Chapter 3 Neuroscience: The Biological Perspective

Overview of Nervous System

Nervous System - an extensive network of specialized cells that carry

information to and from all parts of the body.
Neuroscience deals with the structure and function of neurons, nerves, and
nervous tissue.
Relationship to behavior and learning.

Structure of the Neuron

Neurons - the basic cell that makes up the nervous system and which
receives and sends messages within that system.
Parts of a Neuron
Dendrites - branch-like structures that receive messages from other
neurons.
Soma - the cell body of the neuron, responsible for maintaining the life
of the cell.

Axon - long tube-like structure that carries the neural message to other cells.

Other Types of Brain Cells

Glial cells - grey fatty cells that:
provide support for the neurons to grow on and around,
deliver nutrients to neurons,
produce myelin to coat axons,
Myelin - fatty substances produced by certain glial cells that
coat the axons of neurons to insulate, protect, and speed up the
neural impulse.

clean up waste products and dead neurons.

Neurons in the Body
Nerves bundles of axons in the body that travel together through the body.
Neurilemma Schwanns membrane.
Tunnel through which damaged nerve fibers can repair
themselves.

Generating the Message: Neural Impulse

Ions charged particles.
Inside neuron negatively charged.
Outside neuron positively charged.
Resting potential - the state of the neuron when not firing a neural impulse.
Action potential - the release of the neural impulse consisting of a reversal of
the electrical charge within the axon.
Allows positive sodium ions to enter the cell.
All-or-none - referring to the fact that a neuron either fires completely or does
not fire at all.
Return to resting potential.

Fig. The natural Impulse Action Potential. In the graph below, voltage
readings are shown at a given place on the neuron over a period of 20-30
milliseconds (thousandths of a second). At first the cell is resting; it then
reaches threshold and an action potential is triggered. After a brief refractory
period, the cell returns to its resting potential.

Sending the Message to Other Cells

Axon terminals - branches at the end of the axon.

Synaptic knob rounded areas on the end of axon terminals.
Synaptic vesicles - sack-like structures found inside the synaptic
knob containing chemicals.
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Neurotransmitters - chemical found in the synaptic

vesicles which, when released, has an effect on the next
cell.
Synapse/synaptic gap - microscopic fluid-filled space between the rounded
areas on the end of the axon terminals of one cell and the dendrites or
surface of the next cell.
Receptor sites - holes in the surface of the dendrites or certain cells of the
muscles and glands, which are shaped to fit only certain neurotransmitters.

Neurons must be turned ON and OFF.

Excitatory neurotransmitter - neurotransmitter that causes the
receiving cell to fire.
Inhibitory neurotransmitter - neurotransmitter that causes the
receiving cell to stop firing.
Chemical substances can affect neuronal communication.
Agonists - mimic or enhance the effects of a neurotransmitter on the
receptor sites of the next cell, increasing or decreasing the activity of
that cell.
Antagonists - block or reduce a cells response to the action of other
chemicals or neurotransmitters.
Neurotransmitters

Cleaning up the Synapse

Reuptake - process by which neurotransmitters are taken back into the
synaptic vesicles.
Enzyme - a complex protein that is manufactured by cells.
One type specifically breaks up acetylcholine because muscle activity
needs to happen rapidly, so reuptake would be too slow.
Central Nervous System
Central nervous system (CNS) - part of the nervous system consisting of the
brain and spinal cord.
Spinal cord - a long bundle of neurons that carries messages to and
from the body to the brain that is responsible for very fast, lifesaving
reflexes.
The Reflex Arc: Three Types of Neurons
Sensory neuron - a neuron that carries information from the senses to the
central nervous system.
Also called afferent neuron.
Motor neuron - a neuron that carries messages from the central nervous
system to the muscles of the body.

Also called efferent neuron.

Interneuron - a neuron found in the center of the spinal cord that receives
information from the sensory neurons and sends commands to the muscles
through the motor neurons.
Interneurons also make up the bulk of the neurons in the brain.

