Distillation Column Design

Recovery column/ Distillation column for IPA
1.0 Project Objectives

This section of the advanced process design module involves designing a product
distillation column. It is a continuation from the group project which involved the
production of 100000 tonnes per year of Methyl Ethyl Ketone to be located in China.
This report will focus on certain chemical engineering design features including
calculations of length and diameter. Also, it will be important to consider materials of
construction and other characteristics associated with designing a distillation column.
Within this part of the report cost and economical appraisal of designing the distillation
column will be included.
The type of alarms, trips and relief devices which will be used will be included in the
control and instrumentation section of the report. When selecting the types of control
and instrumentation devices for the distillation column it will be important to consider
temperatures and pressures.
A piping and instrumentation drawing will be constructed for the product distillation
column. This will include all alarms, control valves, pressure relief devices and utilities.
This report will also include a Hazard and Operability study (HAZOP). This will be carried
out as a group with the group supervisor. Each member will select a process line and a
HAZOP will be carried out.
Within this report a costing and economic optimisation of the product distillation
column design will also be carried out. The last section of the report includes the
economic appraisal for the process. Within this section the capital costs of the process
will be determined. Standard correlations will be used to determine if the project is
economically feasible. It will identify whether the project should be carried out in the
real world.
2.0 Project Objectives

This is a continuation from the group project and the main aim is to design a product
distillation column. The report will include detailed and constructive explanation of how
the distillation column should be designed. The following objectives have been set:
1
2.1 Technical Objectives

The report is expected to complete by week 22. In order to meet this deadline technical
objectives will be set. From the Gantt Chart start dates and end dates for each task can
be seen. The following are the technical objectives which have been set:
Submit the project plan and Gantt Chart by 20/01/2012.

Research in detail and evaluate the design of a distillation column. Including
characteristics such as number of trays, column height, column diameter,
efficiency and flooding parameters.

Research the various types of control systems, instrumentation and monitoring
systems for the safe operation of the distillation column.

Construct a P +ID indicating clearly all equipment items, piping, process and
utility lines, control loops, valves, instruments including alarms and trips,
pressure relief devices. Include a key of symbols and ensure that the diagram is
correctly numbered.
Carry out the HAZOP with the group. This will include systems which are required
for the safe operation of the distillation column and reduce the chance of any
accidents occurring.
An economic appraisal should be carried out. This will include an estimate of the
overall capital costs and annual operating costs. Parameters including product
price, construction time and interest rate should also be justified.

References used throughout the project should be listed.
All appropriate documents including the Gantt Chart, lengthy calculations and
any large drawings should be placed in the appendices.
2.2 Personal Objectives
It is important that there is efficient communication within group members.

Important that the group works together as a team to put across ideas to ensure
that the tasks are completed on time.

Enhance communication, individual and team-working skills through the project
timeline.
Remain focussed and motivated to ensure that work is produced to a high grade.
Organisation is a very important factor for the competition of this report.
It will be important that the Gantt Chart is followed closely as time as been
allocated to each task equally to ensure that the deadline is met.

Allocate sufficient number of hours during the week to work on the project.
Regular meetings should be held with the supervisor this will ensure that
everything is on task and any changes that need to be made quickly and
efficiently.
Research is a major section of this report. It is therefore very important that
enough time is allocated to carry out adequate research. Extensive research will
2
be required to gain sufficient knowledge. It is important that various methods of
research are utilised to ensure that a wide range of information is available.

Build vital organisational and time-management skills whilst working on the
project.
Have complete and clear understanding of how a distillation column operates on
completion of the report.

Improve technical skills by carrying out a HAZOP and constructing a P +ID which
may be useful in future projects.

Proof read all work to correct any errors which may occur and to ensure that
work
is
of
high
standard.
3.0 Introduction
One of the most important operation in the chemical and petroleum industry is the
separation of liquid mixtures into several components. It is sometimes referred to as
fractional distillation. It is one of the oldest unit operation processes. The technical
publication of distillation was first developed in 1957, however, distillation had been
practiced for many centuries prior to this. Distillation is one of the most common and
widely used separation processes in the chemical industry. However, it is also an
extremely energy intensive process.
[1]
It requires large amounts of energy for both
cooling and heating. 50% of plants operating costs are produced from distillation. At
present distillation is commonly used in the petroleum, chemical, petrochemical,
beverage and pharmaceutical industries. Distillation is a process which is important in
the development of new products and for the recovery and reuse of volatile liquids. [2] A
great deal of research has been carried out into techniques of distillation due to the
demand for purer products and a persistent requirement of greater efficiency.
When designing a distillation column it is essential to consider process control. Many
distillation columns usually operate with the combination of many other separate units.
[3]
The correct design of a distillation column is not always a simple procedure as it is
regarded as a specialised technology.
[2]
Compared to other types of processing
equipment distillation columns have to be designed with a larger range in capacity with
single columns varying from 0.3 to 10m in diameter and 3m to 75m in height. It is
important that designers are able to provide the desired product quality at a minimum
cost but also at a constant purity.
Distillation is usually used to separate liquid mixtures into two or more vapour or liquid
products which have different compositions.
[1]
The separation of liquid mixtures is
dependent on the differences in the volatility between the components. Separation is

easier if the relative volatilities are larger.
[3] There
are two major types of distillation, this
includes continuous distillation and batch distillation. [4] In continuous distillation the
feed is supplied continuously. There are usually no interruptions however, problems
may occur with the column or surrounding units. This type is the more common of the
two types of distillation. However, in batch distillation the feed is supplied to the
column batch-wise. The column is charged with a batch and the distillation process is
then carried out. Once the desired task has been achieved the next batch of the feed is
then introduced.
[5]
3.1 Components of Distillation Columns

The following section is a description of the components required for the operation of a
distillation column. This includes a reboiler and a condenser.
3.1.1Reboiler
[5][6]
The main objective of a reboiler in distillation columns is to vaporise a fraction of the

bottom product. They are used to provide the necessary vaporisation required for the
distillation process.[5] There are three principal types of reboilers used in distillation
columns. They are as follows:
1. Forced Circulation Reboiler: the fluid is pumped through the exchanger and the
vapour which is formed is separated at the base of the column. Figure 1 shows a
diagram of a forced circulation reboiler.
Figure 1: Forced Circulation Reboiler
[6]
2. Thermosyphon Natural Circulation Reboiler: it is a vertical exchanger with

vaporisation in the tubes or the shell. The difference in density between the twophase mixture of vapour and liquid and the single phase liquid in the base of the
column helps maintain the liquid circulation through the exchanger. The most
frequently used reboiler is the shell and tube thermosyphon reboiler this is
because it is the most economical type of reboiler for most applications. Figure
2 shows a diagram of a thermosyphon reboiler.
3. Kettle
type:
in
Figure 2: Thermosyphon Reboiler [6] which boiling takes place
on tubes which are immersed in a pool of liquid. In this type of reboiler there is
no circulation of liquid. This type of reboiler is sometimes also called a
submerged bundle reboiler. The bundle may also be stored in the base of the
column in some applications. This helps save the cost of the exchanger shell.
Figure 3 shows a diagram of a kettle type reboiler.
Figure 3: Kettle Type
Reboiler
[6]
The choice of the reboiler to be used for a given duty will depend on certain factors
including
[6]
1. The nature of the process fluid i.e. the viscosity and propensity to fouling.
2. The operating pressure i.e. vacuum or pressure.
3. The equipment layout.
3.1.2 Condenser
[7]
A condenser is used in a distillation column to cool and condense the vapour leaving
the top of the column. The vapour is cooled and condensed to its liquid state. The most
common type of condenser used is the horizontal shell-side and vertical tube side. This
means the processor has the option of condensing on either the shell side or the tube
side. In condensers the use of cooling water as a medium to cool the substance is of
vital importance.
Condensers are available in a range of designs and in many different sizes. Capital
costs of condensers can be reduced by using a carbon steel shell. There are four
possible condenser configurations which may occur as they. They are as follows:
1. Horizontal in design with condensation occurring in the shell and the cooling
medium in tubes.
2. Horizontal in design with condensation in the tubes.
3. Vertical in design with condensation in the shell.
4. Vertical in design with condensation in the tubes.
4.0 Chemical Engineering Design

4.1 Process Description
[8]
A mixture containing Methyl Ethyl Ketone and Secondary Butyl Alcohol is obtained from
the solvent recovery column and this is fed to the product distillation column.
Methyl
Ethyl
Ketone
Methyl Ethyl Ketone
and Secondary Butyl
Alcohol Mixture from
Solvent Recovery
Column
CO
4
Secondary Butyl
Alcohol to the
recycle stream
Figure 4: Process Description Diagram
The product distillation unit will be fed with a Methyl Ethyl Ketone (MEK)/ Secondary
Butyl Alcohol (SBA) mixture. The mixture fed to the product distillation column is
obtained from the distillate of the solvent recovery column. Before the mixture is fed to
the product distillation column, the two streams are firstly mixed in an intermediate
storage holding tank. Within the product distillation column cooling water is utilised,
which enters the condenser at 24C and leaves at 40C. In the reboiler steam enters at
140C and at a pressure of 2.0 bar.
4.2 Distillation Column Design
[9]
There are various stages in the design of a distillation column. They can be divided into
the following steps:
Firstly the degree of separation required is specified. The product specifications
are set.
The operating conditions are selected; i.e. batch or continuous, temperature and
pressure.
Select the type of contacting device which is required; i.e. tray design or packed
column.
Determine the stage and reflux requirements; i.e. the number of stages required
for distillation using various correlations, calculating the minimum reflux ratio
and the reflux ratio.

Size the column; i.e. diameter, height and number of real stages.
Design the column internals; i.e. plates and packing supports.
Consider the mechanical design.
Design the condenser and reboiler.
4.3 Key Components

Before the design stage of a distillation column the designer must select the key
components which are to be separated. The light key is described as the component
that is desired to be kept out of the bottom product. The heavy key is described as the
component that is desired to be kept out of the top product. Usually it is relatively easy
to determine which the key components are. However, there may be situations in which
close boiling isomers are present so judgement must be used in their selection. The
light key is described as the most volatile component in the bottom product and the
heavy key is described as the least volatile component in the top product. In this case
the light and heavy keys are as follows:
Light Key: Methyl Ethyl Ketone (A)

Heavy Key: Secondary Butyl Alcohol (B)
4.4 Operating Conditions

It is assumed that the process operates at a steady state and the system is ideal. It is
assumed that the inlet temperature of the feed to the column will be at the boiling
point i.e. boiling liquid feed. At this point q=1, assuming that all of the feed to the
column is in liquid phase.
It is assumed that the operating temperature of the column will be at an average
temperature of 89C (362K). This is because Methyl Ethyl Ketone has a boiling point of
79.79C and Secondary Butyl Alcohol has a boiling point of 99C. So the feed has been
set to operate at a temperature in between the boiling points of the two components.
(79.79+99)
=89 C
2
The column will be operated on a continuous basis and will be operated at atmospheric
pressure at 89C (362K).
4.6 Packed Columns
[10]
Packed columns are used for a variety of processes including distillation, gas absorption
and liquid-liquid extraction. In packed bed columns the gas liquid contact is continuous,
however, in plate columns it occurs stage-wise. In packed columns the liquid flows
down the column and over the packed surface and the vapour flows counter-currently
up the column. The adequate operation and performance of a packed column relies
greatly on the maintenance of good liquid and gas distribution throughout the packed
bed. Figure 5 shows a diagram of a packed column. Packed distillation columns and
plate columns are similar. However, the difference being that in packed columns the
plates are replaced with packed sections.
10
Figure 5: Schematic Diagram of a Packed Column [11]
4.6.1 Types of Packing
[10]
Packing is required for certain requirements. They are as follows:
They provide a large surface area i.e. to provide a high interfacial area between
the vapour and liquid.
They should have an open structure.
They should promote the uniform distribution of liquid on the packing surface.
They should promote uniform vapour gas flow across the column cross-section.
Various types of packing have been developed with many shapes and sizes to satisfy
the requirements. They are usually divided into two categories:
1. Random Packing
2. Structured Packing
The various types of random and structured packing can be seen in appendix ##.
4.7 Plate Columns
[11]
In distillation columns cross-flow plates are the most common type used. In this type
design the liquid flows across the plate and the vapour flows up through the plate. The
liquid is passed from one plate to the next through vertical channels which are known
as downcomers. Figure 6 shows a diagram of a cross-flow plate. In certain occasions
plates may be used which do not have any downcomers. They are known as non-crossflow plates. This type of plate may be utilised when a particularly low pressure drop is
required.
11
Figure 6: Diagram of a Cross-Flow Plate
4.7.1 Types of Plate
[13]
[12] [13]
There are three principal cross-flow plate types which are used in plate columns. They
are classified according to the method used to contact the vapour and liquid. They are
as follows:
1. Sieve Plate also sometimes called perforated plate: This type of plate is the
simplest type of cross-flow plate. The vapour passes the holes in the plate
and the liquid is retained on the plate due to the vapour flow. In occasions
when flow rates are low liquid weeps through the holes and this reduces plate
efficiency. Usually the perforations are small holes however, in some cases
larger holes and slots are also made use of.
Figure 7: Diagram of a Sieve

2. Bubble-cap
Plate:
Plate
[13]
This type of plate is the
most traditional and oldest type of cross flow plate. Various designs have
been developed. For most applications the standard cap design would be
specified. In this type of plate the vapour passes up pipes which are known
12
as risers. The risers are enclosed by a cap with a jagged edge or slots. Risers
ensure that a level of liquid is maintained on the tray at all vapour flow-rates.
Figure 8: Diagram of a Bubble-cap Plate
[13]
3. Valve Plate also sometimes called floating cap plate: This type of plate is very
much similar to sieve plates however, the only difference being that they
have large diameter holes which are covered by movable flaps. When the
vapour flow increases the movable flaps lift. Valves plates are able to operate
more efficiently at lower flow rates in comparison to sieve plates. At low flow
rates the valves in the valve plates close.
Figure 9: Diagram of a Valve Plate
[13]
It can be observed from the mass balance in section 4.8 that a plate column will be
more suitable. This is because the flow rates in this process are large and these will
13
require a large diameter. In cases when the diameter is large it is possible to have
plates or trays.
When selecting the plate type many factors are considered including cost, capacity,
operating range, efficiency and pressure drop. Of the three types sieve plates are the
cheapest and are satisfactory for most applications. The operating costs of sieve plates
are the pressure drop is lower compared to the other types of plates. For these reasons
the selected type of plate for the distillation column is sieve plates.
4.8 Mass Balance

18
17
Product
Distillation
Column
19
Figure 10: Block Diagram of the Product Distillation Column
14
Previously in the group report it was assumed that hundred percent separation i.e.
complete separation was achieved. However, this is not likely to occur to reality. The
temperature difference between the components is only 20C as Methyl Ethyl Ketone
has a boiling point of 79.79C and Secondary Butyl Alcohol (SBA) has a boiling point of
99C. The distillate temperature is assumed to be the boiling point of Methyl Ethyl
Ketone i.e. the desired product. A small amount of SBA is assumed to be present in the
distillate. Also, a small quantity of MEK is also present in the bottom product. This
means that the mass balance calculated in the previous report has to be adjusted.
The following table shows the summary of the compositions entering and leaving the
product distillation column before recalculation.
Inlet
Stream:
Compone
nts
MEK
SBA
kg/hr
17
kmol/hr
12276.78
571
1416.086
93
170.27442
04
19.110484
89
wt%
89.66
10.34
Hydrogen
Water
TCE
Total
13692.87 189.3849
100
264
053
Table 1a: Inlet Flowrates of the product Distillation Column
[8]
Outlet
Stream:
Compone
nts
MEK
SBA
Hydrogen
Water
TCE
Total
kg/hr
18
kmol/hr
kg/hr
19
kmol/hr
12276.78
571
124.0079
4
170.27442
04
1.6735214
57
99.0
1.00
1292.078
99
17.43696
343
100
12400.79
365
171.9479
419
100
1292.078
99
17.43696
343
100
wt%
wt%
15
Total Outlet Mass flowrate = 13692.87264 kg/hr

