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Statistics in Research
Scnles or MTRSUREMENT
Nominal Scale
Ordinal Scale
lnterval Scale
Ratio Scale
Comparing Groups
Sut"tmnRy
('lt.t1rl1'1' l;,,,,,
defined-all_18- ,22?yiur-olds
or a'orin" psychor_
ogy majors at a particular
schSgl. Typically,'u ."r"urcher
the members of a target
cannot test a1 of
populatior-,. irrt"uj, itl
a smalr percentage of
population-a ru*pl" tf'th.
that
members-can te tested
il; sample is
the entire populatio.,
il":iil:::fr:r."'''.
the wom"r.,_fr"_tor
r.r,he"-ii*ffi
'riff
,f.;r[:Hit;TJHrJH**r*Ti*,*'*ji;
be that a char'acteristic
of our sampre
u" g;eralized to the popuration.
Let's assume that a ."r"ur.hu,
nur-.oii".r"a
*"
a memory experiment,
and the mnemonic (memo.,
,::l-llry") ;rr* performs bltt".
control group. perh-1ps the
than the
purucrpants in the
averase or 18 out or zo
*o.ir, undthe .."r.i#iilr'Jlit3:J:"-"r"#1.l
16 out of 20 v'ords. At
this foi;;
nor yer supporred the
alternative hypothesis thatinr,"-o.i.
instructions lead to bette
performance, even though
ts i, greater ,n"" 16. The ."r"urJnt"T::l
know that the
,h;;#"inu,
s,ample
of"purii.ipants in the
i?1il"#*:y#r,f,."::::,:.,'m[:lnthe.il;';:ilT;ff :]lJ?ff;
JJ:"#:ft :nft ::'i:T,",i,"Jffi ::.'ff#*[.
:Iffi
JTfi*'f*ff
ScaTES oF T{easUREMENT
if
3ff
t|3t"'ff
',l,r::fi*i{j
that exists_be it
;i:T,Tl':::,.,iJ,'"r"*r.,"rgr.,,;;:p,yihorogi.urconstruct,
ff trT*"ffi :'JJ:T*:,'il,",'J::T'1fr'"il.;'il,:H,il""H;:li;
rgsr) n",i"f r''w happy
measurement. It entails il;:l,.T:itr" ::J" H if,'iJ:: ry;i::
identifying a
\.
l{t.st..ll'r'll
b5
Ltst'cl in this example are that the number you assign to yotrr hirp1rir11.**
lnust be between l and 10, where l refers to a lack of happiness alrtl l0
rcferrs to an abundance of happiness.
Nominal Scale
The nominal scale of measurement merely classifies objects or individuals as belonging to different categories. The order of the categories is
arbitrary and unimportant. Thus, participants might be categorized as
male or female, and the male category may be assigned the number 1 and
the female category assigned the number 2. These numbers say nothing
about the importance of one category as compared to the other. The numbers could just as well be 17.35 and29.46. Other examples of nominal
scales of measurement are numbers on basketball players' jerseys or the
numbers assigned by the Department of Motor Vehicles to the license
plates of cars. Numbers, when used in a nominal scale of measurement,
serve as'labels only', and provide no information on the magnitude or
amount of the charatteristic being measured.
Ordinal Scale
An ordinal scale differs from a nominal scale in that the order of the
categories is important. A grading system with the grades A, B, C, D, and
F is an ordinal scale. The order of the categories reflects a decrease in the
amount of the stuff being measured-in this case, knowledge. Note, however, that the distance between the categories is not necessarily equal.
Thus, the difference between one A and one B is not necessarily the same
as the difference between another A and another B. Similarly, the difference between any A and B is not necessarily the same as the difference
betweenaBandaC.
'Rank-order dataiis also measured on an ordinal scale. An observer
may rank-order participants according to attractiveness or a researcher
ask tasters to rank-order a number of crackers according to saltiness.
-rnay
iWhen your eyesight is tested and you are asked to choose which of twtl
lenses results in a clearer image,you are being asked to provide ordinirlf
,data. Again, when data are rank-ordered, a statement is beirrg r)I.)tlt',
about th{magnitude or amount of the characteristic being m('asurt'tl)l',rrr-'
the intervals between units need not be equivalent. If sevcn pt'o1rlt'.rrt.
(r(r
( lt,tlrlt'r. l,orrr.
I
Interual Scale
The interval scale of measurement
is characterized
by equal units of
measurement throughout the scale.
Thus, measurements made with
an
interval scale provide information
about loth the order and the relative
quantity of the characteristic being ..,"ur.r.J.
r,r"..ral scales of measurement, however, do not have a true
zero value. A true zero means
that
none of the characteristic being
measu."d l".r,uins. Temperature
measurements in degrees Fahrenh.eit
or in d"gr"", Celsius (also called centigrade) correspond to interval scales.
ThE dlrtu.,." between degrees
is
equal over the full length of the
scale; the difference between
20" and
40o
is the same as that betri'een 40o
and 60". In.,"i,n". scale, however,
is
there
a true zero; zero simply represents
another tg".u.rr"
on the ,.u1", and nega_
tive numbers are potribl" and. meaningfJ point
there is no true zero
on these scales, it is inappropriate
to sa'y tnui+0. is twice as warm
as 20o.
;'In other words, ratios .ir,.roi be compuied with
intervar scale data.)