Fig 2.5 The Spinal Cord Reflex. The hammer tap just below the kneecap
stimulates the sensory (afferent) nerve fibers, which carry the message up to the
interneurons in the middle of the spinal cord. The interneurons then send a
message out by means of the motor (efferent) nerve fibers, causing the lower leg
to jerk.

Peripheral Nervous System

Peripheral nervous system (PNS) - all nerves and neurons that are not
contained in the brain and spinal cord but that run through the body itself;
divided into the:
Somatic nervous system
Autonomic nervous system
Fig. 2.7. The Peripheral Nervous System

Somatic Nervous System

Soma = body.
Somatic nervous system - division of the PNS consisting of nerves that carry
information from the senses to the CNS and from the CNS to the voluntary
muscles of the body.
Sensory pathway - nerves coming from the sensory organs to the CNS
consisting of sensory neurons.
Motor pathway - nerves coming from the CNS to the voluntary muscles,
consisting of motor neurons

Autonomic Nervous System

Autonomic nervous system (ANS) - division of the PNS consisting of nerves
that control all of the involuntary muscles, organs, and glands sensory
pathway nerves coming from the sensory organs to the CNS consisting of
sensory neurons.
Sympathetic division (fight-or-flight system) - part of the ANS that is
responsible for reacting to stressful events and bodily arousal.
Parasympathetic division - part of the ANS that restores the body to normal
functioning after arousal and is responsible for the day-to-day functioning of the
organs and glands.

Fig. 2.8 Functions of the Parasympathetic and Sympathetic Divisions of the

Nervous System

LO 2.5 Brain and spinal cord / LO 2.6 Somatic nervous system /

LO 2.7 Autonomic nervous system

Peeking Inside the Brain

Clinical studies
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Deep lesioning - insertion of a thin, insulated wire into the brain

through which an electrical current is sent that destroys the brain cells
at the tip of the wire.
Electrical stimulation of the brain (ESB) milder electrical current that
causes neurons to react as if they had received a message.
Human brain damage.
Electroencephalograph (EEG) - machine designed to record the brain wave
patterns produced by electrical activity of the surface of the brain.
Peeking Inside the Brain
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) - brain-imaging method using radio waves
and magnetic fields of the body to produce detailed images of the brain.
Functional MRI (fMRI) computer makes a sort of movie of changes in the activity
of the brain using images from different time periods.
Positron emission tomography (PET) - brain-imaging method in which a
radioactive sugar is injected into the subject and a computer compiles a
color-coded image of the activity of the brain with lighter colors indicating
more activity.
The Brain Stem
Medulla - the first large swelling at the top of the spinal cord, forming the
lowest part of the brain, which is responsible for life-sustaining functions such
as breathing, swallowing, and heart rate.
Pons - the larger swelling above the medulla that connects the top of the
brain to the bottom and that plays a part in sleep, dreaming, leftright body
coordination, and arousal.
The Brain Stem
Reticular formation (RF) - an area of neurons running through the middle of
the medulla and the pons and slightly beyond that is responsible for selective
attention.
Cerebellum - part of the lower brain located behind the pons that controls and
coordinates involuntary, rapid, fine motor movement.
LO 2.9 Structures of the bottom part of brain

Structures Under the Cortex

Limbic system - a group of several brain structures located under the cortex
and involved in learning, emotion, memory, and motivation.
Thalamus - part of the limbic system located in the center of the brain,
this structure relays sensory information from the lower part of the
brain to the proper areas of the cortex and processes some sensory
information before sending it to its proper area.
Olfactory bulbs - two projections just under the front of the brain that
receive information from the receptors in the nose located just below.
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Structures Under the Cortex