Table 1b: Outlet Flowrates of the Product Distillation Column [8]
4.8.1 Adjusted Mass Balance

It was previously assumed in the group project that all the MEK is recovered in the
distillate i.e. meaning that there would be no MEK in the bottom product stream. This
does not usually occur. So it is assumed that there is a 99% separation. This means that
99% of the MEK from the feed is recovered in the distillate and therefore the remaining
1% is recovered in the bottom product. This will mean the previous mass balance will
have to be adjusted. This is calculated in this section of the report.
The inlet stream to the distillation column does not change. This can be seen from table
2a below:
Inlet
Stream:
Compone
nts
MEK
kg/hr
17
kmol/hr
wt%
12276.78
170.274
90
6
SBA
1416.086
19.110
10
7
Total
13692.87
189.385
100
3
Table 2a: Inlet Flowrate of the Product Distillation Column
[8]
Outlet
Stream:
Compone
nts
MEK
SBA
Total
18 (Distillate)
wt%
kmol/hr
19 (Bottom Product)
kg/hr
wt
kg/hr
wt
Kmol/hr
%
%
12140.23 99.0
168.381
99.
13.92
1.0
0.19
9
0
0
126.030
1.00
1.701
1.0
1416.09
99.
19.11
0
0
12266.26
100
170.082
100 1430.00
10
19.30
9
0
Table 2b: Outlet Flowrates of the Product Distillation Column
wt
%
1.0
0
99.
0
10
0
16
4.9 Vapour Pressure Calculation

To determine the vapour pressure of the components the Antoine equation must be
used. The relative volatility can then be calculated using this information.
log 10 ( P )=A
B
[14]
(T +C) Equation 1: Antoine Equation
Where:
P = Vapour Pressure (bar)
T = Temperature (K)
A, B and C are constants
The following table shows the Antoine constants, the boiling point and latent heat of
vaporisation for both MEK and SBA.
Component
Methyl Ethyl
Ketone (MEK)
Secondary Butyl
Alcohol
(SBA)
A
3.9894
4.3294
3
B
1150.2
07
1158.6
72
C
63.904
104.68
3
B.P (C)
79.6
Hvap (kJkmol-1)
31.3
99
40.75
Table 3: Anotine Constants for MEK and SBA
[15][16]
Methyl Ethyl Ketone (MEK)
log 10 ( P )=3.9894
1150.207
(362+(63.904))
log 10 ( P ) = 0.131
P=
100.131
P = 1.35bar
Secondary Butyl Alcohol (SBA)
log 10 ( P )=4.32943
1158.672
(362+(104.683))
log 10 ( P ) = -0.1735
17
P=
0.1735
10
P = 0.67 bar
4.9.1 Relative Volatility

From the calculated vapour pressure for each of the components the relative volatility
can be determined.
PA
AB=
PB
Where:
A = Light Key
B = Heavy Key
Therefore Relative Volatility:
AB=
PA 1.35
=
=2.015
PB 0.67
AB = 2.015
4.10 Reflux Ratio
[17]
The reflux ratio (R) is defined as:
R=
Flow returned as reflux

Flow of top product off
The reflux ratio is a very important factor in the determination of the number of stages
required for separation. An increase in the reflux ratio reduces the number of stages
required for separation. This leads to a decrease in capital costs, however, operating
costs and service requirements such as steam and water increases. The optimum reflux
ratio will be the ratio at which the annual operating costs are its lowest.
The minimum reflux ratio Rmin is calculated using the Underwood equation. It is
assumed that the feed enters at its boiling point. Therefore q=1.
18
Rmin =
1
AB1
](
x D AB (1x D )
xF
1x F
Equation 2: Underwood Equation to calculate the minimum reflux ratio

Where:
Rmin : The minimum reflux ratio
AB : The relative volatility = 2.015

xD
: The mole fraction of MEK in the Distillate = 0.99
x F : The mole fraction of MEK in the feed =0.90

Substitute in values:
R
min
0.99
1
(1 0.99)
2.015
2.015 1 0.90
(1 0.90)
Rmin = 0.88
It is suggested that for many systems the optimum reflux ratio lies between 1.2 to 1.5
times the minimum reflux ratio.
Therefore:
R= Rmin x 1.5
R= 0.88 x 1.5
R= 1.323
19
4.11 Fenske Equation and Gilliland Correlation
[19]
The Fenske Equation and Gilliland correlation are used together to calculate the number
of theoretical stages. The minimum number of stages required at the total reflux can be
calculated using the Fenske equation. The number of theoretical plates required can
then be estimated using the Gilliland correlation, figure 11. The Gilliland correlation is a
relationship between the reflux ratio, the minimum reflux ratio and the minimum
number of stages.
log
( n+1 )m =
[18]
[( ) ( ) ]
xA
xB
xB
xA
log AB
Equation 3: Fenske Equation [20]
Where:
AB : The relative volatility = 2.015

x AD : The mole fraction of MEK in the distillate = 0.99
x BD : The mole fraction of SBA in the distillate = 0.01
x BW : The mole fraction of SBA in the waste (bottoms) = 0.99
x AW : The mole fraction of MEK in the waste (bottoms) = 0.01
log
( n+1 )m =
0.99
([ 0.99
)
(
0.01 0.01 ) ]
D
log2.015
( n+1 )m = 13.099
The Gilliland correlation can now be used to calculate the number of theoretical stages.
20
Figure 11: Gilliland Correlation
the X axis:
RR m
R+1
Where:
R: The Reflux Ratio = 1.32
Rm: The Minimum Reflux Ratio = 0.88
1.320.88
=0.189
1.32+1
From figure 11 it can be determined that the curve is intersected at 0.47 when the xaxis is 0.189.
the Y axis
( n+1 )(nm +1)

n+2
Substitute in the values and rearrange to calculate n (theoretical number of stages).
( n+1 )( 13.099)
=0.46
n+2
Therefore,
n=24.1 24 stages
21
4.12 ErbarMaddox Correlation
[21]
The ErbarMaddox correlation is a different method which can also be used in the
determination of the number of theoretical plates. This method gives the ratio of
number of stages required to the number at total reflux. It is given as a function of the
reflux ratio with the minimum reflux ratio.
Figure 12 shows the Erbar-Maddox
correlation.
Figure 12: Erbar-Maddox Correlation
[22]
The following calculations have to be carried out in order to determine the number of
stages:
theY axis :
R
R +1
Where:
R: The Reflux Ratio = 1.32
1.32
=0.57
1.32+1
22
thelines of constant :
Rm
Rm +1
Where:
Rm: The Minimum Reflux Ratio = 0.88
0.88
=0.47
0.88+1
The Nm /N value can be obtained from the graph in figure 12.
Nm
=0.57
N
Where Nm = 13.099
Therefore, substitute in the values and rearrange to obtain N. Where N is the number of
theoretical plates.
N=
13.099
=22.98 23
0.57
The values obtained for the number of plates are only preliminary value. The actual
number of stages cannot be determined at this point as the plate efficiency is not yet
known. The plate efficiency will be calculated at a later stage of the report and that will
be used to calculate the actual number of stages.
23
24
4.13 Column Diameter

The number of stages is not required to calculate the diameter of the column. However,
the liquid and vapour flowrates are required in order to calculate the diameter. The
flowrate is the principal factor in determining the column diameter. It is important that
the vapour velocity is lower than that velocity which would cause entrainment. [23] There
are various steps which will be needed to calculate the column diameter for the
distillation column. A number of calculations will be carried out in this section to
determine the column diameter.
The chosen plate is a sieve plate. Certain specifications have to be put in place in order
to calculate the diameter of the column. The following specifications were made:
Hole Diameter 5mm

Tray Spacing 600mm
Plate Thickness 5mm
Hole Pitch 15mm
4.13.1 Internal Traffic
[24]
The liquid and vapour flowrates will be calculated using the four following equations:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Lo = RD
V = Lo + D
L = Lo + qF
V = V + (1 q)
Where:
R: The reflux ratio = 1.323
D: The total distillate flowrate = 170.081 kmol/hr which is equal to 12266.269 kg/hr
F: The total feed flowrate = 189.385 kmol/hr which is equal to 13692.873kg/hr
q: The feed enters as liquid at its boiling point = 1
1. Lo = RD
A) Lo = 1.323 x 170.08 = 225.028 kmol/hr
B) Lo = 1.323 x 12266.269 = 16228.274 kg/hr
2. V = Lo + D
A) V = 225.028 + 170.081 = 395.109 kmol/hr
B) V = 16228.274 + 12266.269 =28495.543 kg/hr
3. L = Lo + qF
A) L = 225.028 + (1 x 189.385) = 414.413kmol/hr
B) L = 16228.274 + (1 x 13692.873) =29921.147 kg/hr
25
4. V = V + (1 q)
A) V =395.109 + (1 1) = 395.109 kmol/hr
B) V = 28495.543 + (1 1) = 28495.543 kg/hr
4.13.2 Vapour Density

The ideal gas equation will be used to calculate the vapour density for both Methyl
Ethyl Ketone and Secondary Butyl Alcohol.
PV=nRT
[25]
Where:
P: is the Pressure in Pa
V: is the Volume
n: is the number of Moles
R: is the gas constant
T: is the temperature in Kelvin
PV=nRT
V=
nRT
P
M nRT
=
P
Where M is the mass of the feed.
Rearrange the above equation to make density () the subject:
MP
nRT
We know that relative molecular mass , Mr =
M
So therefore :
n
Mr P
RT
The column pressure is assumed to be operating at atmospheric pressure. So the

pressure will be taken as 101325Pa.
26
Methyl Ethyl Ketone Vapour Density

P = 101325 Pa
Mr = 72.1
R = 8314 m3PaK-1kmol-1
T = 362 K
Substitute the values into the above equation.
72.1 101325
=2.427 kg /m3
8314 362
Secondary Butyl Alcohol Vapour Density

P = 101325 Pa
Mr = 74.1
R = 8314 m3PaK-1kmol-1
T = 362 K
Substitute the values into the above equation.
74.1 101325
=2.495 kg /m3
8314 362
4.13.3 Liquid Density

To calculate the liquid density for both Methyl Ethyl Ketone and Secondary Butyl Alcohol
the following equation will be used:
L A* B
1T
Tc
Equation 4: Liquid Density
[25]
Where:
A, B and n: are regression coefficients (shown in table 4)
T: The operating temperature in Kelvin = 362k
Tc: The critical Temperature in Kelvin (shown in table 4)
27
0.2857
Critical
Temperature
, Tc (K)
535.5
Operating
Temperature
(K)
362
0.2676
0.251
4
0.263
5
0.2604
536.01
362
Component
Methyl Ethyl
Ketone (MEK)
Secondary Butyl
Alcohol
(SBA)
0.2734
Table 4: Regression Coefficients for MEK and SBA
[26]
Methyl Ethyl Ketone Liquid Density

Substitute the values into the above equation:
0.2676 0.2514
1 362
535.5
0.2 85 7
0.2676 0.2514 0.893
=0.78 g /mL
Convert to kg/m3
=0.78
g
mL
L
Kg
1000
1000 3
ml
L
1000
g
m
=780
Kg
m3
Secondary Butyl Alcohol

Substitute the values into the above equation:
0.2734 0.2635
1 362
536.01
0.260 4
0.2734 0.2635 0.902
=0.82 g/mL
Convert to kg/m3
28
=0.82
=820
g
mL
L
Kg
1000
1000 3
ml
L
m 1000 g
Kg
m3
4.13.4 Flooding
Flooding occurs when the vapour flow is excessive and this causes liquid to be
entrained in the vapour up the column. The excessive vapour flowrate also cause an
increase in pressure and this backs up the liquid in the downcomer. This causes an
increase in liquid holdup on the plate above. The maximum capacity of the column can
be reduced severely depending on the degree of flooding. Flooding can be detected by
a sharp increase in the column differential pressure and a significant decrease in the
separation efficiency.
[27]
The following equation is used to calculate the Liquid-Vapour
Flow (FLV) factor.
FLV
L
* V
V L
0.5
Equation 5: Liquid Vapour Flow Factor
[28]
Where:
FLV: Liquid-Vapour Flow Factor
L: Liquid molar flowrate
V: Vapour molar flowrate
v: Vapour Density
L: Liquid Density
The Liquid-Vapour Flow Factor will be calculated for both the enriching (Top) section and
the stripping (Bottom) section.
Enriching Section (FLVTOP)
FLV
L
* V
V L
0.5

L: Liquid molar flowrate = 225.028 kmol/hr
29
V: Vapour molar flowrate = 395.109 kmol/hr

v: Vapour Density = 2.427 kg/m3
L: Liquid Density = 780 kg/m3
Substitute the values into equation5:
225.028
2.427
F LV =
395.109
780
)(
0.5
F LV = 0.0312
Assuming a tray spacing of 600m (0.6m) which is suitable for maintenance, inspection
and cleaning. From the calculated F LV the corresponding K1
TOP
value can be obtained.
From figure13 it can be seen that the corresponding K 1TOP value is 0.11.
Figure13: Flooding Velocity [28]
Stripping Section (FLVBOTTOM)
FLV
L' V
*
V ' L
0.5
Equation 6: Liquid Flow Factor
[28]

L: Liquid molar flowrate = 414.413 kmol/hr
30
V: Vapour molar flowrate = 395.109 kmol/hr

L: Liquid Density =820 kg/m3
Substitute the values into equation 6
414.413
2.495
F LV =
395.109
820
)(
0.5
F LV = 1.048856138 0.055155504
F LV = 0.058
Assuming a tray spacing of 600m (0.6m) which is suitable for maintenance, inspection
and cleaning. From the calculated F LV the corresponding K1BOTTOM value can be obtained.
From figure13 it can be seen that the corresponding K 1BOTTOM value is 0.1.
The flooding velocity is then calculated using the following equation:
L V
V
0.5
U F K1
Equation 7: Flooding Velocity Correlation
[28]
Where:
UF: Flooding Vapour Velocity
K1: A Constant
L: Liquid Density
V: Vapour Density
Enriching Section Flooding Velocity
V
U F K1 L
0.5
UF TOP: Flooding Vapour Velocity

K1: A Constant = 0.11
31

V: Vapour Density = 2.427 kg/m3
u F top =0.11
( 7802.427 )
2.427
0.5
UF TOP = 1.969 m/s
Stripping Section Flooding Velocity
V
U F K1 L
0.5
UF TOP: Flooding Vapour Velocity

K1: A Constant = 0.1
V: Vapour Density = 2.495 kg/m3
( 8202.495 )
u F BOTTOM =0.1
2.495
0.5
UF BOTTOM = 1.81 m/s
The flooding condition fixes the upper limit of vapour velocity. For high plate efficiencies
a higher vapour velocity is required, the velocity will be normally 79-90% of that which
could flooding. In chemical engineering design a flooding velocity between 80-85%
would be effective.
[29]
4.13.5 Maximum Volumetric Flowrate

Taking 80% flooding the velocity at flooding is as follows:
Flowrate in the enriching section (U V,TOP) = 0.8 1.969 = 1.575 m/s
32
Flowrate in the stripping section (U V,BOTTOM) = 0.8 1.81 =1.448 m/s

