1

Chapter 6: System Performance and Specifications

Chapter 6: SYSTEM PERFORMANCE AND SPECIFICATIONS

Before considering control system specifications and performance measures, lit would be helpful to
first define and discuss the meanings of some of the basic control engineering terms we shall be
using. The definitions will be with reference to the feedback control system shown in Fig. 6.1. For the
N G (s)
N H (s)
system of fig. 6.1, let G (s) =
and H (s) =
. One of the key things to note is the
D G (s)
D H (s)
fact that for a real system, the order of the numerator polynomial of the system's transfer function
cannot exceed the order of the denominator polynomial. For the system of Fig. 6.1, the open loop
transfer function and the closed loop transfer function are given by

G(s)

R(s)

C(s)

H(s)

Fig. 6.1: FEEDBACK CONTROL SYSTEM

OLTF:

GH ( s ) =

N G ( s) N H ( s)
DG ( s ) D H ( s )

and
CLTF:

N G ( s) D H (s)
G ( s)
=
1 + GH ( s )
DG ( s ) D H ( s ) + N G ( s ) N H ( s )

System Order.
The order of the system is given by the order of the denominator
polynomial of the closed loop transfer function (CLTF). It must be noted that the order of the
denominator polynomial of the CLTF is the same as the order of the denominator polynomial of
the open loop transfer function (OLTF).

System Type Number.

The system type number is defined only for unity feedback
systems. Consider a unity feedback system, i.e. a system for which H(s) = 1 and hence for which
the open loop transfer function GH(s) equals G(s). Assume that the open loop transfer function
(OLTF) can be put in the form
G H (s) = G (s) =

k N G (s)
=
D G (s)

k (s + z1 ) (s + z 2 ) ... (s + z m )
s t (s + p1 ) (s + p 2 ) ... (s + p r )

where n = t + r is the order of the denominator polynomial, m < n. The number t, of zero roots
of the equation DG(s) = 0 is known as the system's type number. The type number has a lot of
influence on the steady state error of the feedback system

Characteristic polynomial and characteristic equation. The characteristic polynomial is the

numerator of 1 + GH(s). When the characteristic polynomial is set equal to zero, the resultant
equation is known as the characteristic equation. The system response depends to a large extent
on the roots of the characteristic equation.

Chapter 6: System Performance and Specifications

N (s)
, where N(s)
D (s)
and D(s) are polynomials in s. The zeros of the system are the roots of the equation N(s) = 0.
Similarly, the poles of the system are similarly given by D(s) = 0.

System Poles And Zeros. Consider a system with transfer function F(s) =

For the system of Fig. 6.1, the open loop poles and zeros are obtained as indicated below.

Open loop zeros are the roots of NG(s) NH(s) = 0

Open loop poles are the roots of DG(s) DH(s) = 0

Similarly, the closed loop poles and zeros are given by

Closed loop zeros are the roots of NG(s) DH(s) = 0

Closed loop poles are the roots of the characteristic equation 1 + GH(s) = 0, i.e. the roots of
DG(s) DH(s) + NG(s) NH(s) = 0

Example 6.1:
For the feedback control system with forward transfer function G(s) and feedback
transfer function H(s) given by
G (s) =

3.2 (s + 6)

and

s + 4s

H (s)

2
(s + 2)

find the following

a)

the open loop transfer function, the open loop poles and zeros of the system

b)

the characteristic polynomial and the characteristic equation of the system.

c)
the closed loop transfer function, the system order and the closed loop poles and zeros of the
system.
Solution:
a)
The open loop transfer function GH(s) is given by
GH(s) = G(s) H(s) =

3.2 (s + 6)
2

s + 4s

2
(s + 2)

6.4 (s + 6)
2

(s + 4 s) (s + 2)

6.4 (s + 6)
.
s (s + 4 ) (s + 2)

The open loop zeros are the roots of the equation obtained by setting the numerator of GH(s) tto zero,
i.e. the roots of 6.4(s + 6) = 0. Thus in this case, there is one zero at 6.
The open loop poles are the roots obtained by setting the denominator of GH(s) to zero and finding
the roots of the resultant equation. The poles are the roots of s(s + 4) (s + 2) = 0. The open loop
poles are thus 0, -4 and 2.
b)
The

characteristic

polynomial is given by (the numerator) of 1 + GH(s)

=
3
2
3.2 (s + 6)
2
6.4(s + 6)
( s + 6 s + 8 s ) + 6.4 s + 38.4
x
= 1 + 3
1 + G H (s) = 1 +
=
(s + 2)
s2 + 4 s
s + 6 s2 + 8 s
(s 3 + 6 s 2 + 8 s)

i.e the characteristic polynomial is s3 + 6s2 + 14.4s + 38.4.

