Paradox McDonald Shanghai

Cultural Paradoxes Reflected in Brand Meaning: McDonald's in Shanghai, China
Author(s): Giana M. Eckhardt and Michael J. Houston

Source: Journal of International Marketing, Vol. 10, No. 2, Special Issue on Global Branding
(2002), pp. 68-82
Published by: American Marketing Association
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/25048890
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Cultural
Paradoxes
Meaning:
McDonald's
ABSTRACT
in Brand
Reflected
in Shanghai,
China
Brands are powerful symbols that reflect not only the image
with which marketers hope to imbue them but also the cultural
milieu in which they are imbedded. If thatmilieu is in a state of
can come
some
to represent
brands
ideas and
flux,
surprising
to which marketing
must
be
sensitive.
In this re
values
efforts
a com
nature
the
authors
relate
the
societal
search,
of
change,
mon
occurrence
in many
markets
and especially
developing
a brand
to evaluation
China,
of
consumers.
ban Chinese
Using
in the context
norms
and values
that are
of societal
can
Brand
situations.
evaluations
usage
up in various
brought
be inconsistent
and often paradoxical
text. The results
that marketers
suggest
the way
volved with
in transitional
values
Giana M. Eckhardt and

Michael
J.Houston
which
depending
should
on
the con
in
be closely
their brand is interacting with cultural

markets.
Brands are powerful

with
brand is
the authors reveal that theMcDonald's
completion,
evaluated
a broad cross-section
ur
by
of
scenario
the methodology
of
that reflect not only the image
symbols
manufacturers
and
advertising
try to im
agencies
bue them but also the cultural milieu inwhich they are imbed
ded (Levy 1959). If that milieu is qualitatively different from
can
the society
where
the brand
brands
originated,
some
to represent
to
which
ideas and values
surprising
must
efforts
be
sensitive.
In
ancient
be
China
marketing
today,
that
of
come
lief systems
in Confucianism
rooted
gling with Western

regard
which
the most
and brands.
consumerism,
pot of ideas more
is one
are
intermin
with
(Davis 2000), especially
ideologies
to consumption,
this melting
and Taoism
evident
consumer
attractive
is
Nowhere
than in Shanghai,
markets
in China.
Remarkably little work has been done in the marketing field

as to the relationship between brand meaning and the nature
of traditional
This
culture,
should
where
especially
be of paramount
traditional
is
culture
to mar
changing.
importance
as a brand's
the interplay
between
keters,
image comes from
a
it
and
the culture
If cul
surrounding
marketing
campaign.
can also fluctuate.
ture is in a state of flux, brand meaning
In
we
to
the nature
of societal
this research,
relate
eval
change
uation
Submitted April
Revised October
2001
of a brand
by
a broad
cross-section
of urban
Chinese
consumers.
2001
? Journal of International
Marketing
Vol. 10, No. 2, 2002, pp. 68-82
ISSN 1069-03IX
Specifically,
McDonald's
this study investigates

can hold
for a wide
the meanings
range
68
of Shanghainese
the brand
con
sumers.
consumers
some
For
can be used
to uphold
in some
traditional
McDonald's
situations,
values,
thought patterns,
and in
and ways
of interacting,
whereas
for other consumers
venue
is an appropriate
for con
other situations,
McDonald's
sumers
new beliefs
to explore
of acting.
For many
and ways
of the participants
has
come
to symbolize
Important
consumer
the Chinese
and Lai (1989) document,
cally
been
used
for social
gue
that branding
came
(1368-1911)
son's
family
status
centralization
under
about
at any
and
the Ming
because
point
class
the use
of material
dynasties
of a per
de
of the
there
divisions,
symbols
was
This ne
and position.
to mark
The Nature of Brand

in China
Meaning
ar
authors
and Qing
constant rise and fall of family wealth

cessitated
The
of the uncertainty
in time. Because
ambiguous
of
strategies
market.
brands have histori
in China.
purposes
life.
Chinese
result for the branding
that pursue
As Hamilton
in modern
the paradoxes
implications
companies
does both and
in this study, McDonald's
status.
There
fore, Hamilton and Lai (1989) conclude that the function of

brands was social. Tse (1996) argues that this social function
is still
of brands
sumers
use
con
Chinese
social
relation
consumers
that Chinese
proposes
place
on the social
of brands
value
than Westerners
He
ships.
because
paramount
today,
names
as a tool to build
brand
emphasis
He also
are used
that brands
more
do.
a distance
to maintain
suggests
ex
to a greater
to in-groups
and a similarity
out-groups
are more
tent than in the West,
and in-groups
of an influence
on brand
name
can be
consumers
choice.
Chinese
expected
a brand name
ex
to match
status with
to a greater
their social
from
tent
than Westerners.
The
to the consumer's
relates
If the primary purpose

brand
consumers,
act with
social
need
meaning
value
for social
of brands
will
positively
identity.
is social for most
reflect
one another and the way
of brands
the ways
Chinese
inter
people
they think about their soci
as
Chinese
has been
characterized
ety. Traditionally,
society
an
on
with
collectivist,
among
emphasis
interdependence
of in-groups
members
views
and Taoist
(Tu 1985). Confucian
stress recognizing
of the world
one's place
in the social
order
and not striving to deviate from it but rather harmonizing