To calculate the area for the top and the bottom of the column the maximum
volumetric flowrates are used. The maximum volumetric flowrate is calculated using
the following equation:
U max =
V Mr
3600
Where:
Umax: Maximum Volumetric Flowrate
V: Molar Vapour Flowrate
: Vapour Density
Mr: Relative Molecular Mass
Maximum Volumetric Flowrate in the Enriching Section
U max =
V Mr
3600
Where:
V: Molar Vapour Flowrate = 395.109 kmol/hr
: Vapour Density = 2.427 kg/m3
Mr: Relative Molecular Mass = 72.1
Substitute values into the above equation:
U max =
395.109 72.1
2.427 3600
Umax = 3.260 m3/s
Maximum Volumetric Flowrate in the Stripping Section
33
U max =
V Mr
3600
Where:
V: Molar Vapour Flowrate = 395.109 kmol/hr
Mr: Relative Molecular Mass = 74.1
Substitute values into the above equation:
U max =
395.109 74.1
2.495 3600
Umax = 3.260 m3/s
4.13.6 Calculation of Column Diameter

The following equation is used to calculate the column diameter of the distillation
column:
d=
4 A
Equation 9: Column Diameter

Where:
d: The diameter
A: Area
Enriching Section (Top) Diameter
Area:
3.260
=2.070 m2
1.575
34
So the diameter is therefore calculated to be:
d=
4 2.070
d = 1.623 m
Striping Section (Bottom) Diameter

Area:
3.260
=2.251m2
1.448
So the diameter is therefore calculated to be:
d=
4 2.251
d = 1.693 m
It can be seen that the both the top and bottom diameter are very similar. However, the
largest diameter is selected to be the column diameter of the entire distillation column,
i.e. Dc = 1.693 m.
From the diameter calculated it can be seen that the diameter is greater than 0.6m.
Therefore, it would be suitable for the column to be designed as a tray design.
4.14 Plate Design

4.14.1 Provisional Plate Design
[30]
In section 4.13.6 the column diameter was determined.

The area of the column is calculated as follows:
A c=
d 2c
4
Equation 10 Area of the Column
35
A c=
1.693
4
Ac = 2.251 m2
The Downcomer area (Ad) is taken at 12% of the column area (A c):
Ad = 0.12 2.251 = 0.270 m2
Net Area (An) = Ac Ad
(An) = 2.251 0.270 = 1.981 m2
Active Area (Aa) = Ac 2Ad
(Aa) = 2.251 (2 0.270) = 1.711m2
The Hole area (Ah) is taken at 10% of the Active area (Aa):
Ah = 0.1 1.711 = 0.171m2
The Weir length (lw) is calculated using figure14.
theY axis :
Ad
100
Ac
Where:
Ad: Downcomer area = 0.270 m
Ac: Column Area = 2.251 m
Substitute in the values:
0.270
100=12
2.251
The corresponding value for
lw
Dc
can now be obtained from figure14. The value
determined from the graph is 0.76.

Weir length (lw) = 0.755 1.693 = 1.278m.
36
Figure14: Correlation between downcomer area and weir length
[31]
4.14.2 Weir Height (hw)

The volume of liquid on the plate is determined by the height of the weir. It is also an
important factor in the determination of plate efficiency. Plate efficiency increases as
the weir height increases. However, this is at the expense of a higher plate pressure
drop. For distillation columns which require a vacuum lower weir heights are suggested
as this reduces the pressure drop. Recommended weir heights are typically in the range
of 6 to 12mm for vacuum operation. For columns which operate above atmospheric
pressure weir heights are generally between 40mm and 90mm. It is recommended that
weir heights of 40 to 50mm are used. In this case the selected weir height (h w) is
50mm.
[31]
4.14.3 Weeping
Weeping occurs when the flowrate in the distillation column is low. Due to this the
pressure exerted by the vapour is insufficient to hold up the liquid on the tray. As a
result of this, liquid starts to leak through the perforations (holes). Dumping occurs as a
result of excessive weeping. This will mean that the liquid on all the trays will crash
through to the base of the column. This in turn results in a domino effect and the
therefore the column will have to be re-started. Significant pressure drops and reduced
separation efficiency indicate the presence of weeping.
[27]
The weep point occurs when

37
liquid leakage through the plate holes becomes excessive. The vapour velocity at the
weep point is the minimum velocity required for stable operation. The vapour flow
velocity at the lowest operating rate must be well above the weep point when
specifying the hole area. The minimum design vapour velocity is given in equation 11.
[32]
[ uh ]min=
[ K 20.90(25.4d h)]
0.5
[ V ]
Equation11: Minimum Design Vapour Velocity
[32]
Where:
uh: The minimum vapour velocity through the holes
dh: The hole diameter
K2: A constant, which is dependent on the depth of clear liquid on the plate (obtained
from figure 15)
Weeping Check
[33]
K2 in equation 11 is a constant value. In order to determine K 2 the depth of the crest of

liquid over the weir (how) must first be calculated. The Francis weir formula can be
utilised to find the height of the liquid crest over the weir. The Francis weir formula is
given in equation 12.
2 /3
[ ]
L
how =750 w
l l w
Equation12: Francis weir equation
[34]
Where:
how: Weir Crest
Lw: Weir Length
Lw: Liquid flow-rate
l : Liquid Density
Firstly, the values required to determine the weir crest must be calculated.
The maximum liquid rate ( L):
38
L' =
29921.147
=8.312 kg/ s
3600
The minimum liquid rate at 70% turn down:

= 0.7 x 8.312
= 5.818 kg/s
Maximum how:
750
8.312
780 1.278
2 /3
=30.840 mm of liquid
Minimum how:
750
5.818
780 1.278
2 /3
=24.312mm of liquid
At the minimum liquid rate: hw + how = 50 + 24.312 = 74.312

The K2 value can now be determined from figure15.
Figure15: Weep point correlation
[35]
The corresponding K2 value at 74.312mm is 30.7.

Now the minimum design vapour velocity can be calculated from equation 11.
Where:
39
dh: The hole diameter = 5 mm

K2: A constant = 30.7
Substitute values into equation 11:
[ uh ]min =
[ 30.70.90 ( 25.45 ) ] =7.921 m/s

0.5
[ 2.427 ]
It is important to calculate the actual minimum vapour velocity. This is calculated as

follows:
Minimum vapour rate

Efficiency
Hole Area
0.7 3.260
=13.34 m/s
0.171
It can be seen that the minimum operating rate is well above the weep point.
4.14.4 Plate Pressure Drop

In the design of distillation columns the pressure drop is an important aspect. There are
two causes of pressure drop: as a result of vapour flow through the holes and due to
the static head of liquid on the plate. The total pressure drop is the sum of the dry plate
pressure drop (hd), the head of the clear liquid on the plate (h w + how) and residual
losses (hr). Residual losses account for other minor sources of pressure losses which
may occur. The residual loss is the difference between the experimental pressure drop
and the sum of the dry plate drop and the clear-liquid height.
4.14.4.1 Dry Plate Drop
[36]
[37]
The pressure drop through the dry plate is calculated using equation 13.
2
[ ]
u
hd =51 h
Co
v
L
Equation 13: Pressure drop through the dry plate
[38]
Where:
40
Uh: Maximum vapour velocity through the holes

Co: Orifice coefficient. It is a function of plate thickness, hole diameter and the hole to
perforated area ratio (obtained from figure16).
v: Vapour Density
L: Liquid Density
Figure16: Discharge Coefficient
[38]
The maximum vapour velocity through the holes (U h) is calculated as follows:
U h=
Maixmum Volumetric Flowrate

Hole Area
U h=
3.260
=19.064 m/ s
0.171
To determine Co:
Plate Thickness 5
= =1
Hole Diameter 5
Assuming from the graph:
Ah A h 0.171
=
=0.1100=10
A p A a 1.711
41
The corresponding Co value can be obtained 0.84

Now the dry plate drop can be determined by substituting into equation 13.
hd =51
19.064
2.427
=81.673mm liquid
0.84
780
4.14.4.2 Residual Head
[39]
Many methods have been developed to estimate the residual head which have been a
function of liquid surface tension, froth density and height. As a result of the correction
term being small the estimation is not justified. However, an equation by Hunt et al
(equation 14) has been proposed to find the residual head.
3
hr =
12.5 10
L
Equation 14: Residual Head
[39]
Where:
hr: The Residual Head
L: Liquid Density
3
hr =
12.5 10
=16.026 mmliquid
780
4.14.4.3 Total Drop

The total pressure drop can now be calculated. The total plate drop is given in equation
15.
h
( w+ how )+h r
ht =h d +
Equation 15: Total Plate Drop
[39]
Where:
ht: Total Drop
hd: Dry Plate Drop = 81.673 mm
42
hw+how: Head of clear liquid on the plate = (50 + 30.840mm)

hr: Residual Head = 16.026 mm
ht = 81.673 + 50 + 30.840 + 16.026 = 178.539 mm liquid
The total plate drop is expressed in terms of millimetres however it can also be given in
pressure units. This is given as follows:
3
Pt =9.81 10 ht L
Equation 16: Total Pressure Drop
[36]
Where:
Pt: Total Plate Pressure Drop (Pa(N/m2))
ht: Total Plate Pressure Drop (mm liquid)
L: Liquid Density
Pt = 9.81 x 10-3 x 178.539 x780 = 1366.149 Pa
= 1.366 kPa
4.14.5 Downcomer Design [40]

When designing the downcomer it is important to ensure that the level of the liquid and
the froth in the downcomer is considerably below the top of the outlet weir on the plate
above it. The column is likely to flood if the level rises above the outlet weir. The
pressure drop over the plate and the resistance to flow in the downcomer may cause a
backup of liquid in the downcomer. A diagram of the downcomer backup is shown in
figure17.
43
Figure17: Downcomer Back-up
[40]
The head loss in the downcomer can be estimated using the equation is equation 17.
2
[ ]
Lwd
hdc =166
L Am
Equation17: Head loss in downcomer
[40]
Where:
Lwd: Liquid flow rate in downcomer
Am: is either the downcomer area (Ad) or the clearance area under the downcomer (A ap).
The smallest value is used.
L: Liquid Density
The clearance area under the downcomer (Aap):
(Aap) = hapIw
hap is the height of the bottom edge of the apron above the plate. The height is usually
set at 5 to 10mm. In this case it has been set to be 10mm. So:
hap = hw 10 = 50 10 = 40mm
= 0.04m
The clearance area under the downcomer (Aap):
=0.04 x 1.278 = 0.051 m2
It can be seen that Ad = 0.270m2. It can therefore be concluded that the smallest value
for Am in this case is equal to Aap. i.e. Am = Aap
44
Substitute the values into equation 17:

2
8.312
hdc =166
=7.248 mm
780 0.051
The downcomer backup can now be calculated:
hb =( hw +h ow ) + ht +h dc
hb = 50 + 30.840 + 178.539 + 7.248 = 266.627 mm

The downcomer back up height should be less than 0.5 times the plate spacing and
weir height for a safer plate design. This is shown below:
hbc <
1
[ ( plate spacing ) +hw ]
2
1
0.266 m< [ 0.6 +0.05 ] =0.325 m
2
0.266m < 0.325m
This shows that the plate spacing of 600m is acceptable as the downcomer backup is
less.
4.14.6 Residence Time
[41]
It is important to ensure that enough time is allowed in the downcomer for any
entrained vapour to disengage from the liquid stream and prevent the liquid being
carried under the downcomer. A time of at least 3 seconds is recommended.
t r=
A d h bc L
Lwd
Equation 18: Residence Time for the downcomer
[41]
Where:
tr: Residence Time
Ad: Downcomer Area = 0.270 m
hbc: Clear Liquid back-up = 0.266 m
Lwd: Liquid flow rate in downcomer = 8.312 kg/s
45
0.270 0.266 780

=6.740 seconds
8.312
It can be seen that the calculated residence time is greater than the recommended
time of least 3 seconds.
4.14.7 Entrainment
[42]
Entrainment is a result of high vapour flow rates and refers to the liquid carried up by
vapour to the tray above. It is unfavourable as tray efficiency is reduced. The lower
volatile material is carried to a plate holding liquid of a higher volatility. High purity
distillates can also become contaminated. In the event of excessive entrainment
flooding can occur.
[27]
The correlation developed by Fair (figure18) can be used to
estimate entrainment. It shows the fractional entrainment () as a function of the

liquid-vapour factor (FLV), with the percentage of flooding as a parameter.
It can be seen from section 4.13.5 that the percentage flooding is taken to be 80%.
FLV = 0.058
The corresponding fractional entrainment () can be obtained from figure18 below. The
()
is
found
to
be
0.041.
It is important to ensure that the fraction entrainment is lower than 0.1. It can be seen
that the value obtained is significantly lower than 0.1 and is therefore within a safe
operating range.
46
Figure18: Correlation to find Fractional Entrainment
[42]
4.14.8 Trial Layout

4.14.8.1 Perforated Area
[43]
Figure19: Relation between angle subtended by chord, chord height and chord length
[44]
47
Obstruction caused by structural members such as support rings and beams and by the
use of calming zones reduces the area available for perforation. Calming zones are
referred to unperforated strips of plate at the inlet and outlet sides of the plate. The
widths of each zone are usually made the same and have recommended values of
below 1.5m, 75mm; above 100mm. For sectional plates the width of the support ring is
usually between 50 to 75mm. It is important to ensure that the support rings do not
enter into the downcomer area. Using figure19 the unperforated area can be calculated
from the plate geometry.
[43]
From figure19:
the x axis=
l w 1.278
=
=0.755
Dc 1.693
From the y axis the corresponding value determined = 99

The angle subtended at the plate edge by unperforated strip = 180 99 = 81
Mean Length of unperforated edge strips =
Area of unperforated edge strips =
( 1.69350 x 103 ) 81 =2.323 m
50 x 10 x 2.323=0.116 m
180
Mean Length of calming zone =weir length+width of unperforated strip=1.278+(50 x 103)=1.328 m

Area of calming zone = 2(1.328 x 50 x 10-3) = 0.133 m2
Total Area for perforations (Ap) = Active Area - Area of unperforated edge strips - area of
the calming zone
Ap = 1.711 0.116 1.328 = 0.267 m2
The distance between the hole centres i.e. the hole pitch should not be less than 2.0
hole diameters. The normal range falls between 2.5 to 4.0 diameters. From the range
the pitch can be selected to give the number of active holes required for the total hole
area. Usually square and equilateral triangular patterns are used. Of these two the
equilateral triangular pattern is preferred. The total hole area as fraction of the
perforated area Ap is expressed in the following equation.
2
[ ]
Ah
d
=0.9 h
Ap
lp
48
Equation 19: The total hole area as a fraction of the perforated area
[43]
Ah 0.171
=
=0.640
A p 0.267
From figure 20 below the
lp
dh
Ah
Ap
can be determined using the value calculated for
above.
Figure 20: Correlation to show the relationship between hole area and pitch
The value obtained for
Ah
Ap
[45]
does not fall within the range. This means that the hole
area is too large. Within the provisional plate design it was originally assumed that the
hole area will be taken as 10% of the active area. However, now we shall assume a hole
area as 3% of the active area:
Ah =0.03 x 1.711 m2 = 0.051 m2
Therefore,
Ah
Ap
can now be recalculated:
Ah 0.051
=
=0.191
A p 0.267
49
The corresponding
lp
dh
can now be obtained figure20:
lp
=2.25this is accpetable as it is greater than2.0
dh
4.14.8.2 Number of Holes

The diameter of hole = 5mm
Therefore,
5 x 103
2

Area of one hole=
Number of holes=
total Areaof hole

0.051
=
=2598.06=2599 holes
Area of one hole 1.963 105
4.14.9 Liquid Flow Arrangement
50
Figure21: Graph for selection of liquid-flow arrangement
[46]
The liquid flow-rate and column diameter are the factors which determine the choice of
the plate type i.e. reverse, single pass or multiple pass. Figure21 can be used to find
the liquid-flow arrangement. [46]
Maximum volumetric liquid rate=
16228.74
=5.779 103 m3 /s
3600 780
From figure21it can be seen that a cross flow (single pass) can be used.
4.14.10 Hydraulic Gradient

