284.

201 Horticultural Production Systems: Producing a Vegetable Seed Crop

Producing a Vegetable Seed Crop

Objectives
After studying this topic you should be able to:

discuss the process from selection of the production area through to final seed
quality assessment required to produce a high quality seed crop of maximum yield

understand the factors that maximise yield from in a vegetable seed crop

understand the factors that maximise quality in a vegetable seed crop.

Introduction
Producing a vegetable seed crop is a specialised activity that has the aim of producing a
high yield of seed of maximum quality. A high yield of poor quality seed (low purity and
germination) is not financially successful. Some seed crops, for example a carrot seed crop,
can take up to two years to produce. Careful planning before the crop is sown is critical to
producing a high yield of high quality seed.
There are a number of key steps in the production of a vegetable seed crop. At each of
these steps there is potential for loss of yield and/or quality. The steps are:
1.

production site selection

2.

establishing the crop

3.

getting the crop to flower

4.

getting seed set (pollination and fertilisation)

5.

getting the seed from fertilisation to harvest with the highest yield of maximum
quality

6.

harvesting, processing and storing the seed without loss of quality

284.201 Horticultural Production Systems: Producing a Vegetable Seed Crop

Producing the Seed Crop

1. Production Area
The choice of production area is dependent on a number of factors including climate,
vernalisation and photoperiod requirements of the crop being produced.
The ideal seed production environment is one that has warm days and cools nights. Rain
needs to be adequate for growth of the crop but not excessive. Relative humidity also needs
to be low, particularly in the latter stages of seed development when the crop is drying to
low moisture content. High humidity at this time can encourage disease which will result in
loss of yield and quality. High sunshine hours are also needed. Insect pollination is
promoted by sunny conditions. For maximum seed weight (which affects both yield and
quality) high rates of photosynthesis are required. High rates of photosynthesis are also
promoted by sunny days. Site selection must maximise the chances of sunshine during
pollination and seed fill.
A crop may have specific environmental requirements to move from vegetative to
reproductive growth. For example temperate carrot cultivars require vernalisation (exposure
to low temperature) to move to reproductive growth. However, the carrot must have a
swollen tap root with a rosette of leaves before it responds to low temperatures stimulus.
This is why they are a biennial crop (i.e. eighteen months are needed to produce a seed
crop the crop is sown in the spring and grows vegetatively over the first season. Plants
are large enough to be vernalised over the winter. Flowering and seed production then
occurs the following spring and summer). Other species have a day length (photoperiod)
requirement before they will flower. The production area needs to be chosen to meet these
requirements. Often plants will have both a photoperiod and vernalisation requirement. For
example beetroot requires both long days and cool temperatures for flowering compared
with celery which requires short days and low temperatures for flowering.
The seed producer can by choosing appropriate sowing dates manipulate the production
system so that flowering and seed filling occur at the most favourable times of the year.

284.201 Horticultural Production Systems: Producing a Vegetable Seed Crop

2. Field Selection and Preparation

A number of factors determine the field selection and preparation. These include previous
cropping history of the field. For example a brassica seed producer would avoid a field that
had previously had a brassica crop in it because of the potential for volunteer plants from
the previous crop to establish, flower and cross-pollinate with the seed crop. An area with
weed species that produce seed that is difficult to remove (clean) from the seed crop should
also be avoided. Distance to other cross-compatible seed crops (isolation distance) will also
determine site selection.
Field preparation should remove weed species or other crops. This can be done by either
chemical means or tillage. The second aim of field preparation is to produce a fine well-tilled
seed bed that will maximise seed-soil contact. Here selection of the production area is
important. A high fertility alluvial soil is preferred for seed production. Deficiencies in the soil
need to be identified and remedied. This may range from an N:P:K (nitrogen, phosphorus
and potassium) application through to supply of trace elements that may be deficient in the
soil. Note application of fertiliser prior to planting does not preclude further applications
after flowering when nutrients are required for seed development, particularly during seed
fill.
3.