Limbic system (continued)
Hypothalamus - small structure in the brain located below the
thalamus and directly above the pituitary gland, responsible for
motivational behavior such as sleep, hunger, thirst, and sex.
Sits above and controls the pituitary gland (master endocrine
gland).
Hippocampus - curved structure located within each temporal lobe,
responsible for the formation of long-term memories and the storage of
memory for location of objects.
Amygdala - brain structure located near the hippocampus, responsible
for fear responses and memory of fear.
The Limbic System

Cortex
Cortex - outermost covering of the brain consisting of densely packed
neurons, responsible for higher thought processes and interpretation of
sensory input.
Corticalization wrinkling of the cortex.
Allows a much larger area of cortical cells to exist in the small space
inside the skull.
Human cortex compared to various animal species

Cerebral Hemispheres

Cerebral hemispheres - the two sections of the cortex on the left and right
sides of the brain.

Corpus callosum - thick band of neurons that connects the right and left cerebral

hemispheres.
Four Lobes of the Brain
Occipital lobe - section of the brain located at the rear and bottom of each
cerebral hemisphere containing the visual centers of the brain.
Primary visual cortex processes visual information from the eyes.
Visual association cortex identifies and makes sense of visual
information.
Parietal lobes - sections of the brain located at the top and back of each
cerebral hemisphere containing the centers for touch, taste, and temperature
sensations.
Somatosensory cortex - area of neurons running down the front of the
parietal lobes responsible for processing information from the skin and
internal body receptors for touch, temperature, body position, and
possibly taste.
Four Lobes of the Brain
Temporal lobes - areas of the cortex located just behind the temples
containing the neurons responsible for the sense of hearing and meaningful
speech.
Primary auditory cortex processes auditory information from the ears.
Auditory association cortex identifies and makes sense of auditory
information.
Frontal lobes - areas of the cortex located in the front and top of the brain,
responsible for higher mental processes and decision making as well as the
production of fluent speech.
Motor cortex - section of the frontal lobe located at the back,
responsible for sending motor commands to the muscles of the
somatic nervous system.
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Fig. The Lobes of the Brain: Occipital, Parietal, Temporal and Frontal

Fig. The Somatosensory and Motor Areas. The motor cortex in the frotal lobe
controls the voluntary muscles of the body. Cells at the top of the motor cortex
control muscles at the bottom of the body, while cells at the bottom of the motor
cortex control muscles at the top of the body. Body parts are drawn larger or smaller
according to the number of cortical cells devoted to that body part. For example,
the hand has many small muscles and requires a larger area of cortical cells to
control it. The somatosensory cortex, located in the parietal lobe just behind the
motor cortex, is organized in much the same manner, and receives information
about the sense of touch and body position.

Parts of cortex controlling senses and movement

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Association Areas of Cortex

Association areas - areas within each lobe of the cortex responsible for the
coordination and interpretation of information, as well as higher mental
processing.
Brocas aphasia - condition resulting from damage to Brocas area (usually in
left frontal lobe), causing the affected person to be unable to speak fluently,
to mispronounce words, and to speak haltingly.
Wernickes aphasia - condition resulting from damage to Wernickes area
(usually in left temporal lobe), causing the affected person to be unable to
understand or produce meaningful language.
Spatial neglect - condition produced by damage to the association areas of
the right hemisphere resulting in an inability to recognize objects or body
parts in the left visual field.
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Parts of cortex responsible for higher thought

Parts of cortex responsible for higher thought Spatial neglect

Split Brain Research

Cerebrum - the upper part of the brain consisting of the two hemispheres and
the structures that connect them.
Split brain research
Study of patients with severed corpus callosum.
Involves sending messages to only one side of the brain.
Demonstrates right and left brain specialization.
Left side and right side of brain

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LO 2.13 Left side and right side of brain

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Split-brain subjects stared at a dot and viewed a composite of two faces (A). When
asked what they saw, subjects chose the childthe image sent to the verbal left
hemisphere (B). But when subjects pointed to the face with the left hand, they
chose the woman with glasseswhose image was received by the right hemisphere
(C) (Levy et al., 1983).
Language is primarily a left hemisphere activity for most individuals