The difference in liquid level which is needed to drive the liquid flow across the plates is
referred to as the hydraulic gradient. On sieve plates no hydraulic gradient occurs
because of small resistance to liquid flow. In sieve plate designs the hydraulic gradient
is usually ignored.
[43]
4.14.11 Actual Plate Efficiency
[47]
Van Winkle et al (1972) published a correlation for the determination of plate efficiency
which can be used for binary systems. Dimensionless groups which affect plate
efficiency are included within the correlation. The equation is as follows:
Emv 0.07 Dg 0.14 Sc 0.25 Re 0.08

Equation 20: Van Winkle Correlation for plate efficiency
[47]
Where:
D g : Surfacetension=
L
L uV
Sc : Liquid Schmidt Number =
: Reynolds Number =
L
L DLK
h w uv v
FA
L
51
uv :Superficial Vapour Velocity=
FA :Fractional Area=
Maximum Volumetric Flowrate

Area of Column
Area of Holes
Area of Column
4
L : Liquid Viscosity 2.194 10
Ns /m2
(calculation shown in appendix ##)
L: Liquid surface tension = 0.0213 N/m (calculation shown in appendix ##)

DLK: Liquid Diffsivity =
3.794 109 m2 /s
(calculation shown in appendix ##)
hw: Weir height = 50 mm

Calculating the unknowns from above:
FA :Fractional Area=
Area of Holes 0.171

=
=0.076
Area of Column 2.251
uv :Superficial Vapour Velocity=
D g : Surfacetension=
Maximum Volumetric Flowrate 3.260

=
=1.448 m/ s
Area of Column
2.251
L
0.0213
=
=67.046
L uV 2.194 104 1.448
Sc : Liquid Schmidt Number =
: Reynolds Number =
L
2.194 104
=
=74.139
L DLK 780 3.794 109
h w uv v
50 103 1.448 2.427
FA=
=10537.998
L
2.194 104 0.076
Substitute all the values into the Van Winkles equation:
52
Emv = 0.07 (67.046)0.14 (74.139)0.25 (10537.998)0.08

Emv = 0.776
Therefore, using Van Winkles equation and actual plate efficiency of 77.6% is obtained.
4.14.12 Actual Number of Plates

Previously two methods were used to determine the theoretical number of plates.
According to Gilliland and Fenskes correlation 24 plates would be required. According
to the Erbar-Maddox correlation 23 plates would be required. We must select the worst
case scenario i.e. pick 24 plates.
Therefore, the actual number of plates required taking account of the calculated plate
efficiency would be as follows:
24
=30.927 31 Plates
0.776
In order to achieve effective distillation 31 stages would be required.
4.14.13 Height of Column

The equation below can be used to predict the height of the distillation column:
Hc = (N+1)*Hs+H+plate thickness
Equation 21: Determination of Column Height
Where:
N: The actual number of plates (stages) required = 31
Hs: The tray spacing = 600mm (0.6m)
H: The distance of liquid holdup and vapour disengagement = 1m
Plate Thickness = 5mm (0.005m)
53
Substitution of all values gives a column height of: [(31 + 1) 0.6] +1 + 0.005 =
20.205m ~ 21m
The height of the column is therefore predicted to be approximately 21m tall.
5.0 Energy Balance
[48]
Process streams have kinetic and potential energies; however, they are neglected as
they are small. In all systems a transfer of heat occurs between the inlet and outlet
streams. This is shown in figure22.
Figure22: Transfer of Energy within a system
[48]
Input of energy is provided by two means: from the feed (H f) and the reboiler (Qb).
So: Qb + feed sensible heat Hf
Output of energy occurs from the top (HD) and bottom (HW) products and from the
condenser (QC).
So: QC + top and bottom products sensible heat HD + HW
In order to calculate the condenser and reboiler heat load the following have to be
calculated:
54
Latent Heat of Vaporisation of the Components ( Calculations found in appendix
##)
Specific Heat Capacity ( Calculations found in appendix ##)
5.1.1 Condenser Heat Load (QC)

In order to determine QC the heat balance must be calculated around the condenser.
The temperature of the column is 89C (362 K), however the temperature at the top of
the column must be lower than this. The inlet temperature to the condenser is assumed
to be 79.98C (352.98K) and the outlet temperature is assumed to be 60C (333 K).
From the mass balance in section 4.8 it can be seen that the distillate contains 99%
MEK so the calculation will be based on the capacities of only MEK.
12266.269
kg/hr
Figure23: Top of
column and condenser

diagram
[49]
At a steady state as shown in figure 23 the following are true:

INPUT = OUTPUT
H V =H D + H L +Qc
And this can be rearranged to determine Q C:
Qc =H V H D H L
It is assumed that complete condensation occurs so:
Enthalpy of vapour HV = Latent + Sensible
H L mix=( H L MEK wt ) + ( H L SBA wt )
55
H L mix= (189.185 0.99 )+(251.614 0.01)
H L mix= 189.809 J/molK
C P mix =( C P MEK wt ) + ( C P SBA wt )

C P mix =( 1.590 0.99 ) +(1.737 0.01)
C P mix = 1.591 J/molK
'
Q C =V [ H L mix +C P mix ] T
Where:
T =352.98333=19.98 K
H L mix= 189.809 J/molK
C P mix = 1.591 J/molK

V= 28495.543 kg/hr
Substitute in all the values:
QC =28495.543 [ 189.809+ 1.591 19.98 ] Q = 6317039.579 kj/hr

C
= 1754.733 KW
The top product and reflux will be at the same temperature so Q C = HV
Cooling water required
The amount of cooling water required in the condenser will be calculated in this section.
It is assumed that:
Qh=Qc (heat of cooling)

It is know that:
Qc =mwater C p water T
The above equation can be rearranged to calculate the amount of cooling water
required. This is as follows:
56
mwater =
Qc
C p water T
Where:
Cp = 4.187 kj/kg.K
T = From the process description in section 4.1 it can be seen that the cooling water
enters the condenser at 24C (297K) and leaves at 40C (313 K).
Substitute the values in:
mwater =
6317039.579
=94295.432kg /hr
4.187 ( 4024 )
57
5.1.2 Condenser Design

This next focuses on the detailed design of the condenser.
There are certain specifications which are put in place in order to carry out the
appropriate calculations. They are as follows:
Outside Diameter (OD) of 25mm

Internal Diameter (ID) of 20mm
Tube length of 5m
Baffle cut of 25% is optimum as this gives good heat transfer rates [50]
The condensing material MEK will be located on the shell side as the shell side
copes better with changes in density. The cooling water will flow on the tube
side.
Pipes are assumed to be arranged in a square arrangement. This is due to the
ease of maintenance such as cleaning. [51]

The recommended minimum clearance between the tubes is 25 inches (6.4mm)
when using a square pattern. [51]

The overall heat transfer coefficient (U) is assumed to be 850 W/m 2 C
Fouling Coefficient of 5000 W/m2 K
[52]
5.1.2.1 Heat Transfer Area and Number of Tubes (NT)

Calculating the provisional Area:
Firstly the log mean temperature needs to be calculated using the following equation:
T LM =
( T 1t 2 ) ( T 2t 1 )
ln
[ T 1t2 ]
[ T 2 t1 ]
Equation 22: Calculation of log mean temperature
[53]
Where:
TLM: Log mean temperature difference
T1: Inlet shell side fluid temperature = 79.98C
T2: Outlet shell side fluid temperature = 60C
t1: Inlet tube side temperature = 24C
t2: Outlet tube side temperature = 40C
58
T LM =
(79.9840 )( 6024 )
=37.955 C
[ 79.9840 ]
ln
[ 6024 ]
We are aware that Q=UAT. This can be rearranged to obtain the area. This is shown
below:
A=
Q
U T
From the above assumptions and specification it can be seen that U is assumed to be
850 W/m2 C.
Therefore;
A=
6317039.579 1000
2
=54.391 m
850 37.955 3600
Surface Areaof one Tube=
25
( 1000
) 5=0.393 m
From this information the number of tubes can now be calculated:
Number of Tubes ( NT )=
NT =
Heat Transfer Area

Surface Areaof one tube
54.391
=138.399=139 tubes
0.393
Square pitch of 1.25do

Therefore pitch (Pt) = 1.25 x 25 = 31.25 mm
5.1.2.2 Tube Bundle Diameter (Db) [54]

The diameter of the tube bundle depends on both the number of tubes and the number
of passes. The tube bundle diameter can be estimated from equation 23. The constants
are shown in table 5.
59
Db=d o
NT
K1
1/ n1
( )
Equation 23: Tube Bundle diameter page
[54]
Where:
Db: Bundle Diameter
NT: The number of tubes = 139
do: Outside diameter = 25mm
K1 and n1: Constants = assumed a square pitch with 2 passes (The constants are shown
in table 5)
Table 5: Constants required for tube bundle equation [54]

D b=25
139
0.156
1 /2.291
=484.774 mm
The number of tubesthe centre row is given by :
Db
Pt
Where:
Db: Bundle Diameter = 484.774 mm
Pt: Tube Pitch = 31.25 mm
Therefore:
60
D b 484.774
=
=15.513=16 Tubes
Pt
31.25
5.1.2.3 Length of Condenser

The length of the condenser can be calculated as follows:
L=
A
do N t
Equation 24: Length of Condenser
Where:
L: The length of the condenser
A: The heat transfer area = 54.391 m2
do: Outside diameter = 25 mm
NT: The number of tubes
Substitute in the values into Equation 24:
L=
54.391
=4.982 m
0.025 139
5.2 Tube Side Coefficient
[55]
The tube side coefficient is calculated using equation 25 below. The equation has been
adapted from data provided Eagle and Ferguson (1930).
4200 ( 1.35+0.02 t ) ut0.8

hi=
d 0.2
i
Equation 25: Tube Side Coefficient
[56]
Where:
hi: Inside coefficient for water
t: water temperature = 32C - calculated below
61
ut: Water Velocity - calculated below

di: Tube inside diameter = 20mm
Mean temperature of water:
Water Temperature=
40+24
=32 C
2
Tube cross-sectional area:
Crosssectional area= 202=314.160 mm 2

4
Tubes per Pass=
139
=69.5=70
2
Total flow area=70 314.160 106 =0.022 m2

Tube side water velocity:
94295.432
(
3600 )
Water mass velocity=
=1190.599 kg/s m
0.022
Density of water = 998 kg/m3
Water linear velocity=
[57]
1190.599
=1.193 m/ s
998
Substitute into Equation 25:
hi=
4200 ( 1.35+0.02 32 ) 1.1930.8

=5286.993 W /m2 C
200.2
5.3 Shell Side Coefficient [58]

Firstly the shell diameter has to be determined. The bundle diametrical clearance is
found from figure24 below. Then this is used with the bundle diameter to calculate the
shell diameter.
Choosing the pull through floating head the bundle diametrical clearance is found to be
90.5mm.
62
Shell Diameter (DS) = 484.774 + 90.5 = 575.274 mm
Figure24: Shell-bundle Clearance
[59]
In the shells baffles are used to direct the fluid stream across the tubes. They help to
increase fluid velocity and therefore improve the rate of transfer. Single segmental
baffles are the most common type of baffle used. This type of baffle is show in
figure25.
Figure25: Segmental Baffle Design
Choose baffle spacing=
[60]
DS 575.274
=
=115.055 mm
5
5
Tube Pitch (Pt) = 1.25 x 25 = 31.25 mm
63
Cross flow Area ( A S )=
MassVelocity ( G S )=
575.274 115.055 10
( 31.2525
31.25 )
=0.0132m 2
28495.543
1
2
=599.654 kg/ m
3600
0.0132
Equivalent Diameter=
1.27 2
1.27
2
p t 0.785 d o )=
( 31.2520.785 252 ) =24.686 mm
(
do
25
Mean shell side temperature=
79.98+60
=69.99 C
2
The density of MEK has to be calculated at 69.99C. This is shown in appendix ##.
Density of MEK at 69.99C (342.99 K) = 795 kg/m3
The viscosity of MEK has to be calculated at 69.99C. This is shown in appendix ##.
Viscosity of MEK at 69.99C (342.99 K) = 0.2548 MNs/m2
One is also required to calculate the thermal conductivity (K) The calculation is shown
in appendix ##.
The thermal conductivity (K) = 0.188 w/m C
G S d e 599.954 24.686
=
=58125.842=58126
0.2548
Pr=
Cp 2.994 103 0.2548 103

=
=4.0578
Kf
0.188
From the assumptions it
can be seen that a baffle
cut of 25% has been
specified. From figure26
the corresponding heat
transfer factor (jh) can be
determined from the
Reynolds number
calculated.
64
Figure26: Shell-Side Heat Transfer Factor
[61]
Jh = 2.7 10-3
The shell side heat transfer coefficient without the viscosity correction term is as
follows:
1
h s=
0.188
2.7 103 58126 4.0578 3 =1906.365 w/m2 C
3
24.686 10
5.4 The Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
[62]
The overall heat transfer coefficient is given by the following equation:
65
1
1
1
U ho hod
do
di
d o ln
2k w
do * 1 d o * 1
d i hid d i hi
Equation 26: Overall heat transfer coefficient
[62]
Where:
U: Overall Coefficient
2
ho: Outside fluid film coefficient = 1906.365 w /m C

hod: Outside dirt coefficient = 5000 W/m2 K
hi: Inside fluid film coefficient =
5286.993W /m C
hid: Inside dirt coefficient = 5000 W/m 2 K

kw: Thermal conductivity of the tube wall = 50
W /m2 C
di: Inside diameter = 20 mm

0.025
0.025ln
1
1
1
1
0.025
1
0.020
0.025
789.407
U 1906.3655000
2 50
0.020 5000 0.020 5286.993
U = 789.407
W /m2 C
It can be seen that the calculated value for the overall heat transfer coefficient is
different from the assumed value of 850 W/m2 C. So in this case it would be suitable to
assume an overall heat transfer coefficient of 700 W/m 2 C and carry out the
calculations again.
66
5.5 Reboiler Design

This section will involve calculating the heat load for the condenser and also a brief
design of the reboiler required for the distillation column.
5.5.1 Reboiler Duty

The heat needed in the reboiler can be determined from the overall heat balance over
the distillation column. This is given below in equation 27.
QB + H F =Qc + H D + H b Equation 27: Overall heat balance

Where:
HD and Hb are the sensible heats of the distillate and bottom product.
In order to determine the reboiler duty the other parameters have to be calculated.
Then the above equation can be rearranged to find the heat required in the reboiler.
They are as follows:
H F =m C p T
Firstly the specific heat capacity (Cp) has to be calculated for Methyl Ethyl Ketone (MEK)
and Secondary Butyl Alcohol (SBA). This is shown in appendix##. The feed inlet to the
distillation column is assumed to be 70 C. The sensible heat of the feed at a basis of
25 C is calculated below.
Now HF can be calculated as follows:
H F =13692.873 3.394 ( 7025 )=2091312.493 kj/hr

H B =mC p T
The bottom product is assumed to be at a temperature of 98.807C. The sensible heat
of the bottom product is calculated as follows:
H B =1416.087 3.399 ( 98.80725 )=355253.736 kj/hr