with others for the betterment of society (Tu 1985). This col
lective
orientation
arrangements
leads
in Chinese
a lack of seating
to, for example,
restaurants
for parties
of two but in
stead large tables for parties of eight. Privacy from others in

the in-group is not a traditional desire (Markus and Kitayama
restaurants
is
like McDonald's,
there
where
an
are
into
for
introduced
the
it
two,
seating
society,
provides
a new
to embrace
set of ideals?such
for people
opportunity
as gaining
Yan
that McDon
(1997,
2000) documents
privacy.
1991).
When
ald's in China not only is being transformed by consumers

fit their
needs
the consumers'
Cultural
and wants
but
previous
way
Paradoxes
some
is changing
of life. We
investigate
also
Reflected
in Brand Meaning
to
of
aspects
con
how
69
sumers psychologically
and
perceive the brand McDonald's
how itmanages to both engender social change and provide a
medium
on customary
for carrying
The key to discovering
The Study
can
on
take
in specific
a brand name
the range of meanings
is to ground
consumers'
evaluations
we
contexts.
and varied
Therefore,
scenarios
vergent
a brand
of interacting.
ways
name
di
developed
the patronage
of McDonald's,
in mod
the changes
occurring
surrounding
that
of the brand
represents
ern urban Chinese society and has a history of multidimen

sional brand images (Watson 1997). The methodology
of
scenario
when
completion,
a narrative
in
usually
scripts,
they would
respond
used
successfully
in each
in
are
respondents
form, and
of the given
various
given
are asked how
then
has
scenarios,
studies
psychological
cultural
been
(i.e.,
1997) and is recommended as a way of discover

cultural meanings
(Triandis 1995). By giving peo
to
situations
respond to, and especially
by
ple specific
scenarios
in
which
incongruous or
introducing
potentially
behavior is exhibited
(breaching),
perceived unacceptable
this method provides an insightful way to capture people's
Greenfield
ing hidden
meaning
underlying
For
this
systems.
three
study,
were
scenarios
created
that
portray
three different situations in which the protagonist

is eating
nature
at McDonald's
the
The
of
(see
Appendix).
specific
the scenarios emerged from fieldwork conducted
by the
first author and other related studies that had taken place
to
previous
proach.
most
salient
Two
ings.
this
The
three
in conjunction
study,
scenarios
chosen
situations
that evoked
were
scenarios
created
consumers
emic
ap
the
as
emerged
brand mean
different
to represent
im
different,
in China. Scenario 1 is designed to

to how McDonald's
is perceived
portant social situations

elicit thoughts related
when
an
with
had
are with
older
members
family
and
how
and if the brand relates to traditional Chinese eating habits.

in the scenario (McDonald's
By introducing
incongruency
as an appropriate
is typically not perceived
place to go
it provides an opportunity for
with older family members),
the
to articulate
respondents
nario
2 was
designed
to romantic
tant
situation.
usage
situation
in which
is to examine
as
to familial
induce
to articulate
respondents
emerge
part
in the Appendix
brand with
ref
another
liaisons,
symbolically
impor
a nonsocial
3 represents
Scenario
is alone. Our purpose
the consumer
here
whether
of
Sce
hierarchies.
they attach to the McDonald's
the meanings
erence
to
associated
meanings
symbolic
in relation
with McDonald's
nonsocial
its meaning.1
are the final
attributes
The
of
versions
versions,
after
the
that
they
brand
appear
were
comments
modified
received by expert judges
following
in the United States and after a pilot study was conducted
in Shanghai.
70
Giana M. Eckhardt
and Michael
J.Houston
24 respondents
Ultimately,
two
completed
scenarios
were
the ones most
group.3 This design

within
a
sent
The
and
women
chosen
was
This
neighborhoods,
a half
and men.
and
each,
to repre
income
respondents
Sex was equally di
Participants
a record
to provide
done
age
and
the Shanghai population.
to
responded
the scenarios first in written form individually

on their responses
ther expanded
verbally
group.
by each
both between
were
were paid 50 RMB for their participation.

between
received
for analysis
levels within
an hour
lasted
on
formed
to the respondents'
The
respondents.
respondents
of
ages,
variety
occupations,
sessions
vided
were
groups
appropriate
allowed
levels, and education

The
each.
of age,2 and the two scenarios
the basis
group
(three groups of 8) in Shanghai
and then fur

within
their
of the participant's
the influence of the group as well as to

responses without
then give them a comfortable situation inwhich to expand on
their
answers.
For
profile
All the data collection

through
translators
the
took place in Shanghainese
1.
Putonghua
of Chinese
assistance
were
see Table
of the participants,
Professional
colleagues.
on all materials,
and a decentering
ap
used
proach (Campbell and Werner 1970) was taken when translat