Chapter 6: System Performance and Specifications

The characteristic equation is obtained by setting the characteristic polynomial equal to zero, ie.
s3 + 6s2 + 14.4s + 38.4 = 0.
c)
The closed loop transfer function is given by

G (s)
1 + G H (s)

3.2 (s + 6) (s + 2)
3

s + 6 s 2 + 14.4 s + 38.4
The system order is three as the denominator of the closed loop transfer function is a third order
polynomial.

The closed loop poles are the roots of the equation obtained by setting the numerator of the closed
loop transfer function to zero, i.e. the roots of 3.2 (s + 6) (2 + 2) = 0. Thus in this case, there are
two zeros given by 6 and 2.
The closed loop zeros are the roots obtained by setting the denominator of the closed loop transfer
function to zero and finding the roots of the resultant equation. The poles are thus the roots of
s3 + 6s2 + 14.4s + 38.4 = 0.
The three roots are 4.673, -0.667 + j2.787. The closed loop poles are thus 4.673, -0.667 + j2.787.

Response of First and Second Order Systems

Consider a first order feedback system with closed loop transfer function given by
k
1
G ( s)
k
=
=
1 + G H ( s)
(s + p)
p (1 + s )
1
is the time constant of the system. The time
p
constant is thus the reciprocal of the magnitude of the systems pole. If a unit step is applied to the
1
system we have r(t) = 1 and R (s) =
. Thus the s-domain unit step response C(s) is given by
s
1
1
k
k 1
(
C ( s) =
)
=

(s + p) s
( s + p)
p s

The single closed loop pole is at p. The constant =

c(t), r(t)

r(t)
1.0
css

ess
c(t)

0.632 css

Time
Constant

Time, t

Fig. 6.2: STEP RESPONSE OF FIRST ORDER SYSTEM

Chapter 6: System Performance and Specifications

k
is the
p
steady state value of the response. The time constant is a measure of the decay rate of the transient
response. The smaller the time constant the faster the system settles down. The step response is
shown in fig. 6.2. Note that it takes seconds for the response r(t) to go from the initial value of zero
to 63.2% of the final value css.

The equivalent time domain response is of the form css [1 e-tp ] = css [1 e-t/ ] where css =

Since most specifications are based on the response of second order systems, it is beneficial to have a
detailed look at the response of second order systems too. Consider the second order feedback
system with closed loop transfer function given by
G (s)
CLTF =
1 + G H (s)
The characteristic equation, given by 1 + GH(s) = 0, must be second order, i.e.
1 + GH(s) = b2s2 + b1s + b0 = 0
b1

..

(6.1)

b12 4 b 0 b 2

. Three different responses, depending

2 b2
on the roots, can be identified as indicated below. Fig. 6.3 also shows the three types of second order
step response.

The roots of eqn. (6.1) are given by

Case 1: 4b2b0 > b12: The roots are complex and the system response is underdamped i.e. it has
an oscillatory transient response.

Case 2: 4b2b0 = b12: The roots are repeated and real. The system's transient response is said to
be critically damped.

Case 3: 4b2b0 < b12: There are two distinct real roots. The system's transient response is said to
be overdamped.
r(t), c(t)

Underdamped < 1
Critically Damped
=1

r(t)

Overdamped > 1

Time, t
Fig. 6.3: RESPONSE OF SECOND ORDER SYSTEMS
For second order systems, the characteristic equation is usually put in the standard form
s2 + 2ns + n2 = 0

...................................... (6.2)

The constant is known as the damping factor or damping ratio of the system and n is known as the
undamped natural frequency of the system. From the above, it is clear that the value of the damping
factor determines the transient response type. The frequency of oscillation when the transient
response is underdamped (i.e. < 1) is given not by the undamped natural frequency n but by d,
the damped natural frequency that is given by

Chapter 6: System Performance and Specifications

d = n(1 - 2).
Note that if we divide eqn (6.1) by b2 we get
s2 + (b1/b2)s + (b0/b2) = 0 ..................................

