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Food Chemistry
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/foodchem
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 22 November 2013
Received in revised form 6 February 2014
Accepted 12 February 2014
Available online 24 February 2014
Keywords:
Rice starch
Flour
Amylose
Physicochemical properties
Raman spectroscopy
a b s t r a c t
Starch and our of seven temperate rice cultivars grown in Himalayan region were evaluated for composition, granule structure, crystallinity, Raman spectrometry, turbidity, swelling power, solubility, pasting
properties and textural properties. The rice cultivars showed medium to high amylose content for starch
(24.6932.76%) and our (17.7824.86%). SKAU-382 showed the highest amount of amylose (32.76%).
Rice starch showed polyhedral granule shapes and differences in their mean granule size (2.36.5 lm)
were noted among the samples. The starch and our samples showed type A-pattern with strong reection at 15, 18, and 23. Pasting prole and textural analysis of rice starch and our showed that all the
cultivars differences, probably due to variation in amylose content. The present study can be used for
identifying differences between rice genotypes for starch and our quality and could provide guidance
to possible industries for their end use.
2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is the most important cereal crop and
staple food of over approximately one-half of the worlds population. In Asia, more than 2000 million people obtain their
6070% calories from rice and its products (Lin, Singh, Chang, &
Chang, 2011). Diversity in rice, largely affects their physical,
chemical and cooking properties of a particular cultivar (Mir,
Bosco, & Sunooj, 2013; Wani et al., 2012). Physico-chemical
properties of rice our and starch depend mostly on the variety,
genetic background, climatic and soil conditions during the rice
grain development (Falade, Semon, Fadairo, Oladunjoye, & Orou,
2014; Wu et al., 2013).
Starch is the major component of rice grain and an important
energy source for human nutrition, mainly determines the acceptability of the rice cultivar in terms of physicochemical and cooking
properties. Diversication of rice cultivars has an impact on different properties of rice starches as reported by several researchers
(Lee & Osman, 1991; Wang et al., 2012). Although a great number
of native starches with different functionalities are available in the
market, increasing demand for specic starch properties requires
new strategies or, alternatively, novel sources (Wani et al., 2012).
The physico-chemical characteristics of starches are of great
Corresponding author. Tel.: +91 413 2654623; fax: +91 413 2656743.
E-mail address: sjdbosco@yahoo.com (S.J.D. Bosco).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2014.02.057
0308-8146/ 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
449
450
Micro Systems, Surrey, U.K.). The starch and our gels prepared
during rapid visco analyser were sealed in aluminium canisters
and stored at 4 C for 24 h. Then each gel sample inside the tube
was penetrated (to a depth of 16 mm) with a cylindrical probe
(5 mm in diameter). Forcetime curves were obtained at a crosshead speed of 1.5 mm/s during two penetration cycles. From the
texture prole curve, hardness, cohesiveness, adhesiveness, gumminess, springiness and chewiness were determined.
Perusal of data presented in Table 1 revealed the chemical composition of rice our and starch samples. Rice our contained higher amount of protein, fat and ash content as compared to rice
starch. Protein, fat and ash content ranged from 6.14% to 7.94%,
1.321.55% and 18.7826.86%, respectively in rice our, whereas
in starch samples protein ranged from (0.22% to 0.40%), fat
(0.190.34%) and ash content (0.120.20%). The amylose content
of rice our samples was found lower than their corresponding isolated starches. These results were in accordance with the earlier
studies (Ibanez et al., 2007; Lu et al., 2009). The amylose content
of rice starch varied from 24.69% to 32.76% with the lowest in Khosar (24.69%) and highest in Jehlum cultivar (32.76%), whereas, in
rice our the amylose content varied from 17.78% to 24.86% with
the highest in Jehlum (24.86%) followed by SKAU-382 (23.88%)
and SKAU-345 (22.0%1). The amylose content was found within
the range as reported by Wani et al. (2013) for the starches of temperate rice varieties. Wang et al. (2012) reported that amylose content varied between 18.1% and 31.6% for starches isolated from
Table 1
Proximate composition, crystallinity, solubility and swelling power of starch and our from temperate rice of Indian Himalayas.