Results of Split Brain Research

Left side of the brain:
seems to control language, writing, logical thought, analysis, and
mathematical abilities,
processes information sequentially,
can speak.
Right side of the brain
controls emotional expression, spatial perception, recognition of faces,
patterns, melodies, and emotions,
processes information globally,
cannot speak.
The Endocrine Glands
Endocrine glands - glands that secrete chemicals called hormones directly
into the bloodstream.
Hormones - chemicals released into the bloodstream by endocrine
glands.
Pituitary gland - gland located in the brain that secretes human growth
hormone and influences all other hormone-secreting glands (also known as
the master gland).
Pineal gland - endocrine gland located near the base of the cerebrum that
secretes melatonin.
Thyroid gland - endocrine gland found in the neck that regulates metabolism.
Pancreas - endocrine gland that controls the levels of sugar in the blood.
The Endocrine Glands
Gonads - the sex glands that secrete hormones that regulate sexual
development and behavior as well as reproduction.
Ovaries - the female gonads.
Testes - the male gonads.
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Adrenal glands - endocrine glands located on top of each kidney that secrete
over 30 different hormones to deal with stress, regulate salt intake, and
provide a secondary source of sex hormones affecting the sexual changes
that occur during adolescence.
Fig. The Endocrine Glands. The endocrine glands secrete hormones directly
into the bloodstream, which carries them to organs in the body, such as the
heart, pancreas and sex organs.

Web Resources
Amazing Case of Phineas Gage: http://www.epub.org.br/cm/n02/historia/phineas.htm
Account by Renato M. E. Sabbatini, Ph.D., published in the online journal, Brain and Mind.
Amen Clinics Atlas: http://amenclinics.com/bp/atlas/
You might want to check out for some more information on the brain along with some CAT scans and
MRIs and PETs. This is a great website sponsored by Amen Clinics Inc., A Medical Corporation.
Autonomic Nervous System: http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/auto.html
Succinct summary of information about the structure and function of the autonomic nervous system,
prepared by Eric Chudler.
Basic Neural Processes Tutorials: http://psych.hanover.edu/Krantz/neurotut.html
A good site for your students to help them learn about basic brain functioning.
Biological and Physiological Resources: http://psych.athabascau.ca/html/aupr/biological.shtml
Links to several sites and interesting topical articles relevant to biological and physiological
psychology. A good starting point for a number of assignments, such as writing short papers or
assembling study guide terms. Maintained by the Centre for Psychology Resources at Athabasca
University, Alberta, Canada.
Biological Psychology: http://www.csuchico.edu/psy/BioPsych/definition.html
Information about the field from the biological psychologists at California State University, Chico.
Brain and Behavior : http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/bb/
This mega-site contains lots of links to information about the brain, behavior, and the bond between
the two. Students can complete several interactive exercises to learn more about brain functions.
Brain & Mind Electronic Magazine on Neuroscience http://www.epub.org.br/cm/
MUST SEE SITE!!! Includes a wealth of short articles devoted to the brain.
Web Resources
Brain Briefings - Society for Neuroscience:
http://www.sfn.org/content/Publications/BrainBriefings/index.html
A series of 2-page reports that describe clinical applications of basic neuroscience research. Includes
reports in the following areas: Brain Injury, Brain Mechanisms, Development, Drugs, Eating, Emotions,
Exercise, Gender, Memory, Nervous System Disorders and Diseases, Nervous System Repair, Pain, The
Senses, Sleep, and Technology.
Brain Connection: The Brain and Learning: http://www.brainconnection.com/
A newspaper-style web page that contains interesting articles, news reports, activities, and
commentary on brain-related issues.
Brain Function and Pathology: http://www.waiting.com/brainfunction.html
Concise table of diagrams of brain structures, descriptions of brain functions, and descriptions of signs
and symptoms associated with brain structures and functions.
Brain Model Tutorial: http://pegasus.cc.ucf.edu/~Brainmd1/brain.html
This tutorial teaches students about the various parts of the human brain and allows them to test their
knowledge of brain structures.
Brain Reorganization: http://www.sfn.org/content/Publications/BrainBriefings/brain_reorg.html
Brief information on how the brain changes with experience, prepared by the Society for Neuroscience.
Brain: Right Down the Middle: http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/sagittal.html