(6.3)

By comparing the coefficients of eqns. 6.2 and 6.3, we can easily express n and in terms of b2, b1
and b0 of eqn (6.1).
Example 6.2:
a)
A feedback control system has characteristic polynomial given by 2s + 5. Find the time
constant of the system.
b)

A second order feedback control system has characteristic equation given by

1.5s2 + 2.6s + 4 = 0

Find the damping coefficient , the undamped natural frequency n and the damped natural
frequency d of the system.
Solution:
a)
The characteristic polynomial may be expressed as 5(1 + 0.4s). Thus the time constant of
the system is o.4 second. Alternatively, as the closed loop pole of the system is 2.5, the time
1
= 0.4 second.
constant may be obtained as
2.5
b)
The characteristic equation may be expressed as
1.5 (s2 + 1.733s + 2.667) = 0

or

s2 + 1.733s + 2.667 = 0

Comparing this equation with the standard form s2 + 2ns + n2 = 0 gives

and

n2 = 2.667

i.e

n =

2n = 1.733

i.e

1.633 ( 2 ) = 1.733

The damped natural frequency d = n

2.667 = 1.633 rad/sec.

i.e

= 0.531

1 2 = 1.633 1 0.5312 = 1.384 rad/sec.

Control Objectives
Control System Specifications.
In order to be able to describe in an unambiguous way the standard of performance that is expected
from a particular control system, it is necessary to have universally accepted measures of control
system performance. These measures enable us to quantify the performance of a control system and
thus enable us to specify the performance of the system. Both time domain and frequency domain
specifications are used. Time domain specifications are defined in terms of the time response of the
system while frequency domain specifications are defined in terms of the frequency response of the
system. Regardless of whether time domain or frequency domain specifications are used, the
following aspects of the control system's performance are the areas of major interest.

Stability and relative stability.

Transient performance i.e. the speed of response of the system (when the reference input is
varied). The speed of response must be appropriate for the application.

Steady state performance i.e. the steady state error of the system.

Chapter 6: System Performance and Specifications

Safety. Though safety is not explicitly considered in this course, it must be emphasised that as in
all engineering and industrial activities, safety is of paramount importance. All control systems
must be designed to for safe operation and adequate safety and protective devises must be
incorporated. All plants must be operated in a way that is consistent with good safety practices.

Other aspects of interest are

Control effort, i.e. the energy expended in effecting the control strategy.

Disturbance rejection i.e. how well the feedback system copes with noise and other disturbances.

Stability
A control system is said to be unstable if its response grows in an unlimited way or if sustained
oscillations result from the application of nonsinusoidal inputs. In practice, the magnitudes of the
responses of unstable systems do not grow to infinity as theoretical results might suggest because of
the limiting action of saturation that occurs in most systems. Instability is highly undesirable in
control systems, as there is no control over the system behaviour when it is unstable. All effort must
be made to ensure that the feedback system is stable at all times.
The stability of a closed loop control system with forward transfer function, G(s), feedback transfer
function H(s) and open loop transfer function GH(s), depends on the closed loop transfer function
(CLTF). The CLTF is given by
CLTF =

C(s)
R (s)

G (s)
1 + GH(s)