into English, as this approach most
ing all the materials
reflects
emic
the
closely
goals of this study.
We conducted a hermeneutic analysis (Thompson 1997) us
ing 57 single-spaced
transcripts that included the partici
Income
Name
Sex
District
Age
(Yuan/Month)
Occupation
Table
1.
Education
Participant
M.
Pu
Huang
Pu Dong
21
Y.
F Xu
XuHui
23
H. Lin
Hong
J. Zhao
W. Han
Chen
18
P. Din
Kou
None
Student
Salesperson
Customer
service
Middle
school
2000
College
1400
College
24
Secretary
1300
23
Engineer
2500
College
Yang Pu
Pu Tuo
22
Repairperson
1000
University
Middle
school
J.Zhang
Xu Hui
22
Office worker
2000
College
B. Wu
ZhaBei
24
Staff member
2000
College
Y. Huang
L. Zhang
Pu Dong
Xu Hui
28
Office
1200
College
27
Account
3500
College
W.Li
34
Teacher
3000
College
26
Teacher
1200
University
Middle
school
C. Song
L. Wu
Yang Pu
Zha Bei
worker
manager
Pu Tuo
34
Orderperson
L. Lin
Chang Ning
31
Analyst
Y. Shen
Lu Wan
34
Shop
W. Fang
Chang Ning
26
45
Q. Wang
J. Xu
D. Chen
M.
Li
Huang
Pu
M
M
Chang Ning
Lu Wan
Zha
Bei
College
1800
College
Nurse
1600
College
2500
College
39
Manager
Purchaser
2000
42
Arc welder
College
Middle
school
36
Office
Middle
school
assistant
Yang
Y. Gao
Xu Hui
40
Xu Hui
42
Salesperson
Warehouse
Q. Yao
Chang
44
Worker
L.Wei
Hong
Cultural
Paradoxes
Ning
Kou
42
Teacher
Reflected
900
2000
worker
M.
900
1400
keeper
1400
College
1300
800
College
Middle
2500
College
in Brand Meaning
school
71
Profiles
common
and verbal
We developed
responses.
pants' written
are
and meanings,
themes
which
presented
subsequently.
Specific
data,
case
negative
and illuminate
themes
Results
The Paradoxical
Nature of Social Space
the
on
the
to challenge
themes
emerged,
major
nature
inconsistent
that
today
urban
society.
of which
of the
to be
eating
meet
traditional
face.
Specific
prominent
For most
party
and
of a break with Chinese
the diners
in full
subsequently.
received the family birthday
1), McDonald's
the seating
are
evalu
to
for patrons
opportunities
as gaining
or
such
goals
giving
concerns
were
social
space
of the respondents who

in this
public
same,
concerns
providing
(Scenario
situation?all
a McDon
in their
aspects include the

the d?cor, the noise
interpersonal
in which
ways
are outlined
in each scenario
scenario
in
are set up.

Depending
can lead to the brand
the tables
either as symbolic
or as
demonstrates
important
ations of the McDonald's

brand. These
the food is ordered and delivered,
traditions
author's
fieldwork.
inside
space
way
being interpreted
first
of the
can have
meanings
nature
of contemporary
brand
of the changing
the way
level, and especially
on the scenario,
social
space
the
and previous
each
interpretations
were
revealed
Respondents'
ald's restaurant
as
of the
themes
emerging
as well
literature
because
coding
in the data, and refinement
of the Chinese milieu
China
iterative
included
analysis
paradoxes
based
knowledge
Three
used
techniques
view
is perceived
arrangements
of one another.
as too
are
the
Tradi
in Chinese
take place
restaurants,
tionally,
parties
birthday
are given
section
where
families
their own
of the restaurant,
seats
tables they need
(each table usually
many
using however
eight to ten people).

sets
which
them
food and drinks
Special
from
apart
other
diners.
This
are ordered,
is congruent
the hierarchical nature of Chinese society, inwhich peo

ple display their rank and gain face with important members
of their in-groups by being more conspicuous
and making
with
higher-status
consumption
InMcDonald's,
where
choices
than
those
around
them.
all the food and the seating is the same
are lost, and this

of social
for everyone,
these
space
aspects
on
in
this
situation.
the
loss is not looked
Therefore,
favorably
are
restaurant
of
the
social
space aspects
perceived
negatively.
is "too noisy
for an adult birth
Zhang, McDonald's
are typ
Chinese
family birthday
parties
day party." However,
raucous
in
which
the male
members
of the
events,
ically
For Mr.
family drink alcohol

When
Mr.
Zhang
says McDonald's
is too noisy,
has the wrong kind of noise
McDonald's
louder:
and the entire affair is extremely noisy.
The
rather
he means
that
rather than that it is
is coming
from others
of the out
(members
soci
than from
the in-group members.
Chinese
as one in which
members
of an
characterized
noise
group)
ety is typically
72 Giana M. Eckhardt
and Michael
f. Houston
in-group
(family,
work
or neighbors)
colleagues,
are
so close
to a person as to be regarded as part of the self (Markus and

(strangers) are largely
Kitayama 1991). Out-group members
cases
are considered
a negative
and in some
influ
ignored
ence on the
noise
from
of the in-group.
Thus,
coming
goals
is what makes
undesir
the out-group
the McDonald's
setting
restau
in the typical
Chinese
able or inappropriate,
whereas
rant
Ms. Wei
is from
the noise
setting,
in-group.
not go toMcDonald's
says she will

it is not
because
the
or
fancy
in this scenario
for a proper
enough
expensive
cele
bration:
We Chinese rarely go toMcDonald's

for a birthday. I
a
come
remember I had friend
back from abroad. He
wants
to get
I said, which
together.
restaurant?
He
said McDonald's. We think he is stingy. What can