Jehlum
Protein (g/100 g)
Starch
Flour
Fat (g/100 g)
Starch
Flour
Ash (g/100 g)
Starch
Flour
Amylose (g/100 g)
Starch
Flour
Crystallinity degree (%)
Starch
Flour
Solubility (g/g)
Starch
Flour
Swelling power (g/g)
Starch
Flour
K-332
Khosar
Pusa-3
SKAU-345
SKAU-382
Shalimar rice 1
0.37 0.05ab
6.14 0.17e
0.24 0.03d
6.27 0.12e
0.33 0.06c
6.32 0.51e
0.40 0.03a
7.94 0.23a
0.22 0.02d
7.32 0.16c
0.39 0.04a
7.67 0.15b
0.35 0.02bc
6.53 0.18d
0.19 0.03e
2.65 0.24b
0.24 0.05d
2.86 0.31a
0.42 0.02a
2.90 0.39a
0.28 0.06c
2.39 0.22c
0.21 0.02e
2.48 0.41c
0.34 0.03b
2.84 0.28a
0.16 0.05f
2.44 0.35c
0.19 0.06ab
1.37 0.28b
0.15 0.05cd
1.55 0.36a
0.13 0.07de
1.52 0.23a
0.13 0.05de
1.38 0.18b
0.12 0.03e
1.35 0.32bc
0.20 0.04a
1.32 0.27c
0.17 0.03bc
1.36 0.41bc
32.76 1.02a
24.86 1.24a
24.05 0.93d
19.04 1.06d
22.69 0.72d
17.78 0.92e
30.86 1.09b
21.06 1.15cd
30.11 1.21b
23.07 1.06abc
29.81 0.87b
23.88 1.32ab
27.69 1.05c
22.01 1.28bc
15.39 0.54d
15.10 0.71b
15.56 0.36d
15.07 0.46b
17.44 0.32a
14.36 0.31c
16.76 0.71b
14.27 0.39c
17.62 0.86a
15.95 0.41a
16.26 0.29c
12.65 0.56e
15.26 0.66d
13.66 0.65d
3.23 0.35g
7.67 0.24e
7.62 0.28b
14.31 0.43b
9.06 0.46a
15.98 0.68a
4.80 0.18f
14.86 0.29ab
6.06 0.41d
7.87 0.42e
10.56 0.61e
7.72 0.27c
16.72 0.78b
11.12 0.51a
19.54 1.03a
10.17 0.56a
14.79 0.57c
9.77 0.48ab
12.80 0.74d
8.48 0.22bc
Values are expressed as mean standard deviations. Means having same letters within the same row differ signicantly at p < 0.05.
5.72 0.24e
8.84 0.49cd
10.81 0.53e
7.96 0.62c
7.03 0.56c
9.20 0.53c
13.78 0.64cd
9.89 0.32ab
451
Fig. 1. Scanning electronic micrographs of starch granules from temperate rice cultivars of Indian Himalayas. A: Jehlum; B: K-332; C: Khosar; D: Pusa-3; E: SKAU-345; F:
SKAU-382; G: Shalimar Rice 1.
452
Fig. 2. X-ray diffractographs of starch (a) and our (b); Raman spectrum of starch (c) and our (d) from temperate rice cultivars of Indian Himalayas. A: Jehlum; B: K-332; C:
Khosar; D: Pusa-3; E: SKAU-345; F: SKAU-382; G: Shalimar Rice 1.
Table 2
Positions of Raman bands and their respective assignments in starch.
Band position (cm
412
440
478
523
718
770
865
940
1050
1083
1109
1128
1260
1340
1381
1460
Assignment
References
Pigorsch (2009)
Cael et al. (1973)
Passauer et al. (2010)
Pigorsch (2009)
Cael et al., 1973
All the characteristic bands for rice starch samples were clearly
visible as compared to our samples and the positions of the
observed bands were almost the same. Vibrations in the 800
400 cm 1 region of starch sample were due to CCO and CCC
453
Jehlum showed the lowest value of (3.23 g/g) and (7.67 g/g) for
starch and our respectively. The cultivar Khosar having the high
amylopectin content as compared to other cultivars, showed high
solubility. Solubility is related to the presence of soluble molecules
like amylose (Tester & Morrison, 1990), which will vary with cultivar. Wang et al. (2010) reported the solubility value of 1740% for
starches from Chinese rice cultivars. Upon heating insoluble starch
swells by penetrating water and weakened the infrastructure of
hydrogen bonds, and correspondingly some fragments of the
starch could be solubilised. The hydrogen bonds can be easily
weakened in the starch granules with high amylopectin content
and leading to the high solubility values.