The denominator polynomial of the CLTF, i.e. 1 + GH(s) is known as the characteristic polynomial
of the system. Setting the characteristic polynomial to zero gives us the characteristic equation i.e.
1 + GH(s) = 0
The roots of the characteristic equation are known as the poles of the system. The stability of the
closed loop system depends on these poles. The poles may be real or complex [note that complex
roots occur in conjugate pairs]. However, system stability depends on the real parts of the poles. The
values of the imaginary parts of the poles play no part in determining system stability. The condition
for stability is as follows. For stability, all the roots of the characteristic equation, i.e. all the system
poles, must have negative real parts.
Note that if only one of the system poles has a non-negative real part, the system is unstable. Note
also that the roots of the numerator polynomial of the CLTF, known as the zeros of the system play
no part in determining the stability of the system.
The effect of pole location on the transient component of the feedback system response is illustrated
by Fig. 6.4. Poles with positive real parts produce transients that grow with time. The larger the
magnitude of the real parts of these poles the faster the transients grow. Poles with zero real parts,
i.e. imaginary poles, produce constant magnitude sinusoidal oscillations (which do not die down with
time). However poles with negative real parts produce stable transient responses, i.e. transients
which die down with time. The larger the magnitudes of the real parts of these stable poles, the faster
the transients die down. From Fig. 6.4, it is also clear that while the imaginary parts of the poles do
not affect the stability of the system, the have some effect on the transient response. The higher the
magnitude of the imaginary part of a conjugate pole pair (note that complex roots occur in conjugate
pairs), the higher the frequency of the oscillations in the associated transient component.
As unstable systems must be avoided at all cost, we shall, later on in the course, devote more time to
the issue of stability and also relative stability and how to ensure stability. A system that is only
marginally stable could change into an unstable system due to system parameter variations due to for
example ageing. Thus not only do we want our feedback system to be stable, but we also need to

Chapter 6: System Performance and Specifications

Imag.

X
X
X
X
X

X
Real

X
X
X

X
X

Fig. 6.4: POLE LOCATIONS AND TRANSIENT RESPONSE

know how far or how close a stable system is from instability, hence the importance of the concept of
relative stability.
Tests For Stability.
If we wish to investigate the absolute stability of system, that is we only wish to consider whether or
not a system is stable, but do not necessarily wish to consider the systems relative stability, we may
use the any of the following stability techniques.
1: Test based on system poles.
If we can explicitly solve the systems characteristic equation for the system poles, it is easy to
determine whether or not the system is stable. If all the poles have negative, non-zero real parts the
system is stable. If one or more poles have zero or positive real parts, the system is unstable. While
this method is straightforward, the problem is that for high order systems, it is not easy to manually
determine the poles.
2:Test Based on Characteristic Polynomial Coefficients
A necessary, but not sufficient condition for stability is that the characteristic polynomial must

not have any zero coefficients and

have coefficients which are all of the same sign.

and

If a characteristic polynomial does not satisfy the above then the system is definitely unstable.
However, if it satisfies the above conditions, it does not then follow that the system is stable. Other
tests must be carried out to check if the system is stable.

Chapter 6: System Performance and Specifications

3: Routh-Hurwitz Test.
From the characteristic polynomial a0sn + a1sn-1 + + an-2s2 + an-1s + an, form the Routh-Hurwitz
array as follows. Note that for an nth order system, the Routh-Hurwitz array has at most (n+1) rows.
The first two rows are constructed from the systems characteristic polynomial coefficients. The
other rows are derived from the preceding two rows. The elements of the Routh-Hurwitz array are
formed from the coefficients of the characteristic polynomial as follows ROW 1:

a0

a2

a4

a6 ....

ROW 2:

a1

a3

a5

a7 .....

ROW 3:

b1

b2

b3 .........

ROW 4:
c1
.
.
.
ROW (n+1) : ..

c2

c3 ..........

where
b1 =

1 a0
a1 a 1

a2
a3

b2

1 a0
a1 a 1

a4

c2

1 a1 a 5
b1 b1 b 3

a5

etc

and
c1 =

1 a1 a 3
b1 b1 b 2

etc.

The system is stable if and only if all the elements in the first column of the Routh-Hurwitz array
have the same sign. The number of sign changes in the first column equals the number of poles with
positive real parts, i.e. the number of unstable poles. The method outlined above need to be modified
if either of the following conditions occur in the array.

A zero entry in the first column of any derived row apart from the last one. This gives rise to
infinite entries in the following row. This situation could be handled in two ways. The first
method involves replacing the zero entry with a small number , computing the subsequent rows
and then taking the limit as approaches zero. In the second method, the original polynomial is
multiplied by (s + a), a > 0. This adds one stable pole, and hence does not affect the number of
unstable roots of the given system.

A row of zero entries. This involves the use of auxiliary equations and is more difficult to
handle. The Lienard-Chipart method may be easier to use for such cases.