Iwill not go. It is the same
you eat at McDonald's?
for a birthday party. It is cheap to go toMcDonald's.
The
for her is one of McDonald's

meaning
cannot
members
give face to important
overall
where
she
group. The concept

still
group
they will
gious,
evaluate
it negatively.
In the
however:
dependent,
dents believed
that McDonald's
2 (the
In Scenario
were
is viewed
having
son with
date
others
date
the
social
is still
the
and
noisiness,
in the birthday
is often perceived
as a place
scenario,
two-person
enabling
tables
that
is context
space
aspects
sometimes
per
in this context, but the public
and noisy
in a positive
light?consumers
see them on a date.
Paradoxically,
crowdedness,
discussed
respondents
Donald's
This
scenario,
many
respon
a
to
good place
gain face.
dating
was
situation),
McDonald's
prominent.
ceived as crowded
most
face is one that
of giving and receiving
on many
in
large impact
consumption
practices
out is no exception.
in the in
and eating
If others
or the food
restaurant
is
not
that
the
perceive
presti
China,
ness
place
of the in
has
again
as a
couple
eue not
to be
found
face by
gain
in compari
that
publicness
Mc
scenario,
to find privacy
in the
of the
by virtue
in non-Western
restau
"alone"
rants. This echoes a finding reported by Eckhardt and Hous

ton (1998) that privacy is often found in public places (the
frontstage becomes the backstage) in China because of the
lack of privacy inmost homes (the typical backstage inWest
ern
settings).
backstage
management
Impression
can
is where
really
people
and thus the seating inMcDonald's

the
"inner"
lates with
an
person,
a mate.
choosing
other
is a relatively
a partner
choosing
Dating
Cultural
Paradoxes
new
and
that the
theory
posits
to
know
each
other,
get
facilitates getting to know
individualist
phenomenon
romantic
love,
Reflected
that
notion
in China?the
which
dating
in Brand Meaning
corre
idea
of
facili
73
is not
tates,
traditional
(Bond
Ms.
1986).
Xu
a strong
has
neg
on a date.
ative reaction to the idea of going to McDonald's
is "awful, disgusting, and terrible. It
She thinks McDonald's
is too embarrassing to directly face the boy across the table,
the
are
tables
too
is noisy,
small?it
go to a noodle
pid." She would
one of ancient
reminds
things."
situation
in the form of small tables
inappropriate.
For most
Mr.
stu
and
"It is clean and

shop instead:
seems
to be a
For her, dating
inwhich Westernization,
is wholly
for two,
inconvenient
the publicness
others,
views
for
Huang,
example,
is positive.
as an asset
of McDonald's
the publicness
in
the date scenario because he can gain face by taking a date to

"Then
McDonald's:
will
everyone
I am
know
on a date."
Mr.
to dating (two
that the seating is conducive
Song believes
can
sit together without others at the table), and it en
people
people
able
to him
"in"
and
ideals.
and
that university
students
embrace
in that
become
something
good,
in this context. For him,
social interactions
in a foreign
way"
filial piety
concerns,
to "celebrate
acceptable
two
only
no
and
people
the birthday party situation. Similarly,

the underlying
nario,
cial space outside
is
thinks McDonald's
has
Foreignness
it facilitates
is accept
which
way,"
on a fourth date. He
fashionable
these
in a foreign
to "celebrate
ables
when
in which
of the home
are
there
as there
are
in
in this sce
forMr. Wu
of McDonald's
meaning
it is
is that
two people
of a so
can be
sit for a long time. In Chinese

restaurants,
people
eat and leave
In McDon
afterwards.
immediately
"alone"
and
typically
ald's, people tend to subvert the fast-food element and sit for
a long time (Yan 1997).
were
Social
irrelevant
largely
3 (eating
lunch
alone
space
aspects
in
Scenario
presented
in the
on
context
workday).
scholars such as Yan (1997, 2000) have suggested
Many
concerns
social
are
space
consumers
Chinese
almost
of McDonald's;
in Scenario
3, individual
that
of prominence
for
always
because
however,
people
traits
rather than social
were
alone
were
out. In sum
and Yan's
is not borne
conclusion
salient,
can lead to the
of McDonald's
the social
space aspects
mary,
brand being perceived
as representing
in the guise
of separation
of family
tion,
and the perceived
seating
arrangements)
ers
Yet the social
members).
(out-group
Donald's
positive
also
can
lead
such
attributes,
the opportunity
breaking with
members
noisiness
tradi
of
(because
from
oth
of Mc
space aspects
to be representative
of
as the openness
of the space, which
the
brand
on a
to gain face when
for a person
provides
and
the
the
advent
of
date,
encourage
arrangements
seating
romance
from
and dat
privacy
along with
in-group members
as
consumers
are
themselves
Much
how
with
ing.
grappling
to fit these new opportunities