3.7. Turbidity
The turbidity values of gelatinized starch suspension varied
among the rice cultivars as depicted in Fig 3a. The differences in
turbidity might be due to difference in amylose content and the
amount of swollen granule remnants (Jacobson, Obanni, & Bemiller, 1997), as well as the granular structure (Wang et al., 2010).
The turbidity values of K-332 and Khosar starch suspension was
signicantly lower than the turbidity values of other rice cultivars.
The lowest turbidity values of K-332 and Khosar starch suspension
may be due to their low amylose content and smallest starch granule size (Jacobson et al., 1997; Sodhi & Singh, 2003). The turbidity
values of starch suspensions progressively increased with increased in storage period up to 4th day and further storage caused
a slight increase. The aggregation and crystallization of amylose
occur highest during rst four storage days. The increase in turbidity during the storage period may be due to the leached amylose
and amylopectin chains that lead to the development of the
3.6. Solubility
(a)
K-332
Khosar
SKAU-345
SKAU-382
Shalimar Rice 1
Pusa-3
Turbidity
2.4
2.2
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
(b)
Jehlum
SKAU-345
K-332
SKAU-382
Khosar
Shalimar Rice 1
Pusa-3
2.7
2.6
2.5
2.4
2.3
2.2
2.1
2
1.9
Jehlum
2.6
Turbidity
The swelling power of rice starch varied from 10.56 to 19.54 g/g
starch as shown in Table 1, with the lowest in Jehlum (10.56 g/g)
and highest in Khosar cultivar (19.54 g/g). Lee and Osman (1991)
reported the swelling index of rice starch in the range of 7.70
22.76 g/g starch. The difference in swelling power may be related
to the differences in amylopectin content among the rice cultivars.
Swelling power is a measure of the ability of the starch to hydrate
under specic conditions like temperature and water content. As
reported by different workers that greater swelling capacity is an
indication of weaker binding forces in the starch granules (Hoover
& Manuel, 1996). The swelling power of a starch depends on the ratio and molecular weights of amylose and amylopectin, and also
intra- and inter-molecular interactions. The amylopectin is likely
to swell due to the weakness of the intra- and inter-molecular
coherence in starch, while as, amylose acts as an inhibitor of swelling (Tester & Morrison, 1990).
The swelling power of rice ours shown in Table 1, varied from
7.72 to 11.12 g/g rice our with the highest observed in Khosar cultivar. However, the swelling power of rice our was lower than
their derived starches. The swelling power of our depends on
the packing of starch granules with proteins and lipids. The swelling power of starch is related to gelitinization of starch reecting
breaking of hydrogen bonds in the crystalline regions and uptake
of water by hydrogen bonds and water absorption by non-starch
polysaccharides and protein (Thitipraphunkul, Uttapap, Piyachomkwan, & Takeda, 2003; Yu et al., 2012).
454
content among the rice cultivars. Holding viscosity and nal viscosity in the rice starch samples ranged from 1335 to 3027 cP
and 3492 to 5173 cP, respectively. Breakdown viscosity, measure
of the starch paste resistance to heat and shear, were ranged from
578 to 2541 cP with the highest in K-332 cultivar (2541 cp) followed by Khosar (2487 cp) and Shalimar Rice 1 (4171 cp) and lowest in Jehlum cultivar (578 cp). Setback viscosity showed the
tendency of starch pastes to retrograde, varied signicantly
(p < 0.05) and ranged from 2248 (K-332) to 2882 cP (Jehlum). Pasting temperature, the temperature at the onset of rice in viscosity
varied signicantly (p < 0.05) and ranged from 70.25 to 77.65 C
with the highest value was observed for SKAU-382 and lowest
for K-332. The pasting properties of starches are affected by the
amylose, lipid, protein contents, and swelling power (Li & Yeh,
2001).
The pasting properties of rice ours varied signicantly
(p < 0.05) as shown in Table 3. Jehlum our showed the highest
peak viscosity, holding viscosity, nal viscosity, breakdown viscosity and setback viscosity of 3354, 2674, 6631, 699 and 3267 cP,
respectively. However, Pusa-3 showed the lowest values 1632,
1475, 3236, 143 and 1604 cP, respectively. The results indicated
that Pusa-3 is weakly resistant to shearing, and difcult to retrograde and can be easily used as a paste. The pasting temperature
Table 3
Pasting and textural properties of starch and rice samples from temperate rice of Indian Himalayas.