4: Lienard-Chipart Test.
From the characteristic polynomial a0sn + a1sn-1 + ..... + an-2s2 + an-1s + an, form either the oddnumbered or even-numbered k x k Hurwitz determinants Hk for 1 < k < n from

Hk =

a1 a3 a5 ..................
a0 a2 a4 .................
0 a1 a3 a5 ..............
0 a0 a2 a4 ..............
0 0 a1 a3 a5 ........
0 0 a0 a2 a4 ........
.....................................ak

The first two rows are constructed from the coefficients of the systems characteristic polynomial.
Note that the arrangement of the coefficients is different form the Routh-Hurwitz array. Other rows
of the determinant, taken two at a time, are formed by right-shifting the preceding pair of rows. The

Chapter 6: System Performance and Specifications

rightmost elements are discarded. In forming the determinant, replace by 0 any coefficient which is
absent in the given characteristic polynomial. If all the coefficients of the characteristic polynomial
are positive, then a necessary and sufficient condition for stability (i.e. for all the roots of the
characteristic equation to have negative real parts) is

all the odd-numbered Hurwitz determinants must be greater than 0.

all the even-numbered Hurwitz determinants must be greater than 0.

or
This means that we need to test only the odd-numbered determinants or only the even-numbered
determinants but not both.
Example 6.4:
is given by

Investigate the stability of the closed loop system whose characteristic polynomial

a:

s5 + 3.4s4 + 6.73s3 12.33s2 + 22.4 using the characteristic polynomial coefficients tests.

b:

s4 + 2s3 + 5s2 + 8s + 10 using the Routh-Hurwitz method.

c:

s4 + 2s3 + 5s2 + 8s + 10 using the Lienard-Chipart test.

Solution:
a:
the system is unstable as there is a one zero coefficient ( for s) . Also the coefficients are not
all of the same sign.
B
Rows one and two of the Routh-Hurwitz table are obtained from the coefficients of the
given characteristic polynomial, i.e.
Row1:

10

Row 2:

The elements of row 3 are obtained as follows

=

b1

1 1 5
2 2 8

(6 10)
= 1
2

and

b2

1 1 10
2 2 0

(0 20)
= 10
2

b3 is zero. Thus, row 3 is as follows

Row 3:

10

Similarly the elements of row 4 is obtained as follows

c1

Row 4:

1 2 8
1 1 10

-12

(20 8)
= 12 .
1

c2 is clearly zero and row 4 is as shown below

The first element of row 5 is given by

d1

1 10
1
12 12 0

(0 120)
= 10
12

The other elements of row 5 are both

zero.
Examining the first column of the table shows that there is one sign change from row 3 to row 4.
Therefore the system is unstable. Furthermore we k now that the instability is caused by one unstable
pole.

10

Chapter 6: System Performance and Specifications

c:
Let us use the odd Hurwitz determinants i.e. H1 and H3, as in his case they are simpler to
compute than the even ones.
H1 = |2| = 2. This is positive, so we continue with the test and compute H3 which is given by
2 8
H1 =

1 5 10
0 2

= 2

5 10
2

= 1

8 0
2 8

2 (40 20) - 1 (64 0) = -44. As H1 is

negative the system is unstable.

Time Domain Specifications.

For time domain specifications, the unit step is the most commonly used test input. The control
system specifications are defined as follows in terms of the unit step response as shown in Fig.6.5.

Overshoot (Peak Overshoot) Mp: The peak overshoot or simply overshoot is the maximum
difference between the transient response and the steady state response value, i.e. the difference
between the first peak and the steady state response value. The overshoot provides some
information about the stability of the system. The peak overshoot generally increases as the
damping in the system is reduced, thus the higher the value of Mp, the more oscillatory the
system response is. Note that critically and overdamped systems have no overshoot in their
response.
For an underdamped second order systems whose transfer function can be put in the standard
form

n2

(characteristic polynomial given by s2 + 2ns + n2 ), the peak

s 2 + 2 n + n2

overshoot can be shown to equal e

css.