Donald's
into
ated with
alternative
their
everyday
meanings
presented
lives,
and
Giana M. Eckhardt
by the space inMc
the brand
is also
perme
evaluations.
and Michael
J.Houston
The notion
or non-Chineseness,
because
hardly
surprising,
around
foreign
finding.
been noted
prominent
McDonald's
has
ing a symbol of the United

countries
was
ness,
many
brand represents
that the McDonald's
is
This
for be
in
States and indeed globalization

the world
However,
1997).
(Watson
Nature of
The Fluctuating
as
Otherness/Foreignness
in the Brand
Represented
how the consumer interpreted this varied depending on the

context within which the brand was imbedded. In some situ
was
the
ations,
could
foreignness
face
provide
it
because
positively,
situations,
interpreted
in certain
social
it
whereas
could be quite negative in situations in which consumers be

lieved that long-held traditions should not be broken. Fol
is an analysis
lowing
of how
occurs.
this
in which notions of the other and the

prominent was the family birthday party sce
The primary
foreign were
situation
as too
noisy
nario.
is typically
Here, McDonald's
perceived
and not Chinese
The "otherness"
(too foreign).
relates
primar
ily to the food, the lack of alcohol, the atmosphere (pop mu

sic, bright lighting), and the seating (small tables); also, the
menu
standardized
as negative
is perceived
in this
situation.
Mr. Huang says, for a party, "Maybe [McDonald's] is okay for

foreigners, but not for Chinese. Like divorce is okay in foreign
not
you would
and Western
countries,
the exotic
do
in China."
that
nature
In this
situation,
is precisely
why
For Mr. Song,
of McDonald's
not go there for a family

celebration.
the primary
associated
with
McDonald's
meaning
is
not
not
Donald's
and thus
traditional,
Chinese,
he would
for a Chinese
priate
family
s for a
change,
McDonald
Others also indicated

ity and
ingful
his profession?
achieve
superficial
deep
He also
and
traditional,
being
or mean
equates
a tradi
not go there for a birthday. Thus, the pri
for him
meanings
event."
represents
anything
there.
interactions
teacher?with
tional person would

mary
thatMcDonald's
people
in terms of social
appro
"It's all right to go to
for a meaningful
but not
cannot
that
event:
is that Mc
not
in this
are
situation
that McDonald's
is nontraditional
and superficial. The Chinese throughout
as
as
well
history
today generally believe that their culture
is
(especially food)
superior to that of theWest, and therefore
it is not surprising that McDonald's
is evaluated in this way.
Mr. Xu primarily
situation
party
thinks
because
of McDonald's
is no
"there
in the
negatively
alcohol
As
available."
discussed by Yan (1997), one of the reasons women like Mc

is that there is no alcohol
Donald's and find it empowering
available
for women
it is socially
there; for the most
part,
to drink
at Chinese
restaurants.
in Chinese
celebrations
to take
care
tion of men
is one
erings
many
men,
Cultural
of the men
drinking
restaurants,
who
drink
as much
as they please
that many men want

is something
alcohol
Paradoxes
Reflected
the women
too much,
to maintain.
that must
unacceptable
At traditional
are
and
expected
this tradi
at family gath
Therefore,
be present
in Brand Meaning
for
for a
75
The overall meaning

celebration.
proper
seems
Mr. Xu
to be that McDonald's
is not
sex and hierarchical
traditional
holding
in this
situation
for
of up
capable
roles, and he thus
it negatively.
perceives
For Mr.
when
Wang,
ative
in this
foods
for a party
He
situation.
as well
not
he would
why
to
go
Mr.
Similarly,
of its uniformity,
because
of varied
choice
large
He
surroundings.
situation.
for this
ditional values
wants
as elegant
has a good atmosphere
that McDonald's
simple"
Donald's,
discussing
of
for a family party, the underlying meaning
is standardization and simplicity, which is neg
McDonald's
McDonald's
thinks
but that it is "too

Chen
Mc
perceives
to uphold
as unable
tra
to for celebrations.
that should be adhered
"I
in food and to relax, not to celebrate.

go there for a change
I go to a famous
restaurant
For a celebration,
that has round
so
more
on the
not
to wait
is
and
has
staff
tables,
simple,
a
break
from tradition
Thus, McDonald's
represents
party."
and is perceived
negatively.
Here
the McDonald's
brand
on a
takes
variety
lated to its difference from the traditional way

in China.
place
prices
a celebration,
McDonald's
there is no opportunity
standardization
positive
does not
deep
McDonald's
significant
celebration.4
be paradoxical
thus
or
but yet not meaningful
its foreignness
is also prominent.
Although
to eat, it is not a restaurant
is a fun place
where
event
should
such as an intergenerational
occur,
the
Finally,
with
a
can
last way
the McDonald's
brand
to its otherness/foreignness
reference
necessity
to others, mainly
is perceived
is
this is interpreted negatively
is considered
it is empowering
in tradition.
break
McDonald's
of
Interpretation
and Youth as
Modernity
in the
Represented
McDonald's
Brand Name
the
and
of
as alcohol
erings,
welcome
because
to worry
about
face to other people
who
losing
a more
lavish meal.
The notion
that the McDon
the lack of alcohol. Whereas

some,
posi
as a
a
in the dating
becomes
situation,
out
the woman
the man
taking
ald's brand is novel and prestigious

because
and
viewed
tomake a special display. Yet it is just
that,
because
attribute
need
are ordering
The
of eating and
be both
negative
is largely not
face to the guest of honor,
that gives proper
are standardized
and seating
arrangements
socializing
tive. For
this
can
These
re
of meanings
as
at traditional
representing
women,
by
gath
and is a
and
modernity
youth in all three scenarios, though this takes many different