Parameter
Jehlum
K-332
Khosar
Pusa-3
SKAU-345
SKAU-382
Shalimar Rice 1
3911 181.01a
2529 1.41c
3822 41.71a
2332 75.66d
2657 30.40e
1632 40.30f
3722 70.00ab
3136 28.99b
3451 33.94c
3076 64.35b
3027 105.36d
1860 4.94e
1375 33.94d
1787 8.48b
1335 8.48d
1700 60.10b
1417 30.40d
1475 24.75c
2251 25.45b
2683 7.07a
2132 8.48c
2665 33.94a
3027 105.37a
1490 11.31c
3641 74.25d
4643 7.07cd
3678 2.12d
4378 21.21de
3492 4.49d
3236 65.76f
5173 20.51a
5882 198.69b
4751 265.16b
4848 354.26c
3996 129.40c
4171 3.53e
2541 139.30a
742 9.90a
2487 33.23a
632 15.56b
1240 0.32c
143 15.55e
1417 44.54b
480 21.92c
1319 42.43c
411 30.40cd
1556 65.76b
370 6.36d
2248 14.84d
2114 8.48cd
2343 6.36cd
2045 54.44cd
2075 35.35d
1604 25.45f
2882 103.24a
2719 227.6b
2619 256.68b
1772 289.91de
2525 89.80bc
2311 8.48c
70.25 0.07d
92.35 1.62a
70.40 0.14d
90.55 0.21bc
72.30 0.56c
91.10 0.00ab
76.65.35b
89.30 0.28c
77.65 0.21a
89.25 0.35c
77.05 0.21ab
86.90 0.00d
Hardness (g)
Starch
Flour
65.25 5.58a
23.73 3.16a
18.25 0.91e
7.27 1.21d
16.42 1.76e
6.32 1.33d
61.67 6.71ab
14.68 2.61bc
52.33 3.81bc
21.03 3.28a
44.20 7.07cd
18.86 2.32ab
35.46 1.48d
11.15 2.03cb
Adhesiveness
Starch
Flour
10.91 5.16bc
6.17 0.34b
8.25 0.25cd
4.37 0.57c
5.71 0.23d
2.94 0.35d
7.36 0.37cd
1.59 0.17d
13.08 0.64ab
4.74 0.78c
17.92 1.48a
7.16 0.54a
5.21 0.57d
2.01 0.31d
Springiness
Starch
Flour
1.12 0.48a
0.80 0.14ab
0.96 0.10b
0.76 0.11bc
0.95 0.14b
0.82 0.17ab
0.91 0.13b
0.64 0.09d
0.98 0.00ab
0.68 0.12cd
1.06 0.12ab
0.87 0.15a
1.01 0.03ab
0.73 0.17bcd
Cohesiveness
Starch
Flour
0.59 0.04ab
0.45 0.06c
0.67 0.02ab
0.55 0.03b
0.77 0.03a
0.62 0.04a
0.54 0.00ab
0.41 0.06cd
0.41 0.05b
0.33 0.02e
0.50 0.02ab
0.43 0.03cd
0.48 0.01ab
0.39 0.05d
Gumminess
Starch
Flour
38.57 5.34a
10.70 0.78a
12.26 0.47c
4.01 0.37d
12.65 0.65c
3.93 0.65d
33.63 3.10b
6.07 0.76c
21.69 4.21c
7.01 0.95bc
21.82 3.57c
8.08 0.93b
17.37 0.55c
4.39 0.65d
Chewiness
Starch
Flour
43.24 5.80a
8.59 1.18a
11.80 0.34d
3.06 0.78d
12.03 0.83d
3.23 0.62d
30.72 3.57b
3.91 0.67d
21.42 4.21bcd
4.79 0.76c
22.68 1.73bc
7.02 0.94b
17.37 0.59cd
3.21 0.58d
Resilience
Starch
Flour
0.83 0.30b
0.44 0.09b
0.94 0.05a
0.54 0.12a
0.47 0.06d
0.28 0.04e
0.51 0.16d
0.37 0.06c
0.70 0.06c
0.43 0.09b
0.52 0.12d
0.33 0.07d
0.89 0.02ab
0.40 0.06bc
Values are expressed as mean standard deviations. Means having same letters within the same row differ signicantly at p < 0.05.
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