HD = 0
Qc was previously calculated in section 4.15.1.
Qc = 6317039.579 kj/hr
67
Now all the parameters have been found the heat required can now be calculated.
QB = Q C + H D + H B H F
QB = 6317039.579 + 0 + 355253.736 2091312.493 = 4580980.822 kj/hr
= 1272.495 kw
Heat losses may occur. Therefore add 10% for heat losses:
QB =1.10 4580980.822 = 5039078.904 kj/hr
= 1399.744 kw
It is assumed that the steam which is supplied to the reboiler is at 2 bar (200 kN/m 2) at
a temperature of approximately 140C. The latent heat of steam is therefore 2144.4
kj/kg.
[63]
The steam required is calculated using the following equation:
QB =S h fg
Where:
QB: Reboiler heat load = 5039078.904 kj/hr
S: Steam Flowrate
hfg: Latent heat of vaporisation = 2144.4 kj/kg
The above equation can be rearranged to calculate the steam flowrate:
S=
QB 5039078.904
=
=2349.878 kg /hr
h fg
2144.4
5.5.2 Kettle Reboiler Design

Section 3.1.1 describes the three types of reboilers which are usually used. In this
design a kettle reboiler will be used. In kettle reboilers boiling takes place on tubes
which are immersed in a pool of liquid.
In order to carry out the appropriate calculations certain specifications and assumptions
will have to be set. They are as follows:
Inside Diameter (ID) of 25 mm

Outside Diameter (OD) of 30 mm
Nominal tube length of 5m
68
Steam at 2 bar
Overall heat transfer coefficient 900 W/m 2 C
The temperature of the bottom product is assumed to be 98.807 C (371.807 K). From
the steam table it can be determined that the temperature of the steam at 2 bar (200
kN/m2) is 120.23 C (393.23 K).
The log mean temperature (T):
T Lm =393.23371.807=21.423 C
We are aware that Q=UAT. This can be rearranged to obtain the area. This is shown
below:
A=
Q
U T
From the above assumptions and specification it can be seen that U is assumed to be
900 W/m2 C.
Therefore;
A=
5039078.904 1000
=72.598 m2
900 21.423 3600
The number of tubes required for the reboiler is calculated as follows:
Nt=
A
d o L Equation 28: Number of tubes
Where:
NT: Number of tubes
A: Heat transfer Area = 72.598 m2
L: Nominal length = 5m
Substitute the values in the above equation:
Nt=
72.598
=154.058=155
30
5
1000
69
Square pitch of 1.25do

Therefore pitch (Pt) = 1.5 x 30 = 45 mm
The bundle diameter can then be calculated from equation23.
Where:
Db: Bundle Diameter
NT: The number of tubes = 155
K1 and n1: Constants = assumed a square pitch with 2 passes (The constants are shown
in table 5)
Substitute the values into equation23:
D b=30
155
0.156
1 /2.291
=610.062 mm=0.610 m
The shell diameter is twice the bundle diameter. Therefore:
D s=2 610.062=1220.124 mm=1.220 m

To calculate the freeboard assume the liquid level as 500mm from the base:
Freeboard = 1220.124 500 = 720.124 mm
720.124
720........124 m
mm
500
1.5mm
m
610.062
1.3 m
mm
Figure27: Shell and Bundle

design
70
6.0 Mechanical Design
[64]
This section will focus on the mechanical design of the distillation column. The detailed
mechanical design of processing equipment will not be usually carried out by chemical
engineers. It is usually mechanical engineers who are responsible for this. However, in
this section of the report certain aspects of the mechanical design will be investigated
including; shell thickness, skirt design and weight of plates.
In order to carry out the mechanical design certain assumptions and specifications
have to be stated. They are as follows:
The Diameter of the column (Dc) = 1.693 m

The material of construction for the shell is Stainless Steel (18Cr/8Ni, Ti
stabilised)[65]
The column is operating at atmospheric pressure i.e. 1 atm = 1.01325 bar
It is assumed that the column is designed for 10% above the normal operating
pressure.
[65]
So the design pressure will be 1.1 1.01325 = 1.114575 bar. This is
equal to 0.114575 N/mm2

The shell will be insulated with 75 mm of mineral wool
6.1 Shell Thickness

In order to calculate the shell thickness the following equation has to be used:
e=
Pi D i
2 f Pi Equation 29: Minimum Shell Thickness
[65]
71
Where:
e: cylindrical column minimum shell thickness
Pi: The design pressure = 0.1114575 N/mm2
Di: The column diameter: 1.693 m
f: The design stress = from table 8 at 100C the design stress is 150 N/mm 2
0.1114575 1.693 103

e=
=0.629 mm According to Coulson and Richardson Volume 6 a
2 1500.1114575
corrosion allowance of 2mm should be used. Therefore, the column thickness will be:
e=0.629+2=2.629 mm
From the calculated wall thickness it can be seen that thickness is too small to
withstand the pressure of the column. It is important that the thickness of any vessel is
strong enough to withstand its own weight and any incidental loads. The table below
gives an indication of wall thicknesses of any vessel. The thickness should not be less
than the values stated in the table.
Vessel Diameter (m)
1
1 to 2
2 to 2.5
2.5 to 3.0
3.0 to 3.5
Minimum Thickness (mm)

5
7
9
10
12
Table 6: Optimum wall thickness
[65]
From table 6 it can be seen that with a vessel diameter of 1 to 2m the minimum
thickness should be 7mm. The diameter of this distillation column been calculated and
found to be 1.693m so it is important that the minimum thickness is 7mm.
6.2 Skirt Design
[66]
Certain factors such as size, shape and weight of the vessel will determine the type of
support a vessel uses. Skirt supports are usually used for tall vertical columns. It is
support that the supports are designed to withstand the weight of both the column and
the contents within it. Also, it must be able to withstand other loads such as wind loads.
When designing supports it has to be taken into that there should be ease of access to
72
the vessel for inspection and maintenance.
[66]
The skirt support will be made of a
cylindrical shell that is welded to the base of the distillation column. A flange at the
bottom of the skirt will transmit the load to the foundations. When designing the skirt
support it is important that gaps are provided for access and for connecting pipes. The
thickness of the skirt must be sufficient enough to withstand bending moments and the
dead weight of the column.
[66]
Figure 28 below shows the two types of skirt designs.
Figure 28: Skirt support designs
[66]
The resultant stresses occurring in the skirt will be:
s(compressive) = (bs) + (ws)

s(tensile) = (bs) + (ws)
Where:
bs: Bending stresses in the skirt
ws: The dead weight stresses in the skirt
Bending Stresses
The following equation is used to determine the bending stresses in the skirt support:
bs =
4 Ms
( D s+t s ) t s D s Equation 30: Bending stresses
[66]
Where:
Ms: The maximum bending moment elevated at the bottom of the skirt, due to wind,
seismic and eccentric loads
Ds: The diameter of the column , including shell thickness and insulation (calculated
73
below)
ts: is the shell thickness = 7 mm
The dynamic wind pressure is taken to be 1280 N/m 2 [67]
The diameter of the column including the shell thickness and insulation has to be
calculated. This is calculated as follows: 1.693 + 2 x (7 + 75) x 10 -3 = 1.857 m
The loading Fw = 1280 x 1.857 = 2376.96 N/m
From section 4.14.13 it can be seen that height of the column is 21m.
So,
2
Bending Moment=21
2376.96
=524119.68 Nm
2
Now the bending stresses in equation 30 can be calculated:
bs =
4 524119.68 103
2
=2.754 N / mm
3
3
( 1.857+7 10 ) 7 10 1.857
Dead Weight Stresses

The following equation is used to determine the dead weight stresses in the skirt
support:
ws =
W
( D s +t s ) t s Equation 31: Dead weight stresses
[68]
Where:
Ms: The maximum bending moment elevated at the bottom of the skirt, due to wind,
seismic and eccentric loads
Ds: The diameter of the column , including shell thickness and insulation (calculated
below)
ts: is the shell thickness = 7 mm
W: Total weight of the vessel and contents (calculated below)
The total weight of column (W)= weight of the shell (w 1) + weight of the plates (w2) +
weight of the insulation (w3)
74
Weight of the Shell (w1):

The following equation is used to find the weight of the shell:
Weight of Vessel=240 C v Dm (H v + 0.8 Dm ) t Equation 32: Weight of Vessel
[69]
Where:
Cv: Factor accounts for the weight of the nozzle, for distillation columns = 1.15
Hv: The height of the column = 21m
t: The shell thickness = 7mm
Dm: The diameter of the column including the shell thickness (calculated below)
The diameter of the column including the shell thickness:
D m=1.693+
7
( 1000
)=1.7 m
Weight of Vessel=240 1.15 1.7 ( 21+ 0.8 1.7 ) 7=73439.1184 N =73.434 kN
Weight of Plates (w2):

The plate area if calculated as follows:
Plate Area= 1.6932=2.251 m2

4
Weight of one plate = 1.2 2.251 = 2.701 kN

In the distillation column there are 31 plates in total therefore the total weight of the 31
plates is as follows:
= 2.701 31 = 83.731 kN
Weight of Insulation (w3):

The volume of insulation has to be calculated. It is specified that the column will be
insulated with 75 mm mineral wool. Therefore, the insulation volume:
75
Volume= 1.693 21 0.075=8.377 m
Weight of insulation: 8.377 x 130 x 9.81 = 10683.188 N

The value for the weight of insulation has to be doubled in order to allow for fittings:
= 2 10683.188 = 21366.376 N = 21.366 kN
Therefore, the total weight of the column can be determined:
w1 + w2 + w3 = 73.435 + 83.731 + 21.366 = 178.532 kN
The dead weight stresses can now be calculated by substitution into equation 31.
ws =
178532
=4.756 N /m m2
( 1700+7 ) 7
The resultant stresses occurring in the skirt will be:
s(compressive) = (bs) + (ws) = 2.754 + 4.756 = 7.510 N

s(tensile) = (bs) - (ws) = 2.754 4.756 = -2.00 N
ADD IN THE EXPLANATION
6.3 Heads and Closures

There are four typical types of heads of various shapes which are used for the end of a
cylindrical vessel including:
Flat plates and formed flat heads

Hemispherical heads
Ellipsoidal heads
Torispherical heads
Flat plates are usually used as covers for manways and are used as channel covers for
heat exchangers. Formed flat ends are sometimes known as flange-only heads. This
type of head is the cheapest type to manufacture as fabrication costs are low, however,
they are limited to low pressures and small diameter vessels. Torispherical head are
the most commonly used type for vessels with operating pressures up to 15 bar. They
can be used with vessels with higher pressures however; the costs have to be
compared with that of an ellipsoidal head. For pressures over 15 bar ellipsoidal heads
would be the most economical type. The hemispherical head type has the strongest
shape and is able to withstand double the pressure of a torispherical head which is of
76
the same thickness. For the product distillation column the flat head closure would be
suitable as the column is assumed to operate at atmospheric pressure.
[65]
6.4 Material Selection

In the selection of engineering materials many factors have to be considered. The most
important factor is the ability of the material to resist corrosion. The designer has a role
to recommend the best possible material that will be suitable for the process
conditions. Not only should the material satisfy the chemical properties but the
mechanical properties should also be considered. The material that gives the lowest
cost over the working plant life, allowing for maintenance and replacement, is also
another factor in the selection of materials. Product contamination and process safety
are also other factors that must be considered. Also, in the selection of a suitable
material the suitability of the material for fabrication should be considered. Stainless
steel is one of the most commonly used material in the chemical industry, as It is highly
corrosion resistant.
[70]
6.5 Pipe Sizing

The selection of pipe size depends on pressure differences which occur in the pipe. If
the fluid has to be pumped through the pipe the size of the pipe selected should give
the least annual operating costs. However, if there is enough head for gravity flow, the
smallest pipe diameter is selected which gives the required flowrate. Table 7 shows the
typical pipe velocities along with the allowable pressure drops. This information can be
used to estimate pipe sizes.
[71]
Liquids, pumped (not
Velocity m/s
1-3
P kPa/m
0.5
viscous)
Liquid, gravity flow
Gases and vapour
High pressure steam, > 8
15 - 30
30 - 60
0.05
0.02 % of line pressure
-
bar
Table 7: Typical pipe velocities and allowable pressure drops
[71]
From section 4.16.4 it can be seen that stainless steel has been chosen as the material
to build the pipes. Equation 31 has been developed to calculate the optimum diameter
77
for turbulent flow. The following equation can be used to give an estimation of the
economic pipe diameter for normal pipes.
d opt =260 G0.52 0.37 Equation 33: optimum diameter for stainless steel pipes
[71]
Where:
G: The flowrate
: The liquid density
The optimum pipe diameter will be calculated for the pipes at the feed, the distillate
and the bottom product. Also, the wall thickness will be calculated for the feed pipe, the
distillate pipe and the bottom product pipe. In order to resist internal pressure the pipe
wall thickness is also calculated which has an allowance for corrosion. Process pipes are
usually considered as thin cylinders. However, in cases such as high-pressure streams
they are considered as thick cylinders. The wall thickness is calculated from equation
34.
[71]
t=
Pd
20 d + P Equation 34: Formula for wall thickness
[71]
Where:
P: Internal Pressure
d: Pipe outer diameter (will be calculated for each pipe and calculations are shown
below)
: Design stress at working temperature (obtained from table 8)
Materi
als
Stainles
s Steel
(18Cr/8
Ni, Ti
stabilise
d)
Tensil
e
streng
th
(N/m
m2)
540
Design stress at temperature C (N/mm2)

0
to
50
10
0
15
0
20
0
25
0
30
0
35
0
40
0
45
0
50
0
16
15
14
13
13
13
12
5
0
0
5
0
0
5
Table 8: Typical Design stresses [72]
12
0
12
0
11
5
78
6.5.1 Pipe Sizing at the Feed

The temperature of the feed inlet to the column is assumed to be 70C (343 K). We are
aware that the feed contains both Methyl Ethyl Ketone and Secondary Butyl Alcohol.
Therefore, the density of the mixture has to be calculated at 343 K. This is shown as
follows:
Using equation 4 and table 8:
Methyl Ethyl Ketone:
L A* B
1T
Tc
0.2676 0.2514
1343
535.5
0.2 857
0.2676 0.25140.8798
=0.794 g /mL
Convert to kg/m3
=0.794
=794
g
mL
L
Kg
1000
1000 3
ml
L
m 1000 g
Kg
3
m
Secondary Butyl Alcohol:
L A* B
1T
Tc
0.2734 0.2635
1343
536.01
0.26 04
79
0.2734 0.26350.8896
=0.835 g /mL
Convert to kg/m3
=0.835
g
mL
L
Kg
1000
1000 3
ml
L
m 1000 g
=835
Kg
m3
V MEK =
Mass Flow 12276.786

3
=
=15.462 m /hr
LMEK
794
V SBA =
Mass Flow 1416.087

3
=
=1.698 m /hr
LSBA
834
V T =15.462+1.698=17.160 m3 /hr
Therefore, the density of the mixture is:
mix =
total mass flow of feed 13692.873

=
=797 kg /m3
VT
17.160
Now the optimum can be calculated using equation 33:
d opt =260
13692.873
3600
0.52
0.37
( 797 )
=43.968 mm
An optimum diameter of 50 mm should be used. However, the diameter has to be

converted to inches. According to a reference a nominal pipe size of 2 inches should be
used.
[73]
Using this information the wall thickness can be calculated using equation 34. However,
firstly the design stress has to be calculated using the information provided in table 8
interpolation as follows:
80
165x
x150
=
=159 N /m m2
50 70 70 100
It is assumed that the feed to the column is not viscous it is a pumped liquid. Therefore,
from table 7 it can be seen that the velocity falls between the 1-3.0 m/s range. So the
pressure will be:
P=0.5
Pa ( N /m2 )
kPa
=500
m
m
The wall thickness can now be determined using equation 34:
t=
500 50 103
=0.006793 m=6.793 mm
(20 159 )+ 500
6.5.2 Pipe Sizing at the Distillate

