a shoreline
forms an embayment, or it can be stuctural.
Pinchout trap
Map
Cross section
sopach map
Reef traps:
Reefs are carbonate built-ups forming the most important
type of stratigraphic traps.
They are porous and permeable, sealed laterally and on top
by shales, carbonate muds and sometimes evaporites.
There are different types of reefs: fringing, barrier, and atoll.
Atoll
Lagoon
Barrier
reef
Open sea
Fringing
reef
Open sea
Sea mount
Open
sea
Reef traps
Reef traps
Sub-unconformity traps
Stratigraphic traps also occur below the unconformities
where porous and permeable beds have been truncated and
overlain by impervious clays.
In many cases the seal below is provided by the impervious
strata beneath the reservoir.
Weathering of basement granites and limestones can provide
high permeability below the unconformity surface that later
become sealed by onlapping shales.
Diagenetic traps:
HYDRODYNAMIC TRAPS
Hydrodynamic
trap
Diagenetic
trap
HYDRODYNAMIC TRAPS
COMBINATION TRAPS
Many traps are not solely of structural, stratigraphic, or
hydrodynamic origin, but due to a combination of the two or
more of these factors.
Most of the traps are caused by a combination of structural
and stratigraphic processes.
Structural-hydrodynamic and stratigraphic-hydrodynamic
traps are rare.
UnconformityFault type
Combination
trap