forms and is interpreted differently depending on the spe
in relation toMcDonald's
cific situation. Modernity
takes the
form
of cleanliness,
sanitation,
with
The connotation
technology,
comes
youth
newness.
brightness,
primarily
and
from
the food: Because

the young people
the food is so different from Chinese food,

are the most willing to try it or eat it on a
regular basis.
for children's
McDonald's
Also,
birthday
parties,
has
and
itself
promoted
"Uncle Ronald"
and Michael
as a
place
is an icon
J. Houston
for the children.
The interpretation
from
ranges
the cultural
modernity
on
pending
In the birthday
values
Wu believes
party
"good
own
of her
for her
it seems.
of the modern
Mr.
something
fies herself
and
embrace
"new,"
considers
as
McDonald's
perceives
someone
whereas
who
identi
(Ms. Yao)
to the
whereas
is not that at all anymore, because

for more
cities
major
the rapidly
than
should
If Iwant
to a special
go
now
the various
almost
be
it
has
everyone
family out, I
to give proper
more
traditional
demonstrates
it can
meanings
to some
modernity
tainly not
in
Yao
place."
inexpensive
as an older,
finds McDonald's
pass?
consumer,
Ms.
China.
to take the whole
are too
the prices
Also,
honor?e.
That Ms. Yao,
between
is "old hat"
and
years
of urban
"In Shanghai,
anymore:
special
been toMcDonald's.
in the
it has been operating
is nothing new to the Shanghainese;
lieves thatMcDonald's
is not
five
scenescape
changing
as
McDonald's
perceives
Chi
Shanghainese.
Cosmopolitan
as a representation
of their
to most
it
Chinese
average
people,
McDonald's
outlook,
at the
and
this
However,
is not as straightfor
the epitome
himself
consumer,
and
new
not
"old"
worldly
Li, who
as traditional
nese
values
to be modern.
as modern
Chinese
"fresh"
traditional
child
of McDonald's
perception
as
ward
re
1, she exhibits what Yan (2000) describes
acceptance
time a desire
same
tradi
something
so the
celebration,
family
Ms.
For
light.
example,
is inappropriate
for a multigenerational
for children's
In her
birthday
parties."
sponse to Scenario
as an
of moder
the food is different from Chinese
that because
McDonald's
but
of
de
negative
situation.
representation
multigenerational
is perceived
in a negative
modernity
food,
the
is at odds with
as a
such
tional,
to very
in each
positive
evoked
scenario,
party
nity and youthful
very
values
of the representation
in some
people
Chinese
the
It can
on.
take
tension
represent
this is cer
but
situations,
to the
face
universal.
In the date
McDonald's
scenario,
ing youth and modernity,
was
as represent
perceived
as in the birthday
party scenario.
as
it is viewed
Mr. Zhao
context,
positive.
as he ob
of
the
the youthful
demonstrates
brand
aspects
serves
romantic
that young
find McDonald's
and ex
people
But
citing
in the
date
for a date.
He
It isWestern,
says
about McDonald's,
American
culture.
You
how
know
the
like everything from abroad. Like we
Shanghainese
used
to have
have
it anymore.
Chicken,
feels
"Ronghua"
and we
"Ronghua"
like
don't
Shanghai,
stuff. Young
and the Shanghainese
like Western
Western
like
these
people dating
places. I take my
girlfriend
on a date.
Cultural
to McDonald's
Paradoxes
Reflected
almost
every
time we
in Brand Meaning
are
77
Mr.
modernity.
these
echoes
response
Elements
Zhang's
of
social
the
same meanings
such
space,
and
of youth
the back
as
(typically Hong Kong or Taiwanese
ground music
are the
primary
in the
consideration
pop music),
and
situation,
the evalua
tion of this is positive. Mr. Li brings another interpretation of

the brand in this context. The notions of individual will and
free choice become dominant for him, as described by Yan
on a date because
go to McDonald's
from
choice"
and "choose
freely"
(2000). He will
have your own
The meaning
of free choice is linked in his mind with going on
a date, which
is understandable
because
choosing
an
also
of this, and notions
of romanticism
example
are ideas that have
been
ing a mate
only recently
into Chinese
"you can
the menu.
and
society
are
thus
and
is
choos
introduced
as modern.
interpreted
were
Finally, different aspects of modernity
a mate
in
also exhibited
name
sce
in the eating
alone
interpretation
was
nario. That McDonald's
is sanitary,
and by proxy modern,
of considerable
The standardization
that McDon
importance.
the
of the brand
ald's represents
consumers
is clear in this situation?it
to know
For Ms.
roundings.
are the
overriding
that
the
Chen,
reasons
standardization
she goes
McDonald's
represents
an unfamiliar
part
a Chinese
restaurant
he
portant when
out a way
to judge whether
the
him,
standardization
dles
are not
and
dumplings
says the primary
situation
is its sanitary
Ms.
Yao
this
tional
older
of town with
Ms.
is one
scenario
Gao
says that
as McDonald's,
hygienic"
reason
to McDonald's
she goes
conditions
than
("cleaner
echoed
by many
that was
or
is sanitary
in Group
3.5 In this way,
for the older respondents.
of
"noo
as
a theme
restaurants"),
participants
to be positive
in this
meaning
overriding
and trustworthiness.
im
becomes
is a "safe" option.
taste like, McDonald's
the food will
For
sur
get
and sanitary
conditions"
there. Mr. Zhao
indicates
they
the "clean
is alone?in
what
is important for
in unfamiliar
will
what
and
in
tradi
of the
seems
modernity
We have shown how the McDonald's

brand can embody
of
and youth and how this
many different facets
modernity
can
connotation
by
some
in some
evaluated
situations
positively
some
and negatively
in other situations,
be
consumers
times by the same consumers.