The temperature of the product stream from the column is assumed to be 79.982C
(352.982 K). The distillate contains 99 per cent MEK so the density will only be
calculated for MEK in this instance. This is shown as follows:
Methyl Ethyl Ketone:
L A* B
1T
Tc
0.2676 0.2514
1 352.982
535.5
0.28 5 7
0.2676 0.25140.8870
=0.786 g /mL
Convert to kg/m3
81
=0.786
=786
g
mL
L
Kg
1000
1000 3
ml
L
m 1000 g
Kg
m3
d opt =260
12266.269
3600
0.52
0.37
( 786 )
=41.74 mm

converted to inches. According to a reference nominal pipe size of 2 inches should be
used.
[73]
165x
x150
=
=156 N /m m2
50 79.982 79.982 100
pressure will be:
P=0.5
Pa ( N /m2 )
kPa
=500
m
m
500 50 103
t=
=0.006906 m=6.906 mm
(20 156 ) +500
82
6.5.3 Pipe sizing at the bottoms

The temperature of the bottom product is assumed to be 98.8 C (371.81 K). The
bottom product contains mainly SBA. So the density will only be calculated for SBA in
this instance. This is shown as follows:
Secondary Butyl Alcohol:
L A* B
1T
Tc
0.2734 0.2635
1 371.81
536.01
0.2 60 4
0.2734 0.26350.9086
=0.814 g /mL
Convert to kg/m3
=0.814
=814
g
mL
L
Kg
1000
1000 3
ml
L
m 1000 g
Kg
m3
d opt =260
1430.000
3600
0.52
0.37
( 814 )
=13.475 mm

converted to inches. According to a reference a nominal pipe size of 3/4 inches should
be used.
[73]
83
165x
x150
=
=150 N /m m2
50 98.81 98.81 100
pressure will be:
P=0.5
Pa ( N /m2 )
kPa
=500
m
m
t=
500 20 103
=0.002857 m=2.857 mm
(20 150 )+ 500
Using all the information a data sheet has been constructed for the column, the
condenser and the reboiler. This can be found in appendix##.
84
6.6 Concept Drawing
85
86
7.0 Control and Instrumentation
[74]
One of the main priorities of a chemical plant is the safe operation of the process as a
potential disaster could possibly lead to major negative consequences. Therefore,
control and Instrumentation is an essential requirement for all chemical plants. The
design intention is unachievable if the chemical plant lacks control. Control can only be
met when the design intention is safe and any disturbances which may occur are within
bounds which can be predicted. Safe plant operation occurs when the process variable
are within the safe operating limits. Using control and recording instruments
information can be obtained about the process.
Measuring and indicating instruments such as flow meters and pressure indicators are
used to measure the process variables. Process instruments are sometimes linked
together using control valves to form control loops which provide more efficient control
and understanding of the process. The readings are taken to ensure that pressure,
temperature and other variables such as flow are within safe limits. Instruments are
defined as devices or control systems which are designed in a way that maintains a
functional relationship between a prescribed property of a substance and a physical
variable.
[74][75]
The designer has certain primary objectives such as:
Safe plant operation To ensure that process variables are kept within known
safe operating limits. Also, any deviations which may occur are brought to the
attention of operators by the use of alarms. Finally, in dangerous situations
automatic shut-down systems should be put in place.

Production rate The desired product should be produced, i.e. to ensure the
product meet the desired specifications.

Cost it should be aimed to operate at the lowest production cost.
The piping and instrumentation diagram can be seen in figure 42 and in a larger size in
appendix##.
7.1.1 Quality Control

Quality control is an important aspect as the cost at which the product is sold depends
on the quality. Therefore it is extremely important that the desired specification is
achieved in the distillation column. A loss of investment and could occur if the
specifications are not met accurately. Higher quality products are valued to sell at
87
higher prices. However, to achieve higher quality products higher operating costs are
incurred so a compromise is required.
For quality control a mixture of both automatic and manual control systems can be
used to achieve the most effective results. For example, on-stream composition
analysers can be installed coming off the distillation column. However, they are rarely
used as they are expensive and they require a great deal of maintenance. It is
important that the analysers are placed in a protected location they cannot simply be
mounted to the distillation column.
Various disturbances such as environmental disturbances i.e. weather conditions can
occur which can affect the quality of the product exiting the distillation column.
Environmental disturbances are an example of uncontrolled disturbances. To overcome
the effects of uncontrolled disturbances a controller can be used and this will help to
restore the quality of the desired product.
The compositions of the distillate and bottom product must be determined externally so
the product purity can be measured continuously. To overcome this, a sample could be
sent off to be tested in the onsite laboratory for analysis. Adjustments can be made
once the results have been obtained from analysis.
7.1.2 Pressure Control

Pressure control is essential in systems where vapours/gases are present.
[74]
Therefore,
it is vital to control the pressure drop across the product distillation column. Deviations
which occur can affect the temperature profile and this therefore will affect the
separation of MEK and SBA. A pressure drop controller can be used to monitor the
pressure across the distillation column. This can be seen from figure 29 below. The
operating pressure of the distillation column is 1atm. The pressure drop controller (PDC)
will detect any pressure differences which may occur in the column. This is linked to the
steam control valve of the reboiler and this causes the control valve to prevent the
flowrate from entering the column from the reboiler. Once the pressure in the column
returns to its set point, the PDC will regulate the control valve to open again allowing
the flowrate to pass from the reboiler to the column.
88
Figure 29: Pressure Drop Indicator and Controller
Also from figure 30 it can be seen that pressure indicators are located next to each
pump. This measures the pressure in the delivery line. From the indicator operators will
be able to deduce if the pump is operating normally and adequately as the operator as
the pressure in the delivery line can be analysed.
Figure 30: Pressure indicator and Transmitter for the pump delivery line
7.1.3 Temperature Control

Usually in distillation columns the feed temperature is not controlled. It is only
controlled if a feed preheater is utilised. Temperature is used as an indication for the
composition of the streams. For monitoring the performance of the column it is
recommended that additional temperature indicating or recording points should be
included up the column.
It is advised that temperature sensors are located at the
position in the distillation column where the rate of change of temperature with the
change in composition of the key component is a maximum.
89
From figure 31 below it can be seen that in order to maintain and achieve the required
temperature at the bottom of the column a temperature control device has been put in
place. The steam temperature is adjusted to control the temperature of the vapour that
returns from the reboiler. The temperature indicator will detect a temperature rise over
the set point and this will in turn be controlled by the temperature controller. The steam
supply to the reboiler will be either reduced or shut off until the temperature has
returned to the set point. In the case where a drop in temperature is detected then a
signal will be sent to increase the steam supply. We are aware that temperature is used
as an indication of composition. Therefore, in order to obtain the specified purity it is
extremely important to monitor this section of the distillation column.
Figure 31: Temperature control for the reboiler

The other point at where a temperature control loop is used is to measure the
temperature of the cooling water in coming into the condenser. This is used to control
the temperature of the product stream which leaves the condenser. From figure ## it
can be seen that a signal is transmitted along the line to vary the flowrate of the
cooling water into the condenser. The reflux ratio can also be varied to control the
temperature at the top of the column.
Figure 32: Temperature control for the condenser
90
7.1.4 Flow Control

From figure 33 it can be seen that flow control loop is used in the feed stream to the
distillation column. FIC-1 measures the flow rate of the stream entering the column.
Deviations which may occur in the feed line are detected and a signal is sent to the
control value to adjust the flow. The flow rate is regulated either by increasing or
decreasing the flowrate depending on the deviation.
Figure 33: Feed Stream Flow Control Loop
7.1.5 Level Control

From the figure 34 below it can be seen that a level indicator is attached to the reflux
drum as it is important to maintain the ratio of the distillate to the reflux liquid. In the
event of an increase in the level within the reflux drum it is detected by the level
indicator and a signal is transmitted to the control value (V-16). This will result in the
opening of the valve in order to reduce the flow in the drum until the level return to the
set point.
Figure 34: Level control in the reflux drum
7.1.6 Alarms and Safety Trips
[74]
Operators are alerted of serious and potentially hazardous deviations in the process
conditions by the use of alarms. Alarms will help alert when any deviations occur in the
91
system which are different from the normal set point. Therefore, this will help to
prevent any potential hazards from occurring. In cases when the response of the
operator may be delayed which potentially could lead to the development of a
hazardous situation, instruments can be fitted with trip systems which automatically
prevent the hazard. For example, shut down procedures on pumps and valves to
automatically close. In the event of a deviation a visual or audible alarm can be used to
alert the operator to carry out the appropriate action.
There are three components of an automatic trip system they are as follows:
A sensor monitors the control variable and provides an output signal when the
set value is exceeded.

A link transfers the signal to the actuator and this consists of pneumatic or
electric relays.
The actuator carries out the required action. For example, to close or open a
valve.
Interlock systems are utilised when a fixed sequence of operations has to be followed.
Interlock systems are included in these situations to prevent operators from departing
from the required sequence. For example these types of systems are usually applied in
start-up and shut down procedures. It is possible to incorporate them into the control
system design or mechanical interlocks can also be used.
[74]
Alarms have been included in the P&ID this can be seen in figures 35 and 36 below. It
can be seen that the distillation column has a level indicator attached to it with a level
indicator alarm. The alarm has a high level and low level alarm fixed to it. The main
objective of the alarm is to alert operators and to ensure that the level within the
distillation column is not too high or too low.
If the level increases above the set point the alarm sends a warning to the control and
this helps to alert operators. A message is sent to the control room and then the correct
regulatory procedure is carried out to return the level back to the set point. The same
procedure would occur if the level fell below the set point. The procedure may be
automatic or may have to be done manually by the operator.
In the case where the level deviates significantly i.e. high-high limit or low-low limit
operators would be alerted by the alarm. Also, at the same time safety trips would be
used which in turn would cause the automatic shut down of the process.
92
Figure 35: Level Alarm on Distillation Column

It is possible to incorporate a safety trip into a control loop. In some situations it may be
more suitable to separate the trip system from the control loop to increase the
reliability of the control equipment. The control loop and the trip system may be
separated because a fault in the control loop can potentially affect the trip system and
may increase the risk even further.
From figure 36 it can be seen that safety trips have been fitted to the active pumps. In
the event that a deviation occurs from the set point in the column the pump will shut
down and this prevents the flow from entering into the distillation column. Once the
deviation returns to the set point the pump will be started up again so the flow can
enter the column.
Figure 36: Safety Trips on Pumps
7.1.7 Valve Selection
[76]
Valves used in chemical plants can be divided into two categories depending on their
function:
1. Shut off valves The main purpose of shut off valves is to close off the flow.
2. Control valves They can be either automatic or manual and their objective is
used to regulate the flow.
Control Valves
93
Selection of control valves is an important factor. It is important that good flow control
is achieved whilst the pressure drop is kept low as possible. Control valves may fail
open this is the position the valves take when power supply failure occurs. Diaphragm
valves are commonly used and this is the type used in this case. This type of valve can
be seen from figure 37 below.
Figure 37: Diaphragm valve

Flanged Valves
Flanged valves can be used for drainage. An example of the type of flanged valve used
in this case is shown in figure 38below. These are generally closed and are in operation
usually during site or unit maintenance.
Figure 38: Flanged valve

Non- Return Valves
This type of valve is used to prevent the back-flow of the fluid in the process lie. It is
important that non-return valves have been correctly installed to ensure they are
working adequately, i.e. they should be fitted in the correct orientation. In this case
non-return valves have also been utilised an example of this type of valve is shown in
figure 39 below.
Figure 39: Non-return valve

Gated Valves
Gated valves are frequently used for shut off purposes. It is important that a valve
selected for this purpose gives a positive seal in the closed position and minimum
resistance to the flow when the valves are open. Gate valves exist in a wide range of
sizes and it is possible to operate them manually or atomically by the use of a motor.
When gate valves are fully open they have a low pressure drop. When operating gate
valves attention must be paid to ensure they are not operated partially open. This is
because the valve seal can become deformed, so as a result the valve will not seal
94
properly. Below figure 40 shows a diagram of a gate valve which has been frequently
used in the piping and instrumentation diagram.
Figure 40: Gate type valve
7.1.8 Instruments and Controllers

There are various locations of instruments in a chemical plant, for example local,
mounted on a central control panel. Within the P&ID there are many different shapes on
instruments which are used.
A circle symbol represents a device which is field
mounted. A circle which has a line through the middle indicates a device which can be
easily accessible by the operators.
Figure 41: Diagram to show Instrument type and location
[77]
7.1.9 Pipe Labelling

Within the P&ID it is important that the process lines are labelled. The line label will
show the required information which is associated with that particular stream. No fixed
standard exists on line piping. In this case only the three main process lines i.e. the
feed line, the distillate line and the waste products line will be labelled. This is because
the diameters have only been calculated for the three streams mentioned. The
following information is required to label each of the streams:
The pipe size in inches

The pipe material of construction
The line identification number
95
For example, the feed line which 2 inches made out of stainless steel is labelled as
follows:
2 SS 01
96
Figure 17: Piping and Instrumentation Diagram for Product

Distillation Column
97
98
Figure##: Piping and Instrumentation Diagram for the
Product Distillation Column
8.0 Hazard and Operability Study (HAZOP)

Hazard and operability studies are also commonly known as HAZOP. They have been
used and developed for identifying potential hazards and operability problems which
are caused by deviations from the design intent either due to plant design or human
error.
[78]
It is a detailed and systematic application of prescribed guidewords to a design

drawing.
[79]
Conducting a HAZOP is an important stage of any chemical plant for the
prevention of major accidents from arising. Not only does a HAZOP prevent major
accidents but they also provide major financial benefits to the plant owner.
[80]
A HAZOP
is usually carried out for the whole process. However, this is very time consuming
therefore for the purpose of this report it will only be carried out for one process line.
The method of a HAZOP involves using guidewords such as pressure, flow,
temperature and level. For each of the guidewords all deviations that could
potentially occur are identified, for example no flow. Then the possible causes of the
deviation are identified and finally the consequences and actions required are stated
before moving on to the next deviation. Once all deviations have been covered move
onto the next guideword.
[79]
The line chosen to conduct the HAZOP was the line connecting the feed to the solvent
recovery distillation column. The HAZOP can be seen below in section.......
99
9.0 Economic Appraisal

In this section of the report an economic appraisal will be carried over the Methyl Ethyl
Ketone plant by estimating and calculating the relevant economical factors of the
process plant.
There are many factors which have to be considered to determine whether the proposal
of a plant is worthwhile. A very important factor is the cost required to build the plant
and to determine whether the investment is financially viable.
To determine the feasibility of the plant a thorough economical evaluation will be
carried out in which all the costs involved must be accounted for. Costs such as
services and equipment required to operate the plant must be considered.
Other
factors such as capital costs, operating costs and raw materials must also be
considered to determine the feasibility. There are many methods which have been
developed to estimate the cost to set up and run a chemical plant over a number of
years. From the various methods the capital costs of the plant can be calculated and
these are analysed carefully before deciding whether investing in the plant is viable or
not.
Using various methods the capital costs of the chemical plant will be calculated. Also, a
cash flow table will be constructed and from this the cost going in and out of the project
during the plant life will be analysed. From the cash flow table the expected targets on
an annual can also be predicted. The breakeven point i.e. the point at which the initial
investment is recovered will then determined.
9.1.1 Estimation of Capital Costs