Peak Time tp: Peak time is the time it takes to reach the first peak, i.e. the maximum point. For
an underdamped second order systems whose transfer function can be put in the standard form

n2
s 2 + 2 n + n2

given by t p

1 2

(characteristic polynomial given by s2 + 2ns + n2 ),, the peak time is

Settling Time ts: This the time taken for the response to reach and stay within a specified error
band -usually 5%, but sometimes 2% or 1%, of the steady state value. Settling time is a measure
of the systems speed of response, that is, how quickly (or otherwise) the systems response
reaches its final value..
For a second order system with characteristic polynomial s2 + 2ns + n2, the 5% settling time
is approximately 3/n. For 2% settling time the corresponding approximation is 4/n.

Delay Time td: The delay time is the time taken for the response to first reach 50% of its final
value. It is a measure of the control system's speed of response.

Rise Time tr: This is the time taken by the response to rise from 10% to 90% of its final value.
It is also a measure of the system's speed of response.

Steady State Error ess: Steady state error is a measure of the system's accuracy. The steady
state error is the error after the system's step input response has settled to a steady value, i.e. ess =
lim [r(t) - c(t)].
t

11

Chapter 6: System Performance and Specifications

Subsidence Ratio: This is the ratio of the amplitudes of successive cycles of the transient part of
the response. It is only relevant for underdamped systems. If the systems step response has first
and second peak values c1 and c2, then the subsidence ratio is (c1 css) / (c2 css) where css is the
steady state value of the response.
A subsidence ratio value between 4:1 and 3:1 is desirable for most control systems.

Time Constant : For a second or higher order systems, there may be two or more time
constants involved in the transient response. For such a system, time constant refers to the
predominant time constant of the system. This is a measure of the speed of response of the
overall system.
c(t), r(t)

r(t)
Mp 1.0

ess
5% Band

0.9cs

c(t)
0.5cs

0.1cs

td

tp

ts

Time t

tr
Fig. 6.5: UNIT STEP RESPONSE
Integral performance indices are also used, but we shall not consider these in the course.
Example 6.3:

For the unity feedback system with forward transfer function given by
10

G (s) =

s2 + 2 s + 3

find the following

a)

the peak time tp. and peak overshoot Mp

b)
the 5% settling time ts based on the exponential envelope of the systems step response.
Solution:
a)
The closed loop transfer function is given by
CLTF =

G (s)
1 + G (s)

10
2

s + 2 s + 13

Consider a unit step input, i.e. let r(t) = 1. Then R(s) =

1
. The system response C(s) is then given by
s

12

Chapter 6: System Performance and Specifications

C(s) =

10

1
=
s + 2 s + 13 s
2

k s + k3
k1
+ 2 2
.
s
s + 2 s + 13

Using partial fraction method, we obtain k1 =

Thus

C(s) =

Or

C(s) =

k s + k3
0.7692
+ 2 2
s
s + 2 s + 13

10
= 0.7692.
13

0.7692 (s 2 + 2 s + 13) + k 2 s 2 + k 3s

s (s 2 + 2 s + 13)

( 0.7692 + k 2 ) s 2 + (1.5385 + k 3 ) s + 10

s (s 2 + 2 s + 13)

Comparing coefficients of numerator polynomials gives

k2 = -0.7692

and

k3 = -1.5385. The system response C(s) may then be expressed as

0.7693
0.7692 (s + 1) + 0.222 (3.464)

s
(s + 1) 2 + 3.464 2
The time domain equivalent c(t) is obtained by taking the inverse Laplace transform.

C(s) =

c(t) = 0.7692 0.7692 e-t Cos (3.464 t) - 0.222 e-t Sin (3.464 t)
c(t) = 0.7692 - 0.8006 e-t Sin (3.464 t + 1.29)

or

At peak time, where a maximum occurs, we have

Now

When
or

d c(t )
= 0.
dt

d c(t )
= 0.8006 e-t Sin (3.464 t + 1.29) - 2.7733 e-t Cos (3.464 t + 1.29)
dt
d c(t )
= 0, we have Tan (3.464 t + 1.29) = 3.464
dt

(3.464 tp + 1.29) = 1.29 + k

i.e. (3.464 tp + 1.29) = Tan-1 (3.464)

; k = 0, 1, 2, 3,.... k = 0 is unsuitable as it gives tp = 0.

Trying k = 1 gives (3.464 tp + 1.29) = 1.29 + ,

i.e. peak time tp = 0.907 second.