ambivalence
urban
Davis
(2000) chronicles
consumers
Chinese
feel
about
the
modernity:
They want the prosperity, increased standard of living, and

respect on a global scale that it can bring, but they are fiercely
proud of the old way things have been done, and in many
circumstances,
modernization
cal nature
Discussion
they
not
want
As we
have
do
brings.
of this conflict
attached
to the McDonald's
It seems
that McDonald's
and uphold
to embrace
the changes
the
here,
paradoxi
can be
in the meanings
represented
brand name.
can
traditional ways
both
shown
stimulate
social
change
of interacting. One of the ways
and Michael
/. Houston
this occurs is through the use of social space in the dining ex

in McDonald's.
This happens in two ways:
perience while
First, the divided and hierarchical setup of the dining experi
ence
in traditional
restaurants
Chinese
is not
adhered
to?the
are open,
and everyone
has equal access
arrangements
seating
as to where
to sit and what
to order. This can lead to a positive
or
on the con
of the brand,
negative
interpretation
depending
text. The
can
second
social
be
way
change
engendered
en
social
is the specific
space
through
arrangements,
seating
to share a table and sit together. This
abling only two people
to a negative
interpretation
in a traditional
engage
leads
sumers
but
can be
ing
interpreted
the freedoms
that
of
food
with
con
when
brand
situation
consumption
consumers
when
positively
can come
the
are
explor
as dat
such
modernity,
can also be
name
a
brand
of
ing. The McDonald's
symbol
can
or
which
stimulate
social
reinforce
otherness,
changes
norms.
For example,
traditional
the lack of alcohol
served
some women
a more
on
there
to embrace
leads
being
equal
footing with men while

served
there
also
causes
to evaluate
people
occasions.
Finally,
and youth,
facilitates
for certain
inappropriate
resenting
eating. In contrast, the lack of alcohol
modernity
as
restaurant
the
McDonald's,
rep
as well
as
change
tradition. The cleanliness

and standardization
of both the
restaurant and the food are changing how and where people
eat when
in unfamiliar
and
surroundings,
these
characteris
tics of the brand are evaluated positively in this context. Yet

the modernity and standardization are decidedly negative in
other
situations.
All of these findings

can
brands
eties,
that in rapidly
suggest
on
take
cultural
disparate
even be central to how these disparate

tional
or new)
ficult
task
are evaluated.
to control
Marketers
marketplace.
societal
connotations
need
image
the brand
(tradi
a dif
it becomes
the brand
aware
to be
and may
cultural values
For marketers,
the
soci
changing
values
in the
has
of the
cultural
and
on and
is taking
the way
same as norms
of interact
or
are
the
staying
changing
are
or
same.
the
ing
changing
staying
these
The
results
to a brand
times
here
that the meanings

suggest
consumers
can be malleable
reported
name
by
in societies
paradoxical
where
cultural
attached
some
and
norms
are
in
flux. The results also indicate that the meaning attached to a

brand name at any given moment is largely dependent on the
cultural
values
evoked
in the
specific
usage
or evaluation
sit
uation. This in turn suggests that an effort needs to be made

to find out how a brand image is reacting with current cul
tural mores and whether
the meanings being taken on by a
brand are substantially different from those put forth through
marketing efforts. This is especially true for high-profile con
sumer
brands
tive ways
Cultural
such
of life and
Paradoxes
as McDonald's,
experiences
Reflected
which
for many
represent
consumers,
in Brand Meaning
alterna
and
in
79
countries
are
values
where
in flux
or the em
is social.
of consumption
phasis
Chen Shan is going out to dinner with his family on a Satur

day night. They are going out to dinner to celebrate his wife's
birthday. He is going with his wife and daughter, his younger
Appendix
Scenario
as China,
such
and his wife
brother
ther's
and
brother
and daughter,
his wife.
Shan's
and their fa
parents,
brother
younger
suggests
their
that they go toMcDonald's

for dinner. What would you do in
this situation? Would you take the entire family to McDon
ald's
or choose
Donald's
as
detail
Mc
If yes, what makes
it
If no, what makes
do and why
possible.
a university
a student,
also
girlfriend,
occasion?
explain what you would
Please
Wang Haipong,
Scenario
for this
appropriate
inappropriate?
in as much
restaurant?
another
student,
is planning
on
on
out
a date
to take his
Friday
night.
be their fourth date. Some of his friends have sug