As mentioned above there are a number of methods to determine the capital costs
associated with the start up of a chemical plant. The following methods will be used to
estimate the capital costs:
Wilson Method
Zevnik-Buchanan Method
Bridgewater Method
100
The three methods mentioned above are known as step counting methods as the
capital cost is determined by the number of significant process steps in the overall
process.
9.1.1.1 Wilsons Method
[81]
According to the Wilson Method the principle is that the average cost of one item of
equipment is a function of the process size and complexity, i.e. the capital cost is
calculated based upon the number of significant plant items in the overall process.
Firstly the Average unit cost of main plant items has to be calculated. The following
equation is used to estimate this:
AUC = 21 X V0.675
Where:
V: Is the capacity of the plant, t/y of product = 100000 t/y
So the AUC can be calculated:
AUC = 21 x 1000000.675 = 49798.85 = 49799
This is then used to calculate the capital cost from the equation below:
C( 2000)=20.75 f n AUC FM FP FT
Equation 35: Wilsons Method Equation
[81]
Where:
C= fixed capital cost
F= installation factor obtained graphically and is based on AUC
n: number of plant items (including duplicates however excluding pumps)
FM= factor for materials of construction.
FP= factor for design pressure, obtained graphically
FT= factor for design temperature, obtained graphically
101
From the AUC calculated above the installation factor (f) can be determined from figure
43below.
Figure 43: Installation Factor
[81]
From Figure 43 it can be seen that the installation factor F is approximately 1.9.
Assuming that the material of construction is stainless steel the materials factor to be
used is 1.3.
The number of significant process steps in the process is found to be 7.
From figure 44 below the pressure factor is found to be 1.0 as the operating pressure in
the reactor is assumed to be 2.5 bar. A pressure of 2.5 bar is the maximum operating
pressure in the process.
102
Figure 44: Pressure Factor used for Wilsons Method
[81]
Next the temperature factor has to be determined. From figure 45 below the
temperature factor is found to be 1.1 as the operating temperature in the reactor is
assumed to be 800K (527C). A temperature of 800K (527C) is the maximum operating
temperature in the process.
Figure 45: Temperature Factor used for Wilsons Method
[81]
Using all of the above information the cost can be calculated as follows:
C( 2000 )=20.75 1.9 18 49799 1.3 1 1.1= 50.54 million
9.1.1.2 Zevnik and Buchanan Method
[81]
This method uses the number of process steps rather than the number of plant items. A
process step is defined as a unit operation, unit process or separation unit which has
energy transfer. For plant capacities above 4500 t/y the following equation should be
utilised to calculate the capital costs:
103
C( 2000)=7470 N Q 0.6 10x Equation 36: Zevnik and Buchanans Method
[81]
Where:
C: Fixed capital costs
Q: Plant capacity, t/y = 100000 t/y
N: The number of process steps = 7
In order to calculate the costs using the above firstly X has to be calculated. This is
shown as follows:
x=( 0.1 log 10 Pmax ) + [ 1.8 104 ( T max 300 ) ]+ F m

Where:
Pmax: Maximum Process Pressure = 2.5 bar
Tmax: Maximum Process Temperature = 800 K
Fm: Materials of Construction Factor = 0.1
So, X is calculated below as follows:
( 0.1 log 10 2.5 ) + [ 1.8 104 ( 800300 ) ]+ 0.1=0.22979

Now the total costs can be estimated as follows:
0.6
0.22979
C( 2000)=7470 7 100000 10
= 88.76 million
9.1.1.3 Bridgewaters Method
[81]
This method is also based on the step counting method. For plant capacities above
60,000 t/y the following equation should be utilised to calculate the capital costs:
C( 2000)=1930 N
Q
s
0.675
( )
Equation37 Bridgewaters Method
[81]
Where:
C: Fixed Capital Cost
N: The number of process steps = 7
Q: Plant Capacity, t/y = 100000 t/y
104
s: Reactor Conversion = 87.57%
[8]
Therefore:
C( 2000)=1930 7
100000
0.8757
0.675
= 35.04 million
Table 9 below summarises the calculated capital costs:

Method
Cost (million 2000)
50.54
Wilson
88.76
Zevnik & Buchanan
35.04
Bridgewater
Table 9: Estimated Capital Costs
The Wilson method will be used as the initial capital costs. This method has been
selected as it is the middle value of the three calculated capital cost. Bridgewaters
method may be deemed as not reliable as it is too small and Zevnik and Buchanan
method may be too large. So in this case Wilsons method has been selected. Another
justification as to why Wilsons method may be selected is because it accounts for all
the plant items. So this provides a more clear indication on how much the initial cost
will be taking account for all plant items not just the main process steps.
The calculated capital cost is that for 2000 so it is important to find the capital cost for
2012. Also, the proposed plant is to be located in China therefore location factors and
exchange rates have to be taken into account. To determine the capital cost for 2012
inflation rates of both China and Great Britain have to be considered. This is done as
follows:
Table 10 below shows the inflation rate for Great Britain from 2000 to 2012.
Year
Inflation
Inflation
Factor
2000
+0.79%
1.0079
2001
+1.24%
1.0124
2002
+1.26%
1.0126
2003
+1.36%
1.0136
2004
+1.34%
1.0134
2005
+2.05%
1.0205
105
2006
+2.33%
1.0233
2007
+2.32%
1.0232
2008
+3.61%
1.0361
2009
+2.18%
1.0218
2010
+3.29%
1.0329
2011
+4.47%
1.0447
2012
+3.59%
1.0359
Table 10: Inflation rate for Great Britain from 2000 to 2012
[82]
Location factors are only available for the year 2004 so the plant has to be moved in
2004. However, the initial capital cost calculated above is for the year 2000 so this is
where the UK inflation is taken into consideration. So the cost in the UK in the year
2004 will be:
C2004 = C2000 1.0079 1.0124 1.0126 1.0136 1.0134
C2004 = 50.54x106 1.0079 1.0124 1.0126 1.0136 1.0134
C2004 = 53.64 million
As mentioned above the location factors are only available for 2004. So using the
location factors below the plant has to be moved from UK to China. So the capital cost
in 2004 taking account of location factors is as follows:
Figure 46: Location Factors for 2004
[81]
The location factor for China in 2004 is 0.9. So the capital cost of the proposed plant in
China in 2004 is:
53.64 million 0.9 = 48.276 million
106
It is also important to take into account the exchange rate as the plant is to be built in
China. The exchange rate of Great British Pounds to Chinese Yuan in 2004 was
14.8173. [83] Using the exchange rate the capital cost in 2004 would be as follows:
48.276 million 14.8173 = 715.32 million
The next step is to determine the capital cost of the plant for 2012. China inflation rates
from 2004 to 2012 have to be taken into account. This is shown below:
Table 11 below shows the inflation rate for China from 2004 to 2012.
Year
Inflation
Inflation
Factor
2002
-0.73%
0.9927
2003
1.13%
1.0113
2004
+3.84%
1.0384
2005
+1.78%
1.0178
2006
+1.65%
1.0165
2007
+4.82%
1.0482
2008
+5.97%
1.0597
2009
-0.72%
0.9928
2010
+3.17%
1.0317
2011
+5.53%
1.0553
2012
+4.58%
1.0458
Table 11: Inflation rate for China from 2004 to 2012
[84]
So, therefore the capital cost in 2012 for China is calculated as follows:
C2012 = C2004 1.0384 1.0178 1.0165 1.0482 1.0597 0.9928 1.0317
1.0553 1.0458
C2012 = 715.32 million 1.0384 1.0178 1.0165 1.0482 1.0597 0.9928
1.0317 1.0553 1.0458
C2012 = 964.94 million
107
9.1.2 Cost of Raw Materials

The next step to be determined is the cost of the raw materials which are required for
the process. There are only two raw materials which are required for this process. In
order to determine the total cost of the raw materials the amount required in tonnes
per year will have to be calculated. It is important to remember that in this process 1
year of production is equal to 8064 hours of operation.
Also, it has to be taken into account that the prices of the raw materials obtained are in
dollar per tonne. However, these have to be converted into the Chinese currency i.e.
Yuan per tonne. For this economic appraisal an exchange rate of $1: 6.30298
[85]
be
used. The table below shows the cost of the raw materials:
Raw
Cost ($/t)
Cost (/t)
Flowrate
Flowrate
Flowrate
Total Cost
Material
SBA
1080
6807.22
(kg/hr)
11576.71
(kg/yr)
93354589.
(tons/yr)
93354.589
()
635,485,22
TCE
1180
7437.52
2232.14
44
17999976.
44
17999.98
8.3
133,875,21
96
Total
1.2
769,360,43
6.5
Table 12: Cost of Raw Materials
[86][87]
From table 12 above it can be seen that in order to produce 100000 t/y of Methyl Ethyl
Ketone the total cost of raw materials will be 769.36 million. However, from the mass
balance produced in the previous report
[8]
it can be seen that the amount of TCE
entering stream 14 is completely recycled and is used again. So, the cost of TCE can be
ignored and the cost can be included in the start up cost. Therefore, TCE is not
considered as an operating cost. Also, It can be seen from the group project mass
balance there is a recycle of 1292.08 kg/hr of SBA
[8]
. This amount can therefore be
deducted from the amount of SBA required. This will help to decrease the cost of raw
materials.
This therefore means that total cost of raw materials is 635,485,228.3.
9.1.3 Operating Costs

Operating costs compromise of fixed and variable costs. They are the costs which occur
during construction and production. Fixed operating costs do not vary with the level of
production i.e. they dont vary in accordance to that produced. Examples include
108
insurance and taxes. On the other hand variable operating costs do vary with the level
of production in a plant for example raw materials which may be required.
An estimate of the operating of the costs associated with the Methyl Ethyl Ketone can
be found from the cost of raw materials. From table 13 it can be seen that raw
materials cost represent 31% of the total operating costs. Therefore, the total operating
costs are shown below:
% of Total
Operating
Cost
% of Total
Operating
Cost
Cost (/Y)
Cost (/Y)
Raw
Materials
31
635,485,228
.3
Packaging
20,499,523.
49
Labour
11
225,494,758
.4
Shipping
20,499,523.
49
Supervision
40,999,046.
98
Depreciati
on
81,998,093.
96
Maintenance
40,999,046.
98
Property
Taxes
20,499,523.
49
Plant
Supplies
20,499,523.
49
Insurance
20,499,523.
49
Royalties
and Patents
40,999,046.
98
Administra
tion
81,998,093.
96
Utilities
163,996,187
.9
Sales
11
225,494,758
.4
Payroll
Overhead
40,999,046.
98
Research
102,497,617
.5
Laboratory
40,999,046.
98
Finance
40,999,046.
98
Plant
Overhead
Operating
Cost
Operating
Cost
184,495,711
.4
Table 13: Typical Operating Costs [81]
From the above the total operating cost therefore equates to: 2,049,952,349
9.1.4 Plant Income

The plant makes an income by selling the product which is Methyl Ethyl Ketone.
Currently MEK is being sold for $1800 /t. Using the conversion above i.e. $1: 6.30298,
the selling price of MEK is therefore calculated to be 11345.364. Therefore, this gives
an annual amount of:
109
100000 11345.364 = 1,134,536,400
9.1.5 Cash Flow

The cash flow table shows all the expenditure which includes capital costs, working
capital and the operating costs. All expenditure is given a negative sign as this shows
money being spent. On the other hand all income i.e. sales of the product are positive.
The plant has been assumed to have a plant of 15 years. Also, it is assumed that
construction is split equally over two years with 50% construction in year 0 and 50%
construction in year 1. This therefore, means that production will begin in year 2.
The working capital is paid in the year before operation and is recovered in the final
year of operation which is an income to the plant. The working capital is usually
required in the year before production to purchase the initial raw materials to get the
plant running. In this cash flow the working capital will be 10% of the capital cost. The
final income to account for is the scrap value. The scrap value will again be 10% of the
capital cost.
All of the data which has been previously found is bought together in order to construct
a cash flow table. The cash flow table can then be assessed to determine the
profitability of the process.
The following diagram can be produced using the data from the cash flow in Table 14.
Cash Flow Diagram

0
0 2 4 6 8 1012141618
-2,000,000,000
-4,000,000,000
-6,000,000,000
Cumulatine Net Cash Flow
-8,000,000,000
-10,000,000,000
-12,000,000,000
-14,000,000,000
-16,000,000,000
Year
Figure 47: Cash Flow Diagram
110
9.1.6 Payback Time

From figure 47 and table 14 the payback time can be determined. The payback time is
the time required to recover the initial costs from the income which is produced by
selling the product. The payback time is also be said to be a measure of how long the
initial investment is at risk of not making a profit. However, in this instance from figure
47 it can be seen that the payback time cannot be determined. There is not a point
where the graph crosses the axis. From the graph it can be seen that not there is not a
single year where the plant is making a profit. The payback time cannot be achieved in
this case.
Therefore, it can be said that the plant is not profitable as the initial
investment is not recovered over the lifetime of the plant.
111
Yea
r
0
1
Capital
Cost
Working
Capital
48247159
0.3
48247159
0.3
96494318.
05
Scrap
Value
20499523
49
20499523
49
20499523
49
20499523
49
20499523
49
20499523
49
20499523
49
20499523
49
20499523
49
20499523
49
20499523
49
20499523
49
20499523
49
20499523
49
20499523
49
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
Operatin
g Cost
96494318.
05
964943
18.05
Incom
e
11345
36400
11345
36400
11345
36400
11345
36400
11345
36400
11345
36400
11345
36400
11345
36400
11345
36400
11345
36400
11345
36400
11345
36400
11345
36400
11345
36400
11345
36400
Net Cash
Flow
48247159
0.3
57896590
8.3
91541594
9
91541594
9
91541594
9
91541594
9
91541594
9
91541594
9
91541594
9
91541594
9
91541594
9
91541594
9
91541594
9
91541594
9
91541594
9
91541594
9
81892163
1
96494318
.05
Cumul
ative
NCF
482471
590.3
106143
7499
197685
3448
289226
9397
380768
5346
472310
1295
563851
7244
655393
3193
746934
9142
838476
5091
930018
1040
102155
96989
111310
12938
120464
28887
129618
44836
138772
60785
146961
82416
112
145996
88097
Table 14: Cash Flow Table for the Methyl Ethyl Ketone Plant
113
9.2 Breakeven and Profitability Analysis

Al the relevant costs and income have now been calculated for 1 years production of
MEK. Now the profitability of the proposed plant has to be determined. There are
various methods which can be used to do this they are as follows:
Amortisation
Discounted Cash Flow Rate of Return
Return on Investment
9.2.1 Amortisation
The initial capital which is necessary to purchase all required equipment is usually
borrowed from the bank. As the capital is repaid the outstanding loan decreases and
the interest on the initial loan is reduced. The borrowed capital is often repaid on an
amortisation basis. This means that over the life time of the plant a constant annual
repayment is made. The following equation is used to calculate the amortisation rate:
n
Ir (1+r)
A=
(1+r )n1
Equation 38: Calculation of Amortisation Rate
[81]
Where:
A: The annual repayment which includes capital and interest. It is constant over the life
of the loan.
I: The initial capital cost = 964,943,180.5
r: The interest rate = 10%
n: The number of years the loan is repaid over. It is usually the lifetime of the plant =
10 years
So substitution of all the values into Equation 38 gives:
A=964,943,180.5
0.1 ( 1+0.1 )15

= 126,864,724.4
( 1+0.1 )151
The following table show the effect of amortisation. Table 15 shows the effect if a loan
was taken out based on the full capital cost.
114
Working
Capital ()
Year
Scrap Value
()
Amortisation
()
Operating
cost ()
Income ()
0
1
-96494318.05
-126864724.4
-126864724.4
-2049952349
11345364
-126864724.4
-2049952349
11345364
-126864724.4
-2049952349
11345364
-126864724.4
-2049952349
11345364
-126864724.4
-2049952349
11345364
-126864724.4
-2049952349
11345364
-126864724.4
-2049952349
11345364
-126864724.4
-2049952349
11345364
10
-126864724.4
-2049952349
11345364
11
-126864724.4
-2049952349
11345364
12
-126864724.4
-2049952349
11345364
13
-126864724.4
-2049952349
11345364
14
-126864724.4
-2049952349
11345364
15
-126864724.4
-2049952349
11345364
-126864724.4
-2049952349
11345364
16
96494318.05
17
96494318.05
Table 15: Cash Flow Table for the Methyl Ethyl Ketone Plant taking account for
amortisation
115
9.2.3 Discounted Cash Flow Rate of Return