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Useful drawing and succinct information about the location and functions of brain structures that can
be seen on the midsagittal plane, presented by Eric Chudler.
Web Resources
Central Nervous System -- CliniWeb International: http://www.ohsu.edu/cliniweb/A8/A8.186.html
Lots and lots of links to information about the central nervous system. See MRI images, link to
research labs, and learn about the brain and spinal cord.
Comprehensive Behavioral and Cognitive Sciences: http://mentalhelp.net/guide/pro02.htm
Includes theory and therapy. This site includes web links with descriptions and ratings of each source.
Useful for spicing up your lectures or for more detailed study by your students.
Conversations with Neil's Brain (1994): http://faculty.washington.edu/wcalvin/bk7/bk7.htm
An Online Book by William H. Calvin & George A. Ojemann of University of Washington. Teachers are
allowed to print and photocopy chapters for educational use.
Cross Sections of the Human Brain: http://www.neuropat.dote.hu/caud.gif
A cross-sectional image of the human brain. Good to have on hand if you need one. Show your
students and help them identify the various structures.
Dogma Overturned: http://www.sciam.com/1998/1198issue/1198infocus.html
Upending a long-held theory, a study finds that humans can grow new brain neurons throughout life.
This research summary was published in Scientific American.
Drugs, Brains, and Behavior: http://www.rci.rutgers.edu/~lwh/drugs/
An online textbook detailing the effects of various substances on the brain, authored by C. Robin
Timmons & Leonard W. Hamilton.
Harvard Brain: http://www.hcs.harvard.edu/~husn/BRAIN/index.html
The brains behind Harvard University? No, just a journal published by the Harvard Undergraduate
Society for Neuroscience.
Web Resources
History of Phrenology: http://pages.britishlibrary.net/phrenology/
Follow the bumpy road to discovering phrenologys past from a professor of history at the University of
Cambridge.
How do Nerve Cells Communicate?
http://www.sfn.org/content/Publications/BrainBackgrounders/communication.htm
Information prepared by the Society for Neuroscience.
The Human Brain: A Learning Tool: http://uta.maymt.edu/~psychol/brain.html
These close-up pictures of the brains lobes can be added to your classroom presentations. Link to this
site, turn on your classrooms media projector, and let the action begin.
Human Corpus Callosum: http://www.indiana.edu/~pietsch/callosum.html
Information and links about the corpus callosum and split-brain surgery by Paul Pietsch.
Lobes of the Brain : http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/lobe.html
Succinct information about the location and functions of the four lobes of the cerebrum, presented by
Eric Chudler. Includes link to "Lobes of the Brain Review," a very brief quiz on functions associated with
major lobes of the brain. Answers provided online: http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/revlobe.html
Localization of Function Exercise:
http://www.gpc.peachnet.edu/~bbrown/psyc1501/brain/locfunct.htm
Allows students to simulate the effects of stimulating the brain, recording electrical activity from the
brain, or creating lesions in the brain, then to try to figure out the functions of various parts of the
brain based on the data they have collected. Developed by Dr. Barbara Brown of Georgia Perimeter
College.
Web Resources
Making Connections The Synapse: http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/synapse.html
Clear, comprehensible, explanation of how synapses work, with nice illustrations, prepared by Eric
Chudler.
Mapping the Brain: http://www.epub.org.br/cm/n03/tecnologia/eeg.htm
Article on the use of various methods of recording brain activity to map the location of functional areas
of the brain, by Renato Sabbatini, Ph.D. Published in the online journal, Brain & Mind.
Neural Processes Tutorial: http://psych.hanover.edu/Krantz/neurotut.html
An excellent interactive animated tutorial.
Neuroguide.com Neurosciences on the Internet: http://www.neuroguide.com/
A resource for all things related to neuroscience: databases, diseases, research centers, software,
biology, psychology, journals, tutorials, and so much more.
Neuropsychology Central: http://www.neuropsychologycentral.com/
Links to resources related to neuropsychology, including brain images, and extensive, well-organized,
links to other sites.
Neuroscience for Kids: http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/neurok.html
Dont be put off by the name! This site can be enjoyed by people of all ages who want to learn about
the brain. Fun, superbly organized site providing information and links to other neuroscience sites.
Includes informative pages regarding Brain Basics, Higher Functions, Spinal Cord, Peripheral Nervous
System, The Neuron, Sensory Systems, Methods and Techniques, Drug Effects, and Neurological and
Mental Disorders. Even includes a nice answer to the perennial question Is it true that we only use
10% of our brain? http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/tenper.html
Web Resources
NPAC/OLDA Visible Human Viewer:
http://www.dhpc.adelaide.edu.au/projects/vishuman2/VisibleHuman.html
A little tricky to use, but by following the instructions on this page you can view images of the brain in
one of several planes. Currently, only photos are available, but these are quite nice. MRI and CT scans
in the same planes are planned for the future.

