West Texas - Permian Basin

Shallow development wells are very common in western Texas, and the following
example is typical of many drilled to the San Andres dolomite in that area. Permits
are easily obtained, and site preparation takes only three or four days in terrain that
is primarily flat and treeless. Rigs are contracted on a per-day or per-foot basis, and
a well can often be drilled and completed in eight days. The typical development well
is drilled on 20-acre (81,000 m2) spacing.
The San Andres dolomite is encountered at about 5000 ft (1524 m) and is usually
about 400 ft (122 m) thick. A 12 1/4 inch (31 cm) hole is drilled to about 500 ft (152
m) using water and native clays ( Figure 1 and Figure 2 ).

Figure 1

A string of 8 5/8 inch (22 cm) surface casing is set with cement and a 7 7/8 inch (20
cm) hole is drilled out of the casing to the next casing point.

Figure 2

Drilling fluid in this section is a 10 ppg (1.2 gm/cc) brine. This fluid is needed
because of salt formations en countered below 2100 ft (640 m), which would be
dissolved by fresh water. Two or three bits may be necessary to reach the total
depth of about 5000 ft (1524 m). Logs are run, and casing may be set through the
productive zone or above it, depending on whether a cased and perforated or an
open hole completion is desired. At this point, the drilling rig may be replaced with a
completion rig.
If an openhole completion is planned, the productive interval is cored using fluid
produced from nearby wells as a drilling fluid. The well is normally stimulated with
6000 gal (22.7 m3) of 28% HCl mixed with nitrogen. Some wells are also fractured.
A 2 7/8 inch (7.3 cm) tubing string with a tubing anchor (a packer without seals) is
run into the well and set at around 4800 ft (1463 m). Because artificial lift is usually
necessary, a 1 3/4 or 2 inch (4.5-5 cm) sucker rod pump is run into the hole, with
7/8 inch (2.2 cm) sucker rods. A pumping unit is placed on a concrete slab and
power hookups are completed. Wells usually produce 50 to 200 bbl/day (8 to 32
m3/day) initially and stabilize at about 20 to 40 bbl/day (3-6 m3/day).
The details for this example were taken from World Oil (Gulf Publishing Co.), May
1982.

North Slope of Alaska - Prudhoe Bay

Prudhoe Bay, which is on the edge of the Beaufort Sea, 250 miles (400 km) north of
the Arctic Circle, is the location of the largest known oil reservoir in North America.
Discovered in 1968, the productive interval is the Sadlerochit formation, a
Permian/Triassic sandstone and conglomerate system. The reservoir is about 9500 ft
(2900 m) deep and normally pressured.
In this area of arctic permafrost, drilling is done from a large gravel pad to minimize
environmental damage. Up to 30 wells are drilled, some directionally, from these
"platforms." The average time required to drill and complete a well is 25 days.
After the pad has been constructed, 4 ft (1.2 m) deep cellars are dug and a 36 inch
(91 cm) conductor hole is dug at the center with a mechanical auger. The rig is
moved on location and a specially insulated 5 inch (13 cm) thick, double-walled
conductor pipe is set at 80 ft to 100 ft (24 m to 30 m) below ground level and
cemented in place ( Figure 1 ). This helps protect the permafrost from heat
generated by drilling fluids and, later, production.