The discounted cash flow rate of return also known as DCFrr is another method which is
used to assess profitability. This method uses the net present value to determine the
profitability. Money which is invested into a project will earn interest. This means that
any sum of money which is spent or any money which arises in the future has an
equivalent value today. [81] This depends on the interest rate assumed and the number
of years. The following equation is used to calculate the present value:
P=
F
( 1+i )n Equation 39: Present Value Calculation
[81]
Where:
P: The present value
F: The future value
I: The assumed interest rate
n: The number of years
The net present value is the cumulative present value over the life time of the plant.
The net present value will be calculated for two interest rates; 10% and 20%. The
number of years of the MEK is 15 years. The net present value can then be used to
determine the DCFrr. This is the discount rate which is required to make the net present
value equal zero.
DCFrr
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
-2,000,000,000
-4,000,000,000
-6,000,000,000
Cumulative Net Present Value
-8,000,000,000
-10,000,000,000
-12,000,000,000
-14,000,000,000
-16,000,000,000
Discount Rate
Figure 48: DCFrr for the Methyl Ethyl Ketone Plant

From figure 48 it can be seen that a DCFrr cannot be determined as the graph does not
cross the axis.
116
Net Cash
Flow ()
482471590.3
578965908.3
-915415949
-915415949
-915415949
-915415949
-915415949
-915415949
-915415949
-915415949
-915415949
-915415949
-915415949
-915415949
-915415949
-915415949
-818921631
Cumulati
ve
NCF()
48247159
0.3
10614374
99
19768534
48
28922693
97
38076853
46
47231012
95
56385172
44
65539331
93
74693491
42
83847650
91
93001810
40
10215596
989
11131012
938
12046428
887
12961844
836
13877260
785
14696182
NPV at
10% ()
482471590
.3
526332643
.9
756542106
.6
687765551
.5
625241410
.4
568401282
.2
516728438
.4
469753125
.8
427048296
.2
388225723
.8
352932476
.2
320847705
.6
291679732
.4
265163393
.1
241057630
.1
219143300
.1
178221206
CUM NPV at
10% ()
-482471590.3
-1008804234
-1765346341
-2453111892
-3078353303
-3646754585
-4163483023
-4633236149
-5060284445
-5448510169
-5801442645
-6122290351
-6413970083
-6679133476
-6920191106
-7139334406
-7317555613
NPV at
20% ()
482471590
.3
482471590
.3
635705520
.1
529754600
.1
441462166
.8
367885139
306570949
.1
255475791
212896492
.5
177413743
.7
147844786
.4
123203988
.7
102669990
.6
85558325.
48
71298604.
57
59415503.
81
44293745.
CUM NPV at
20% ()
482471590.3
964943180.5
-1600648701
-2130403301
-2571865468
-2939750606
-3246321556
-3501797347
-3714693839
-3892107583
-4039952369
-4163156358
-4265826348
-4351384674
-4422683278
-4482098782
-4526392528
117
96494318.05
416
.8
49
14599688 19090886.
4349311.9
097
41
-7298464727
53
Table 16: Net Present Value at 10% and 20%
-4522043216
118
9.2.4 Return on Investment

Return on Investment (ROI) is another method which is used to analysis profitability.
ROI is the percentage return of the initial investment over the plant lifetime.
This
method takes into account the capital cost, the cumulative net cash flow and the plant
operating life. The following equation is used in order to calculate the ROI.
Cumulative Net Cash Flow

Plant Operating Life
ROI =
100
Initial Capital Investment
Equation 40: Return on Investment
[81]
The return on investment is calculated for the return on the initial capital cost is shown
below:
14,599,688,097
15
ROI=
100=100.87
964,943,180.5
It can be seen from the calculation that the ROI is negative. It again shows that the
plant is suffering a major loss. It would be classed as not being worthwhile. It shows
that the plant is not profitable at all. From the ROI achieved it can be said it would be
better to invest in a bank rather than to build the plant. It would be less of a risk to put
the money in a bank rather than to build the plant.
9.2.5 Analysis of Profitability and Improvements to Profitability

From the cash flow tables above it can be seen that a company is making a very large
loss. It can be observed that the capital cost will not be paid over the operation of the
plant. From table 15 it can be seen that if the money required for the capital cost was
loaned from the bank the company would still suffer a large loss. A larger debt would
occur if the money required for the capital cost was loaned. This is because the
company is not generating a profit in the first place. So, if a loan was taken out this
would just add more to the debt as interest would also have to be paid. It may be
advisable to invest money from elsewhere in the company rather than borrowing the
initial capital cost.
119
It can be seen that the plant is not generating any profit as the operating costs are
vastly greater than the income into the plant. It can therefore be assumed that the
project is not feasible any may not worth be constructing.
Profitability to the plant may be increased if the cost of raw materials was decreased.
The cost of raw materials could be reduced by locating the plant closer to raw
materials. This would mean that costs of transporting the raw materials would also be
decreased.
Also, the plant could negotiate a contract with the supplier in which a discount could be
obtained if the plant was to buy the raw materials in bulk. Therefore, this would
decrease the price of raw materials which would in turn reduce the operating cost.
Another suggestion to improve the profitability of the plant is to increase the selling
price of the product Methyl Ethyl Ketone. If the selling price increases this would in turn
increase the revenue into the project and would slowly decrease the debt. From the first
term project it was seen that there is a large market for MEK in China so it may be
viable to increase the selling of MEK. However, if the selling price is set to high then
there is a threat of competition from rival companies. Also, an increase in income will
also cause an increase in the operating cost therefore; the plant again would still suffer
a major loss.
10.0 Economic Optimisation

Optimisation is an important strategy used for decision making. As mentioned in the
introduction it is known that distillation is a very energy intensive process. It is possible
that distillation columns can be fitted in such a way that provides greater attractive
economic benefits.
The cost of the major parts of equipment in a distillation column are the vessel, the
condenser and reboiler. In section 10.1 the costs of the three parts of equipment are
estimated.
10.1 Cost of Major Equipment

10.1.1Cost of Distillation Column
It is important to calculate the cost of the product distillation. The price of a distillation
column for the year 2002 was found to approximately $96,000.
[88]
However, the selling
price has to be determined for 2012. To calculate the price of the column in 2012
120
inflation has to be accounted for. Also, the price has to be converted to Chinese Yuan.
The conversion rate in 2002 from dollars to Yuan was 8.2766.[85] Therefore, the cost in
2002:
$96,000 8.2766 = 794,553
Using the inflation rates determined in section 9 the 2012 cost can be calculated. This
is show as follows:
= 794,553 0.9927 1.0113 1.0384 1.0178 1.0165 1.0482 1.0597
0.9928 1.0317 1.0553 1.0458
=1,076,024.7
10.1.2 Cost of Condenser

A shell and Tube type condenser is used for the distillation column. Again the price of
the condenser obtained is from 2002 and will therefore have to be inflated and
converted into Chinese Yuan. The price of the exchanger is found to be approximately
$16,600.
$16,600 8.2766 = 137,391
[88]
Using the inflation rates determined in section 9 the 2012 cost can be calculated. This
is show as follows:
= 13,7391 0.9927 1.0113 1.0384 1.0178 1.0165 1.0482 1.0597
0.9928 1.0317 1.0553 1.0458
=186,062
10.1.3 Cost of Reboiler
10.2 Potential Changes to existing plant

10.2.1 Number of Trays
An optimisation technique that could be considered is setting the total number of trays
i.e. actual number of trays to twice the minimum number of trays and adding two
stages for the reflux drum and the reboiler. The Fenske equation is used to calculate the
minimum number of trays. An increase in the minimum number of trays will in turn lead
to a higher number of theoretical stages. However, an increase in the number of trays
leads to an increase in the height of the column. As the diameter decreases the reboiler
heat input also decreases. This therefore means that heat exchanger costs and energy
costs also decreases. As a result of a taller column the cost of the vessel increases.
121
The number of trays in the column can be increased by selecting smaller tray-spacing
or installing more efficient contacting devices. [89]
10.2.2 Re-define Product Purity

In most occasions it is acceptable that many chemical plants produce extremely pure
products. However, it is not worthwhile to purify a product to 99% when 95% may be an
acceptable purity. In this type of situation it would be advised to decrease the reflux
rate slowly until the desired product is obtained.
10.2.3 Improved Heat Integration

In order to reduce the duty on both the condenser and reboiler it may be possible to
use the heat of the MEK distillate can be recovered to preheat the feed stream into the
product distillation column. The MEK distillate stream leaves the condenser at 60C and
this then enters a product cooler. This heat can be recovered and can then be used to
preheat the inlet stream to the distillation column.
10.2.4 Control System Upgrade

Under a poor control system a perfectly designed column will be unable to utilise
energy inputs adequately. Operators will be responsible to make more decisions in
situations where control systems are less advanced. By upgrading the control system
optimal operating points can be achieved. Therefore, it is important to use up to date
control systems.
11.0 Conclusion
This project has been a indication of the level of detail that is involved in the design of
a distillation column. The project has been a major learning experience and has helped
to further develop skills including time management and analytical skills. The report
has expanded my perspective and conception of chemical engineering.
During the design phase it was found that many educated assumptions had to be made
using the data available and in cases were data was not available chemical engineering
knowledge had to be used.
122
12.0 Nomenclature
Cp
Specific heat at constant pressure
J/kgK
Dc
Db
Diameter
Bundle diameter
m
m
di
do
Internal diameter
Outer diameter
m
m
Ds
Shell diameter
Column shell thickness
F
FLV
Feed mass flow rate

Liquid-vapour flow factor
kg/s
_
G
G
H
jf
Vapour mass flow rate

Acceleration due to gravity
Height
Friction factor
kg/s
m/s2
m
_
jh
Heat transfer
factor
Thermal conductivity
Thermal conductivity of
liquid
Length of tube
Liquid mass flow in rectifying region
Liquid mass flow in stripping region
Number of theoretical
stages
K
KL
L
Lo
L
N
W/mK
W/mK
m
kg/s
kg/s
_
123
Np
Number of passes in a tube
NT
Number of tubes
P
P
P max
Pressure
Pitch
Maximum process pressure
N/m2
_
N/m2
P
Q
Q
Saturated vapour pressure

Feed condition
Heat transferred per unit
time
Reflux ratio
Minimum reflux ratio
N/m2
_
W
S
T
T max
TIN,
TOUT
tIN, tOUT
Allowable design stress

Thickness of vessel
Maximum process temperature
Shell side temperature of process fluid IN,OUT
N/m2
m
K
K
Tube side temperature of service fluid IN,OUT
U
uf
Velocity
Flooding velocity
m/s
m/s
Uo
Overall heat transfer coefficient
W/m2K
us
Shell side velocity
m/s
uv
Vapour velocity
m/s
V
V*
Vapour mass flow in the rectifying region

Vapour mass flow rate per unit area
kg/s
kg/m2s
kg/s
W
xf
Vapour mass flow in the stripping

region
Bottom mass flow rate
Mole fraction of component in feed
xHK
Mole fraction of heavy key
xLK
Mole fraction of light key
a, b
Relative volatilities of component

a,b..
Liquid viscosity
Liquid density
kg/m3
Vapour density
kg/m3
Ps
Pressure drop in shell
N/m2
Pt
Pressure drop in tube
N/m2
T
TLM
Temperature difference
Log mean temperature difference
K
K
Nu
Nusselt number
R
Rmin
_
_
kg/s
_
kg/ms
124
Pr
Prandtl number
Re
Reynolds number
14.0 References
[1]
R.M. PRICE . (1997). RMP Lecture Notes. Available:

http://www.cbu.edu/~rprice/lectures/distill.html#def . Last accessed 08/02/2012 .
[2]
APV. (2008). Distillation Handbook . Available:

http://www.scribd.com/doc/64928779/Distillation-Handbook-10004-01-08-2008-US .
Last accessed 10/02/2012.
[3]
Richardson, J. F. (John Francis) (2007). Chemical Engineering Volume 2. 5th ed.

Amsterdam: Butterworth-Heinemann. 542.
[4]
The Distillation Group, Inc. (2002). Distillation. Available:

http://www.distillationgroup.com/distill.htm. Last accessed 01/02/2012.
[5]
M.T.Tham. (1997). Introduction to Distillation. Available:

http://lorien.ncl.ac.uk/ming/distil/distiltyp.htm . Last accessed 01/02/2012.
[6]
R K Sinnott (1993). Coulson and Richardson Chemical Engineering Volume 6. 2nd

ed. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. Pages 669-671.
[7]
R K Sinnott (1993). Coulson and Richardson Chemical Engineering Volume 6. 2nd

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Recovery column/ Distillation column for IPA

1.0 Project Objectives

2.0 Project Objectives

2.1 Technical Objectives

Submit the project plan and Gantt Chart by 20/01/2012.

efficiency and flooding parameters.

systems for the safe operation of the distillation column.

price, construction time and interest rate should also be justified.

2.2 Personal Objectives

It is important that there is efficient communication within group members.

that the tasks are completed on time.

allocated to each task equally to ensure that the deadline is met.

be required to gain sufficient knowledge. It is important that various methods of

research are utilised to ensure that a wide range of information is available.

completion of the report.

may be useful in future projects.

It requires large amounts of energy for both

The correct design of a distillation column is not always a simple procedure as it is

regarded as a specialised technology.

Compared to other types of processing

The separation of liquid mixtures is

dependent on the differences in the volatility between the components. Separation is

are two major types of distillation, this

3.1 Components of Distillation Columns

The main objective of a reboiler in distillation columns is to vaporise a fraction of the

Figure 1: Forced Circulation Reboiler

2. Thermosyphon Natural Circulation Reboiler: it is a vertical exchanger with

Figure 3: Kettle Type

4.0 Chemical Engineering Design

4.2 Distillation Column Design

Firstly the degree of separation required is specified. The product specifications

and the reflux ratio.

4.3 Key Components

Light Key: Methyl Ethyl Ketone (A)

4.4 Operating Conditions

4.6 Packed Columns

Figure 5: Schematic Diagram of a Packed Column [11]

4.6.1 Types of Packing

Packing is required for certain requirements. They are as follows:

4.7 Plate Columns

Figure 6: Diagram of a Cross-Flow Plate

4.7.1 Types of Plate

Figure 7: Diagram of a Sieve

This type of plate is the

Figure 8: Diagram of a Bubble-cap Plate

Figure 9: Diagram of a Valve Plate

4.8 Mass Balance

Figure 10: Block Diagram of the Product Distillation Column

Total Outlet Mass flowrate = 13692.87264 kg/hr

4.8.1 Adjusted Mass Balance

4.9 Vapour Pressure Calculation

Table 3: Anotine Constants for MEK and SBA

Methyl Ethyl Ketone (MEK)

4.9.1 Relative Volatility

4.10 Reflux Ratio

The reflux ratio (R) is defined as:

Flow returned as reflux

Equation 2: Underwood Equation to calculate the minimum reflux ratio

AB : The relative volatility = 2.015

: The mole fraction of MEK in the Distillate = 0.99

x F : The mole fraction of MEK in the feed =0.90

4.11 Fenske Equation and Gilliland Correlation

AB : The relative volatility = 2.015

Figure 11: Gilliland Correlation