Seed and Variety Selection

The seed sown should be of high quality (purity, germination, vigour and health) to
maximise stand establishment. There is no direct link between initial seed quality and the
quality of the seed produced, nor yield per plant. The main effect of seed quality is the
number of plants that establish per unit area. If establishment is poor there will be fewer
plants from which to harvest seed hence yield will be reduced. An exception is in an organic
production system. Some diseases, for example Alternaria radicina, which can cause black
rot symptoms on the shoulder of the tap roots in carrots (Trivedi at al. 2009) are seedborne. In an organic production system, chemicals either as a seed treatment or foliar spray
cannot be used as a control measure against disease. Here the use of disease free seed is
important for the prevention of infection.
As most vegetable seed is produced by contract for seed companies the variety sown will
3

284.201 Horticultural Production Systems: Producing a Vegetable Seed Crop

usually be determined by the company rather than the producer. The key consideration that
influences the choice of variety is demand. Ultimately the seed produced will be used for
production of a food crop. There is little point in producing seed of a variety for which there
is no market. Within these constraints some varieties may have agronomic characteristics
that make them more suitable for a particular production region. Where possible, varieties
that have an advantage for the production region should be used.
4.

Sowing and Establishment

The sowing date for the crop needs to be determined. This will depend on specific
requirements of the crop. For example if a non-biennial crop has a vernalisation requirement
it will need to be sown in late summer/early autumn (before soil temperatures drop below
10C) so vernalisation requirements can be met during the following winter. The variety
being sown will also influence the sowing time, with some varieties being suitable for early
sowing and some not.
In general early sown crops produce higher seed yields. This is because the plants have
longer to undergo vegetative growth and reach optimum leaf area index (the ratio of leaf
area to the area of ground that the plant covers). The leaf area index is one determinant of
the amount of photosynthesis the plant is able to undertake, which during seed fill, will
determine seed size.
Vegetable seed crops can either be directly sown or established via transplants. Hybrid seed
production and the need to synchronise flowering means that male and female lines may be
planted at different times. Hybrid broccoli is transplanted at staggered intervals to ensure
that male and female lines flower at the same time. In contrast hybrid cauliflower and
squash are direct seeded but again different sowing times are used to ensure synchronicity
of flowering (McDonald and Copeland, 1996). Male and female plants are sown in alternate
blocks, with fewer male plants. For carrot seed production the ratio of female to male plants
is usually 6:4 or 6:2 (McDonald and Copeland, 1996).
Seed crops are sown in rows. Row spacing and plant density is usually differs to that used
for a crop grown for the fresh market. Plant density needs to be sufficient to allow for
flower development, air movement through the crop to reduce the risk of disease, access
4

284.201 Horticultural Production Systems: Producing a Vegetable Seed Crop

for pollinators and equipment used for pesticide application, cultivation and harvest.
Flowering pattern and plant size will also determine the row spacing used. Carrot with a
spreading flowering habit is planted at a lower density than onion.
5.

Irrigation

While dry conditions are needed when the seed crop is undergoing maturation drying there
are key stages in the production process where moisture stress must be avoided. These
include establishment and early seed development. Water stress at any of these times can
reduce seed yield. Frequently, irrigation needs to be used to avoid water stress at these key
times.
6.

Pollination Control

Once the crop is flowering to produce a seed crop pollination and fertilisation is needed.
Pollination can be by wind or insects depending on species.
Insect pollination can be greatly assisted by the seed producer through the introduction of
pollinators, typically honey bees. While insect pollination can occur naturally, to maximise
seed yield introduction of pollinators is usually required.
For hybrid seed production control of pollination is critical to the producing high quality seed
i.e. seed of the desired hybrid cultivar. A key issue is preventing cross-pollination of the
hybrid seed crop with other compatible crops. This is a particular issue with brassica seed
production where many brassica crops will cross pollinate, for example cabbage, cauliflower,
broccoli. Isolation distances are the main mechanism used to prevent cross-pollination
however crops can also be isolated in time where different sowing times can be used to
ensure that crops that can cross-pollinate do not flower at the same time or where varieties
that do not flower at the same time are grown. For hybrid carrot and onion crops a natural
mechanism that prevents the production of viable pollen is cytoplasmic male sterility is used
to prevent self-polination on the female plant. In plants exhibiting cytoplasmic male sterility
no viable pollen is produced either because no pollen is produced or the pollen produced
does not develop into viable pollen, preventing self-pollination by the female plant. The
hybrid seed is harvested from the female plant.
5

284.201 Horticultural Production Systems: Producing a Vegetable Seed Crop

Cages that will exclude insects (but not usually pollen from wind-pollinated crops) can be
used for the production of parental lines by breeders or for the production of virus-free
seed, for example, cages can be used to screen against aphids, the vector for lettuce mosaic
virus (LMV). Greenhouses and plastic tunnels can also be used for seed production on a
larger scale than cages (George, 1999)
Selection of production area and/or removal of weed species that can cross pollinate with
the crop is also important, for example wild carrot (Daucus carota) is a major weed problem
in the Wairarapa in carrot seed crops (also Daucus carota) and is a limiting factor in the
production of carrot seed in that area.
7.