gested going to McDonald's. Would you take your girlfriend
to McDonald's
if you were Haipong (orwant to be taken by
Haipong)? Where would you go instead if you chose not to go
to McDonald's? What characteristics of McDonald's make it
for this date? Please explain
appropriate or inappropriate
what you would do and why in as much detail as possible.
This will
Deng
Scenario
is returning
Xiaoming
for the boss.
It is lunchtime,
to work
after
doing
some
errands
so she
and she is very hungry,
to get something
to stop in a restaurant
to eat before
go
a
a cafete
to
back
the
office.
She
noodle
passes
ing
shop and
to go to McDonald's,
ria and
decides
because
she
finally
wants
to get food that tastes good but is not too expensive.
Do
wants
you think she made
were
criteria
if your
you rate each of these
McDonald's
How
a good choice? Would
would
and being
ing hunger,
tasting
good,
swer in as much
as
detail
possible.
Notes
the
options
you have chosen
same
as Xiaoming's?
in terms of satisfy
inexpensive?
Please
an
1. Previous fieldwork and related studies have suggested

that though Yan (1997) notes that the meanings
of effi
con
are irrelevant
value
and economic
for most
ciency
these meanings
become
salient
when
sumers,
may
people
are eating
3 was
to explore
Scenario
alone.
these
designed
so.
uses
to do
issues
further
and
questions
specific
2. Group
Group
3. Group
narios
Note
1: 18-24
2: 25-34
of age,
of age, Group
years
of
age.
years
2 and 3, Group
1 received
2 received
Scenarios
Sce
1 and 2, and Group
3 received
3 and 1.
Scenarios
years
3: 34-45
that the order of scenarios has been balanced
among
the groups.
consumers
4. Although
other
in many
countries
than China
no doubt
as these,
echo
sentiments
such
would
what
is
the results
here
that
inter
makes
these
unique
reported
and Michael
/. Houston
are context
pretations
ate these
meanings
are
values
tural
Consumers
dependent.
with McDonald's
when
In
evoked.
believe
respondents
an
is
and
appropriate
perficial
tential mate.
example,
only associ
certain
cul
the
scenario,
dating
is not
that McDonald's
to get
place
for
su
a po
to know
are manifested
5. Again,
these
interpretations
these respondents
situations;
do not
only in certain
interpret McDonald's
this way all the time.

Bond, Michael
Kong: Oxford
The Psychology
Press.
University
of the Chinese
(1986),
Donald
and Oswald
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Thought:
of New
Albany, NY: State University
Paradoxes
Reflected
in Brand Meaning
as Creative
York Press.
81
The Authors
Watson,
Foods
Asia,
Giana M. Eckhardt
Australian
is Lecturer,
Graduate
School ofManagement.
University
Marketing,
of Minnesota.
James Watson,
Localization
and Fast
"Transnationalism,
in Golden Arches East: McDonald's
in East
ed. Stanford, CA: Stanford University
Press,
1-38.
Yan, Yunxiang
of Americana,"
Michael J. Houston is
Ecolab/Grieve Chair in-(2000),
International
James (1997),
in East Asia,"
(1997), "McDonald's
in Golden
Arches
Asia,
James Watson,
Press,
39-76.
Donald's
China,
Press,
ed.
Stanford,
in Beijing:
The Localization
East: McDonald's
in East
CA:
Stanford
University
"Of Hamburger
and Social Space: Consuming
Mc
in Beijing,"
in The Consumer
in Urban
Revolution
Deborah Davis,
CA: University
ed. Berkeley,
of California
201-319.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The
authors
gratefully
the financial
of the Association
Research-Sheth
acknowledge
contributions
of Consumer
Foundation.
82
Giana M. Eckhardt
and Michael
J. Houston

Paradox McDonald Shanghai

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Cultural Paradoxes Reflected in Brand Meaning: McDonald's in Shanghai, China

Author(s): Giana M. Eckhardt and Michael J. Houston

Giana M. Eckhardt and

their brand is interacting with cultural

Brands are powerful

the authors reveal that theMcDonald's

that reflect not only the image

gling with Western

pot of ideas more

(Davis 2000), especially

Remarkably little work has been done in the marketing field

this study investigates

and Lai (1989) document,

The Nature of Brand

constant rise and fall of family wealth

brands have histori

result for the branding

does both and

in this study, McDonald's

fore, Hamilton and Lai (1989) conclude that the function of

If the primary purpose

is social for most

one another and the way

they think about their soci

and not striving to deviate from it but rather harmonizing

stead large tables for parties of eight. Privacy from others in

ald's in China not only is being transformed by consumers

The key to discovering

the range of meanings

ern urban Chinese society and has a history of multidimen

1997) and is recommended as a way of discover

three different situations in which the protagonist

in China. Scenario 1 is designed to

portant social situations

and if the brand relates to traditional Chinese eating habits.

they attach to the McDonald's

the ones most

group.3 This design

Sex was equally di

the Shanghai population.

the scenarios first in written form individually

were paid 50 RMB for their participation.

levels, and education

of age,2 and the two scenarios

(three groups of 8) in Shanghai

and then fur

the influence of the group as well as to

All the data collection

took place in Shanghainese

proach (Campbell and Werner 1970) was taken when translat

of a break with Chinese

received the family birthday

of the respondents who

aspects include the

are set up.

ations of the McDonald's

in the data, and refinement

of the Chinese milieu

eight to ten people).

food and drinks

the hierarchical nature of Chinese society, inwhich peo

all the food and the seating is the same

are lost, and this

family drink alcohol