Figure 1

The surface hole is drilled to about 2700 ft (823 m), using 17 1/2 inch (44.5 cm)
diameter mill-tooth bits. Because the surface formations are permanently frozen
down to 1800 ft (550 m), the drilling fluid temperature must be maintained below
40F (278 K) to reduce erosion of the sides of the hole. Fresh water bentonite mud is
used, and the casing point is reached in a day or two. Surface casing is 13 3/8 inch
(34 cm) in diameter and is landed with a hanger that simply rests on top of the
conductor pipe. A special cement is used that promotes setting at low temperatures.
A 12 1/4 inch (31 cm) hole is then drilled directionally from out of the surface casing
set to 2700 ft (823 m). Deviation is accomplished using a down hole motor or by
jetting, usually at about 2800 ft (853 m).
When the correct hole direction and angle are obtained, three stabilizers are
incorporated into the bottomhole assembly to maintain course. The well course is
tracked using magnetic surveys. A drilling mud weight of about 7.8 to 9.0 ppg is
used to drill down to the shale interval immediately above the Sadlerochit formation.
An intermediate 9 5/8 inch (24 cm) casing string is set at 9500 ft (2900 m), using
cement around the casing shoe, and a nonfreezing grease in the casing annulus
above 2200 ft (670 m). Finally, an 8 1/2 inch (22 cm) hole is drilled out of the
intermediate casing to 10,500 ft (3200 m), using 9.7 to 10.2 ppg mud and an insert
bit. Stuck pipe and lost circulation are generally problems in this part of the hole.
Higher mud weights would help prevent sloughing shale, which can stick the pipe,
but unfortunately contribute to lost circulation in the productive zone. Lost circulation
material must be used. With the 8 1/2 inch (22 cm) hole finished, open hole logging
is carried out, and a 7 inch (18 cm) liner is run to the bottom on drillpipe. The liner is
reciprocated up and down while cement is circulated around it, ensuring a good
bond. After the cement is set, the liner hanger is tested to 3000 psi (20,700 kPa).
The typical completion at Prudhoe Bay includes a conventional 9 5/8 inch (24 cm)
permanent packer with 4 1/2, 5 1/2, or 7 inch (11,14, or 18 cm) internally plasticcoated tubing. Ten or twelve gas-lift valve mandrels are installed along the tubing
string in anticipation of a need for artificial lift in the future. At this point, it is not
unusual for the rig to be moved and the perforating of the well carried out after the
completion interval has been decided upon, four to six weeks later. Wells are
perforated through tubing using hollow carrier steel guns with four holes per foot and
a phasing dependent on reservoir conditions. Loading the hole with diesel oil allows a
700 to 900 psi (4800 to 6200 kPa) underbalance for an efficient clean-up. After
perforating, the well is produced for four or five days and then shut-in for a 48 hour
shut-in pressure measurement, as required by the Alaska Oil and Gas Conservation
Commission. Full-time production begins soon thereafter.
Details for this example are from Reiley (1981) and Leonard (1983).

Norwegian North Sea - Ekofisk Field

Discovered in late 1969, the Ekofisk field was the first major discovery in the North
Sea. The field is 180 miles (290 km) offshore in 230 ft (70 m) of water. Following an
initial test phase in which 4 exploratory wells were completed as subsea producers,
continued development has resulted in the setting of 11 drilling and production
platforms, and the drilling and completion of a total of almost 140 wells from these
platforms. The Greater Ekofisk Area now includes the Ekofisk, West Ekofisk, Edda,
Eldfisk, Tor, Cod, and Albuskjell fields. The Ekofisk area production is found in the
Danian and Upper Cretaceous lime-stones. These formations are found at 10,000 ft
(3000 m) in a typical well, and the limestone is naturally fractured.
All four of the original subsea wells were drilled from semisubmersible rigs. The
extreme weather conditions of the North Sea resulted in frequent retrievals of the
drilling riser, broken anchor chains, delayed rig moves, and disrupted logistical
support. All drilling and completion procedures had to be flexible enough to handle
these problems. The subsea wells were drilled by first drilling a 36 inch (91 cm) hole
through a temporary guide base and setting 30 inch (76 cm) casing with a
permanent guide base at about 130 ft (40 m) ( Figure 1 ).

Figure 1

Next, a smaller bit was used to drill out of the 30 inch (76 cm) conductor to 2000 ft
(600 m), where a 20 inch (51 cm) string of casing was cemented and hung off. A 20
inch BOP system was installed on top of this casing, and used while drilling to 5000 ft
(1524 m), where 13 3/8 inch (35 cm) casing was run and a 13 3/8 inch BOP stack
was in stalled to replace the earlier stack. The hole was then continued through a
thick, troublesome, abnormally pressured shale section to the top of the Danian
limestone at about 10,000 ft (3000 m). Here, 9 5/8 inch (24 cm) casing was set
before drilling through the pay sections. At a total depth of 11,000 ft (3350 m) a 7
inch (18 cm) liner was cemented through the pay. The wells were perforated and
drillstem tested before being temporarily abandoned. After a data-evaluation period,
the wells were reentered and completed.
The single tubing string completions of the subsea wells were performed with drilling
mud in the hole-subsequent completions from the platforms were completed with
clean water. Because the drillstem test perforations had been squeezed off with
cement, the temporary cement plugs set during abandonment had to be drilled out
and the 7 inch (18 cm) liner reperforated. A production packer was set on wireline in
side the 9 5/8 inch (24 cm) casing, above the 7 inch (18 cm) liner. The tubing run in
the subsea wells was 4 1/2 inch (11 cm) above the packer and 3 1/2 inch (9 cm)
inside the liner. Sub-sea Christmas trees were installed after the tubing strings were
lowered, and the wells were flowed to the drilling vessel through a high-pressure
riser in order to clean them up. This procedure was followed by an acid treatment to
correct wellbore damage from drilling mud invasion, and another cleanup flow
period. After connecting the flow lines to the wells, all the wellhead systems were
checked for leaks, and divers observed the wellheads and trees for the first 20 hours
of production.
Following the initial subsea testing period, the completion procedure for wells drilled
from the drilling and production platforms was improved in several ways. Rates of
10,000 bbl/day (1600m3/day) were obtained from the subsea wells, and 20,000
bbl/day (3200m3/day) rates were expected on the platform wells that were
unrestricted by long flow lines. For this reason, provisions were made to run 4 1/2 or
5 inch (11 or 13 cm) tubing in the platform wells. A side-pocket gas-lift valve
mandrel was run to allow continuous injection of a corrosion inhibitor into the tubing
from the casing-tubing annulus. Also, an expansion joint (a telescoping tubing
component) was run to compensate for expansion and contraction of the long tubing
string caused by temperature changes during production and during corrosion
treatment phases. A need to allow the bottom perforations to be selectively shut off
in case of water production prompted the designers to incorporate two packers into
the completion, with the bottom one set between the Danian and Cretaceous
perforations.
This example was obtained from material in two Journal of Petroleum Technology
articles (Luppens 1982 and Jobin, Hoch, and Johnson 1978).