Weed Control

Weeds can be a problem in seed crops for a number of reasons:

a.

they compete with the seed crop for water, light and nutrients

b.

interfere with cultivation and harvesting

c.

may harbour pests and diseases

d.

may produce seed that is a similar size and shape to the crop seed and is therefore
difficult to remove in the cleaning process.

A seed crop will have a longer growing season than a crop being produced for fresh market.
The extended growing season means that weed control is likely to be a greater issue
compared with fresh market production.
Weed seeds can contaminate the crop seed. Weed control is therefore very important for
the production of high quality seed. Weed control is part of field preparation for sowing.
Planting the seed crop in rows will allow cultivation that can be used to control weeds once
the crop is established. Selective herbicides or manual removal of weeds in the established
crop (collectively known as roguing) is also used.
8.

Disease Control

Vegetable seed crops are susceptible to the same diseases as fresh market crops, but,
6

284.201 Horticultural Production Systems: Producing a Vegetable Seed Crop

because the seed crop is being taken through to seed production additional diseases may be
encountered as well. Disease can reduce yield by weakening or killing the parent plant. Seed
quality can also be reduced where the disease is seed-borne and the resulting seed crop is
infected.
Disease prevention can be achieved by growing the crop in a low relative humidity
environment and choosing a production area away from where fresh market crops are being
produced. The incidence of carrot leaf blight caused by Cercospora carroteae can be
reduced by growing the carrot crop in a warm area with low relative humidity. Similarly a
major disease problem in celery, late blight caused by Septoria, can be reduced by
producing the celery seed crop away from the areas where the celery stalks for fresh market
are produced (McDonald and Copeland, 1996). Septoria is seed-borne with the pycnidia, the
spore-producing bodies of Septoria visible on the seed. However the pycnidia remain after
the spores have been dispersed. Sorting technologies have recently been developed that
enable celery seed to be sorted into seed with and without viable spores allowing the
distribution of disease-free seed.
Crop rotation can also be used to reduce disease incidence. For example alternating
between cabbage and non-cruciferous crops in a three year rotation will reduce the
incidence of club root, a deformity of the roots of the cabbage plant, caused by

Plasmodiophora

brassicae

(McDonald

and

Copeland,

1996).

Cabbage

and

other

Brassicacceae are sometimes referred to as cruciferous crops i.e. from the family Cruciferae.
This is an older name for the Brassicaceae. Both names are in use.
Foliar sprays can also be effective against some diseases. Use of protected structures,
where the production environment can be controlled (temperature and relative humidity),
can also be used for small-scale crops.
9.

Insect Control

Insects are not usually as great a problem in seed production as diseases, but, they can
reduce both yield and quality, particularly where the adult insect lays their eggs within the
developing seed. After the eggs hatch the larvae will consume the seed and emerge through
the coat as an adult. Insects can also be vectors for disease, for example aphids.
7

284.201 Horticultural Production Systems: Producing a Vegetable Seed Crop

Insecticides can be used to control insect pests but care needs to be taken not to harm
insect pollinators.
10.

Harvest

This is a critical stage in vegetable seed production. Harvesting too early can result in
immature seed and/or seed at high moisture being harvested. Seed harvested at high
moisture is easily damaged with a resulting loss of germination and vigour, and reduced
storage life. Many vegetable seed crops, including spinach, lettuce, cabbage, cauliflower,
carrots, parsnips and onions, shatter. This is where the seed pod splits open dispersing the
seed from the parent, sometimes explosively. Delaying harvesting in a crop which shatters
can result in loss of seed and can result in considerably reduced yield. Delayed harvest also
exposes the crop to loss from birds.
Harvest timing is therefore critical and it is often a compromise between allowing the crop
to reach as low moisture content as possible on the plant, avoiding seed loss as a result of
shattering or birds and avoiding adverse weather conditions which can delay harvest and
cause loss of seed quality. In indeterminate crops like carrot where there is a range of seed
on different umbels at different maturities harvesting needs to be timed when most seed is
at harvest maturity (and before shattering can occur). For carrot seeds the highest quality
seed (weight, germination and vigour) are found in the first formed (primary) umbel
because it is a stronger sink. Harvest timing is usually determined by the maturity of the
primary umbel, where the seed is harvested when the earliest maturing seed on the primary
umbels is about to be shed.
Harvesting equipment must, of course, be clean to avoid, contaminating the seed lot.
Where seed is harvested at supra-optimal seed moisture it must be dried to a moisture
content safe for storage. Drying seed to a moisture content in equilibrium with 60-65%
relative humidity is usually considered safe for short term (one or two years) storage. At this
relative humidity the moisture content reached by the seed is in the range of 7-12%
depending on the crop (Table 1).