The steady state value of the response css equals 0.7692. The peak overshoot Mp is then given by
Mp = c(tp) - css = -0.8006 e-0.907 Sin (3.464 x 0.907 + 1.29) = 0.3106.
The exponential envelope of the transient response is given by -0.8008 e-t and 0.8008 e-t. At the 5%
settling time, ts, we have
0.8008 e t s = 0.05 css

or

-ts = In (0.048) = -3.036 i.e.

e t s = 0.048. Taking inverse logarithm gives

settling time ts = 3.036 seconds.

Steady State Errors.

We shall now consider the steady state errors for unity feedback systems for the following standard
inputs

step input, i.e. r(t) = 1.

ramp or velocity input, i.e. r(t) = t.

13

Chapter 6: System Performance and Specifications

parabolic or acceleration input, i.e. r(t) = t2.

r(t)

r(t)

r(t)

Time, t

Time, t

Unit Step - r(t) = 1.

Unit Ramp - r(t) = t.

Time, t
Unit Parabolic - r(t) = t2.

Fig. 6.6: STANDARD INPUTS

The inputs to be considered are shown in Fig. 6.6. In particular we shall define the systems error
constants and consider how these error constants enable us to determine the steady state errors of
unity feedback systems without explicitly determining the system response first.
For the unity feedback system with input r(t) and output c(t) we have
C (s)
G (s)
=
R (s)
1 + G (s)

C (s) =

i.e.

G (s)
R (s)
1 + G (s)

For input R(s), the error E(s) is as you may recall given by
1
R(s)
1 + G( s)

E (s) =

From Laplace transform theory, the steady state time domain error, ess, is given by
e ss = lim e ( t ) = lim s E (s)
t

s0

s
R (s)
1 + G (s)
We shall now consider the steady state error for step, ramp and parabolic inputs.

Thus

ess

e ss

lim

s0

Step Input r(t) = m, i.e. R(s) =

=

lim

s0

s
m
1 + G (s) s

m
s
lim

s0

m
1 + G (s)

m
1 + G (0)

where m is the magnitude of the step input and G(0) is the value obtained after substituting s = 0 in
G(s). Define the position error constant kp as
Kp = G(0) = G(s)|s=0.
Then the steady state error ess for a step input of magnitude m is given by
e ss

m
1 + Kp

14

Chapter 6: System Performance and Specifications

Note that for type 0 systems Kp is finite, hence ess must be nonzero, i.e. an error is unavoidable. For
type numbers greater than 0, the position error constant ess is infinite and the steady state error is thus
0.

Ramp r(t) = mt, i.e. R(s) =

.
s2
The steady state error for a ramp input of magnitude m is given by s
m
m
= lim
=
e ss = lim
2
s 0 1 + G (s) s
s 0 s + s G (s)

lim

s0

m
s G (s)

Define the velocity error constant Kv as

Kv = lim s G (s)
s0

Then the steady state error ess for a ramp input of magnitude m is given by
m
e ss =
Kv
For type 0 systems Kv = 0 and hence the steady state error is infinite. for type 1 systems Kv is finite
and hence there must be a nonzero steady state error. However for type 2 systems Kv is infinite, thus
the steady state error in that case is zero.

parabolic input r(t) = mt2, i.e. R(s) =

s3
Consider a parabolic input of magnitude m. If we define the acceleration error constant Ka as

Ka = lim s 2 G (s) ,
s0

then similarly we get the steady state error for a parabolic input of magnitude m as m
Ka
The steady state error is infinite for types 0 and 1 systems, but finite for type 2 systems .for higher
type systems, the steady state error is zero.
e ss

TABLE 6.1: SUMMARY TABLE OF STEADY STATE ERROR ess

SYSTEM TYPE NO (l)

STEADY STATE
ERROR ess FOR UNIT
STEP INPUTS

STEADY STATE
ERROR ess FOR UNIT
RAMP INPUTS

STEADY STATE
ERROR ess FOR UNIT
PARABOLIC INPUTS

1
1 + Kp

1
Kv

1
Ka

Table 6.1 gives a summary of steady state error performance for types 0, 1 and 2 unity feedback
systems. Even though the steady state error results above have been derived for unity feedback
systems, the results could be applied to non-unity feedback system provided the error E(s) is taken as
R(s) H(s)C(s) rather than R(s) C(s).