Ghawar Field, Saudi Arabia

Discovered in 1948, the Ghawar field of Saudi Arabia stretches along 150 miles (240
km) of desert, and is one of the largest oil fields in the world. Production is from
several zones at about 7000 ft(apx. 2130 m), and ultimate recovery of about 75
billion barrels (12 billion m3) is expected.
Moving a rig onto a location in this field is not usually a problem, since the desert is
largely uninhabited and the sand fairly compact. An access road and rig location are
usually built up about 12 inches (30 cm) from ground level using locally available
marl.
With the rig on location, a short conductor hole is drilled in a previously dug cellar.
Usually a 24 inch (61 cm) bit is used, and a hole-opener run afterwards to enlarge
the hole to 34 inches (86 cm). Twenty-six inch (66 cm) conductor casing is set at
about 100 ft (30 m), and cemented ( Figure 1 ).

Figure 1

The surface hole is drilled with a 24 inch (61 cm) bit to about 700 ft (213 m). An 18
5/8 inch (47 cm) casing string is set to isolate different quality water reservoirs.
From the surface casing, a 17 1/2 inch (45 cm) hole is drilled using the same bottom
hole assembly as was used for the earlier portion of the hole: a bit, near bit reamer,
shock sub, drill collar, stabilizer, two more drill collars, another stabilizer, and several
more drill collars. The drilling fluid used so far is water or a thin water and clay
mixture. This portion of the hole will require one or two bits, and lost circulation is
sometimes a problem in the Umm Er Raduma formation. When the hole reaches a
shale interval normally found at about 2500 ft (760 m), a string of 13 3/8 inch (34
cm) casing is set. This casing string has a landing base at the top, which simply sits
on the upper end of the previous (18 5/8 inch (47 cm)) casing.
The next portion of the hole is the most challenging interval, because of watersensitive shales in the Wasia and Biyadh formations and potential lost circulation
problems in the Shuaibe. A 12 1/4 inch (31 cm) hole is drilled with a dispersed
lignosulfonate mud. The rig's desanders and desilters must be used to reduce the
solids in the mud and keep the mud weight low, to avoid lost circulation. When a
depth of about 4700 ft (1400 m) is reached, 9 5/8 inch (24 cm) casing is run, hung
off in the landing base of the previous string, and cemented.
Next an 8 1/2 inch (22 cm) hole is drilled to about 7000 ft (2100 m), or just above
the objective sands. There are usually few problems in this part of the hole. A 7 inch
(18 cm) liner is run and cemented. The liner overlaps the earlier 9 5/8 inch (24 cm)
casing by about 300 ft (91 m), and the liner connection is pressure tested before
drilling further.
Finally, a 6 1/4 inch (16 cm) hole is drilled through the objective, using a dieselwater emulsion fluid. The hole is circulated clean and logs are run. Tubing is run and
hung off in the tubing hanger at the surface. The BOP equipment is removed and the
Christmas tree added.
Because these wells are completed "open hole, "there is no need to perforate. The
flow of oil from the reservoir is up the casing-tubing annulus, rather than up the
tubing. The tubing is run primarily so that the well can easily be "killed" by using the
tubing to pump heavy fluid to the bottom. Some wells in this area do have
conventional tubing flow completions, and in these cases a 4 1/2 inch (11 cm) tubing
is often used to permit high flow rates.
The details for this example are from the ARAMCO Drilling Guide, 1978.