284.201 Horticultural Production Systems: Producing a Vegetable Seed Crop

Table 1:

Moisture content of a range of vegetable seed crops in equilibrium

with air at 60% relative humidity.

Seed

Moisture content (%) reached at 60% relative humidity

Spinach

11.0

Pea

11.0

Bean

11.0

Tomato

9.0

Carrot

9.0

Lettuce

7.0

Cabbage

7.0
(from Harrington, 1972)

11.

Cleaning and Storage

The production system should minimise contaminants in the seed lot. However when this is
not achieved the seed can be cleaned to remove weed and other crop seed. In reality most
seed crops will need some cleaning to remove at the very least vegetative matter from the
parent plant and or the seed head that has been collected with the seed. Hand-harvesting
seed will reduce the level of this inert matter in the seed lot. The cleaning process is also
used to remove damaged of small (immature) seeds of the crop of interest. Cleaning will
improve the purity (for example removal of other crop species and inert matter) and
germination (removal of small seeds or immature seeds that are unlikely to germinate).
For some species cleaning is necessary to remove seed appendages. For example carrot
seed has spines on the seed which are removed with a debearder. This reduces the volume
of the carrot seed (transport costs are reduced) and improves the flow of the seed through
the remainder of the cleaning process. Onion seeds are cleaned to remove any flower
pedicels that break from the onion stalk during harvesting.
Cleaning should be kept to a minimum and should not be used as a substitute for good seed
production practices. Seed cleaning involves the seed hitting hard surfaces. If seed moisture
is too high this can result in bruising of the seed, if seed moisture is to low cracking of the
seed can occur. Both will lead to a loss of seed quality.
9

284.201 Horticultural Production Systems: Producing a Vegetable Seed Crop

Once clean and at a moisture content safe for storage, seed is packaged. The conditions
needed to maintain maximum seed quality in storage are well understood, these are low
seed moisture content and low temperature. Most small volume horticultural seed is stored
at temperatures below ambient (5C-10C).
12.

Quality Assessment

The final step in the seed production process is to verify that the seed produced has met
the quality standards required (for example germination or purity) for sale. This is done by a
seed testing laboratory.

Terms and Concepts

The following terms and concepts have been discussed in this section of the course. You
should read through the list and make sure you understand each term or concept. If not reread the relevant section(s) of the course. If you are still not sure please contact the
lecturer for that part of the course.

Alternaria radicina

Pycnidia

biennial crop

roguing

bruising

seed-soil contact

Cercospora carroteae

Septoria

club root

shattering

cytoplasmic male sterility

synchronicity of flowering

lettuce mosaic virus

vernalisation

male pollen sterility

primary umbel
photoperiod

Plasmodiophora brassicae

10

284.201 Horticultural Production Systems: Producing a Vegetable Seed Crop

Self-Assessment Questions
These questions are designed to test your understanding of the material presented in this
section of the course. You should work through the questions at your own pace attempting
to answer all questions. If you cannot answer, or do not understand, a question, re-read the
relevant section of the course. If you still cannot answer, or do not understand, a question,
(or any other part of this section of the course) please contact the course lecturer. These
self-assessment questions do not form part of the assessment of the paper, however if you
wish to submit answers for marking and comment please do so.
1.

Outline the key steps involved in producing a high yield of high quality vegetable
seed.

2.

List the criteria that must be considered when deciding on a production area for
producing a seed crop.

3.

Discuss the mechanisms that can be used to prevent cross-pollination of brassica

seed crops.

4.

Why are weeds a problem in a seed crop?

5.

Discuss the factors that need to be considered when deciding when to harvest a
seed crop.

11

284.201 Horticultural Production Systems: Producing a Vegetable Seed Crop

References
George, R.A.T. 1999. Vegetable seed production. CABI Publishing, CAB International,
Wallingford.
Harrington, J.F. 1972. Seed storage and longevity. In Seed biology. Ed. Kozlowski, T.T.
Academic Press, New York.
McDonald, M.B. and Copeland, L.O. 1996. Seed production principles and practices.
Chapman and Hall, New York.
Trivedi, R.S., Townshend, J.M., Jaspers, M.V., Ridgway, H.J. and Hampton, J.G. 2009.
Thermal control of disease in carrot seed crops. Agronomy New Zealand. 39: 123132.

12