15

Chapter 6: System Performance and Specifications

Example 6.5:
For the unity feedback system with forward transfer function G(s) given by
G(s) =
a:

6.5
s (s + 0.75) (s + 1.25)

find the system order and type number.

b:
the position error constant kp, the velocity error constant kv and the acceleration error
constant ka.
c:

the steady state error ess when (i) the input is a unit step (ii) a ramp of magnitude 2.5.

Solution:
a:
The denominator of the open loop transfer function and hence that of the closed loop
transfer function is a third order polynomial. Hence, the system is a third order system. Since there
is one open loop pole at the origin, the type number is one.
b:

The position error constant kp is given by

kp = G(0) =

6.5
0 (0 + 0.75) (0 + 1.25)

6.5
=
0

The velocity error constant kv ois given by

kv = lim s
s0

6.5
s (s + 0.75) (s + 1.25)

6.5
= 6.933
(0 + 0.75) (0 + 1.25)

Lastly, the acceleration error constant ka is given by

ka = lim s 2
s0

c:

(i)

6.5
s (s + 0.75) (s + 1.25)

= lim

s0

6.5 s
=
(s + 0.75) (s + 1.25)

For unit step input, the steady state error is given by ess =

0
= 0
0.9375

1
. As kp is infinite,
1 + kp

the steady state error is zero.

ii:
2.5
kv

For a ramp input of magnitude 2.5, the steady state error ess is given by
2.5
=
= 0.3606
6.933

Other Error Indexes

Although steady state error is of considerable usefulness, other error indices are also used. The
commonly used ones are
1: Integrated Absolute value of Errors (IAE) given by
T

IAE =

| e(t) | dt
0

2. Integral Time Absolute Error (ITAE), given by

16

Chapter 6: System Performance and Specifications

ITAE =

t | e(t) | dt
0

3. Integral Time Square Error (ITSE) given by

T

ITSE =

t e( t )

dt

Frequency Domain Specifications

Basically frequency domain specification are given on terms of either the closed loop or the open
loop response of the control system when sinusoidal inputs are applied. The sinusoidal response can
be obtained analytically from the system's transfer function or by carrying out a series of tests using
the experimental setup of Fig. 6.7. In the tests of Fig. 6.7, a set of sinusoidal inputs of different
frequencies is applied one at a time to the system. For each input, the output signal magnitude and
phase angle (with respect to the input signal) are recorded. These form the frequency response of the
system. In general, both the magnitude and phase angle of the response change as the frequency of
the input signal is varied.
Variable Frequency
Sinusoidal Input |R| / 0

FEEDBACK SYSTEM
UNDER TEST.

Steady State Sinusoidal

Response. |C| /

Fig. 6.7: Experimental Setup for Determination of Frequency Response.

Fig. 6.8 shows how the magnitude of the feedback systems output M(j) changes with frequency (of
the sinusoidal fixed magnitude input). The frequency domain specifications commonly used are as
follows.

Resonant Peak Mr: This is given by the maximum value of the closed loop magnitude response
(see Fig. 6.8). The resonant peak is a measure of the overshoot present in the system's transient
response. Large values of Mr correspond to large overshoots.

Resonant Frequency r: This is the frequency at which the resonant peak occurs. The resonant
frequency is a measure of the speed of response. The higher the value of the resonant frequency,
the faster the transient response is.

Bandwidth Bw: This is the range of frequencies over which the system responds satisfactorily.
The bandwidth is related to the system's speed of response. High bandwidths correspond to
small rise times.

Cut-Off Frequency : This is the frequency at which the closed loop response has a magnitude
1
that is
of its DC value i.e. value when frequency is zero.
2

Cut-Off Rate: The cut-off rate is the slope of the closed loop magnitude response curve at the
cut-off frequency. Cut-off rate is a measure of the systems ability to distinguish signal from
noise.

17

Chapter 6: System Performance and Specifications

In addition to the above there are two other specifications which are also commonly used. Both of
them are measures of relative stability. These specifications are defined in terms of the open loop
response. We shall consider them more fully later on in the course.

Phase Margin.

Gain Margin.

Closed Loop Magnitude

| M(j) |

Mr

M0

M0
2

Fig. 6.8: CLOSED LOOP FREQUENCY RESPONSE

Freq.