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One Brainor Two?: http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/split.html

Information on lateralization of function and how the functions of the hemispheres may be studied,
presented by Eric Chudler.
PET Scan: A New Window Into the Brain: http://www.epub.org.br/cm/n01/pet/pet.htm
Article on uses of PET scan to study brain function, by Renato Sabbatini, Ph.D. Published in the online
journal, Brain and Mind.
Phineas Gage Information Page: http://www.deakin.edu.au/hbs/GAGEPAGE
Everything you ever wanted to know about Phineas Gage on this page prepared by Malcolm Macmillan
at Deakin University, Victoria, Australia.
Self-Quiz for Chapter on the Human Nervous System:
http://www.psychwww.com/selfquiz/ch02mcq.htm
Self-quiz prepared by Russ Dewey at Georgia Southern University. Covers material typically found in an
introductory psychology textbook chapter with a title like "Brain and Behavior" or "Neuropsychology."
She Brains / He Brains
http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/heshe.html: Nice summary of evidence for sex-related
differences in brain structure, prepared by Eric Chudler.
Web Resources
Split Brain Consciousness:
http://www.macalester.edu/~psych/whathap/UBNRP/Split_Brain/Split_Brain_Consciousness.html
Nice summary of information on the effects of cutting the corpus callosum, with links to further
information on split brain experiments and hemispheric specialization.
Synapses: http://www.gpc.peachnet.edu/~bbrown/psyc1501/brain/synapses.htm
Contains basic information about synapses and an animation of neurotransmitter release and binding
to receptors at a synapse.
Theories on the Role of Brain Structures in the Formation of Emotions:
http://www.epub.org.br/cm/n05/mente/teorias_i.htm
Nice diagrams of the limbic system are included in this article by Jlio Rocha de Amaral, MD & Jorge
Martins de Oliveira, MD, PhD, published in the online journal, Brain & Mind.
Views of the Brain: http://rpiwww.mdacc.tmc.edu:80/se/anatomy/brain/
Gross anatomical photographs of left, right, anterior, superior, and inferior views of the brain.
What Does Handedness Have to Do with Brain Lateralization (and Who Cares?):
http://www.indiana.edu/~primate/brain.html
Very nice page on lateralization of function in the brain.
What Happened to Phineas?: http://www2.mc.maricopa.edu/anthro/origins/phineas.html
The story of Phineas Gage, as told by James Shreve.

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