' There is a controversy among psychological
researchers regarding
interval and ordinal scaler i., ,"luJion"to
,atfig.
suppose
that a partici_
pant is asked to rate something
on a scare -itn pi.ti..,tu,
points,
such as 1 to 7 or 0 to 5. For exanipre,
u p"rro., might be asked ".a
the
folrow_
ing rating question:
very
2
3
4
dissatisfied
6'7
10
very satisfied
area.
lt
b7
Ratio Scale
I'lrr, ratio scale of measurement provides information about tlrder; all
rrrrits,rrt,of cqLri-ll size throughoutthe scale, and there is a true zero verlue
tlr.rt ru'1-rrescr-rts an atbsence of the characteristic being measured. The true
z(,1'() itll1lws rrttios of values to be formed. Thus, a person who is S0-yearsoltl is tr,r,icc as olcl as a person who is 25. Age in years is a ratio scale. Each
vt'ar rcpresents the same amount of time no matter where it occurs on the
scalc; tlre year between 20 and 27 years of age is the same amount of time
.rs the verlr between 54 and 55.
urr"ruge weight of the group is 155.6 pounds, and that the average
height is 5'5". Calculating an average of ordinal data, such as the height
,u.,kirrgr in this example, will yield little useful information. Meaningful
results will only be obtained by using the statistical technique appropriate to the data's scale of measurement.
ih"
('lt,tIrlt't' l].ttl'
a. The number of dollars in one's wallet.
b. The rated sweetness of a can of soda.
c. Whether one responds yes or no to a question.
d. Height measured in inches.
e. The gender of individuals.
*"wmeasulef
n"1:l:
I:
Averages
Perhaps the most commonly discussed characteristic of a data set is its
average. However, there are three different averages that can be calculated: the mode, the median, and the mean. Each provides somewhat dif-
ll
(r(l
tlillt't't'trl
researcher will neecl t(l Ltst'it
t,yt,col0rs Of thc participa,.-t,r,.:h"
weight'
participants' average
statistic tharn whe|r a"r..iUing the
.f. describe the eye colo* of ih" p*ti.ipunts, tie researcher w.ttltl
freas the score that occurs most
use thc mode. The mode is defined
would
brown
had brown eyes,
quently. Thus, if most of the purai.ipunts
data will have two scores that
of
set
a
be the modal eye color. somelimes
to be
tn tnut case, the distribution is said
tie for occurring most frequentlf
tied for occurring most frequently'
bimodal. If three or more scores are
the distribution is said to be multimodal'
scale of meanui, color. is measured. on an ordinal
In our
are
".;;i;;
that the ten shades of hair color
surement, since we have no evidence
equallydistantfromeachother'Todescribeaveragehaircolor,the
or perhaps bgth'
the median'
researcher could use the mode'
of other scores in
it pro.lt"rltr-,ror.r,ation about the distribution hair categorv' then
*":;;[ffi;;i;;;"t
thattheotherhalfoftheparticipantshadhair'incategoriesltoS.
to describe the participants' average
Finally, orrr."r"urcher will'want
weight.Theresearchercouldusethemodeorthemedianhere,orthe
mean is the arithmetic average
researche,,,r";;;h ro.rr" the mean. The
in
is calculated by adding uP the scores
of the scores in a distribution;-it
the number oj scores'
the distribution and dividing by'*or1-commonly
tIP:. of average, in
The mean is probuury tn.
"-r".1It is difficult to write
very manipuiablef
part because it islmathematically
but it is
calculate the mode or median'
to
how
a formula that describes
the
dividing
and
adding a set of scores
not difficult to write a formula for
embedded
be
can
the mean
by the number of scores. Because oflhis,
sum
its limitations' scores that are inordiThe mean d.oes, however, have
are given as much weight as every
nately large or small (called outliers)
which will
ahi, can aflect the mean score'
other score in the distributiorr,
For
and deflated if the outlier is small'
be inflated if the outlier i, turg"
mean
The
scores rs 82' 88' 84' 86' and 20'
example, suppose a set-of "*.u'i
in the
scores
people
four of the five
".u1lud
of these ,.or"i ts T2,although
20, deflated the mean'
gOs. The inordinately small score, the outliet
using means' Nevwhen
iot ini' ptoblem
Researchers need to watch o.ri
ertheless,themeanisstillaverypopularaverage'Themeancanbeused
witlr
scales."It is sometimes used
with data measured on intervur u.,a ratio
witlr
usccl
be
scales), but it cannot
numerical ordinal data (suc;;r;;;G
on a nominal scale'
rank-order data or d'ata measured
ways of describirrg tlre .tr,t't.ltgt'
The mode, median, and mean ale
tenu'" often tutt"d measures of central
score among a set of data' rn"f
'/lt
('lr,r1rl1,1. l,'orrr.
;G:fi
j#
".:
il' ;:
:l' :f, J l.1
type of car (Ford, chevroret yrazda,ua.j,
,
the speed at which the"car
drives through the rot (measured
"na
with a ,radargun
in mph).
a. For each type of data measured,
what wourd be an appropriate
age to carcurate (mode,
aver_
median, and/or
b' one driver travered through
the
higher than any other
1r'u.*
by this one score?
mean)?
wh;;
lO.cted
Another.,:p^*"* .n*?:::,:11.
describe this
--"";;s of dispersion.
Measures of Dispersion
Although they can be used
with nominal and ordin aI
of dispersion are uged p.i-urity
data,measures
with r"i"r""i or ratio data.
"-"ur.r."";i;rrp"rsion
The most straightiorward
is the range. The
ffil?#::;r",T.H:,:r"?,;::re varues r;J;,"s in a discrete data set or
tinu ous dis trlb u ti on. In
u d ir..:? :J::"1,
:
: ::i:l
sible' such as the numu"r
;:1.
rr times J r"-ote offfwomen
pregnant; as they say, you
have been
."":t_b::
isn't' In a contirr.ro* distribution
either is or
set, lt*""oinant--she
fractionstf scores are possibre, she
such
peopre i" u-'u*pre; ror
,h" ;;;;"
is very
d bv subtracting the r';;;;.ore
tn" nigh",;
rrom
**rl
"f":
ffii:,l|'fi-?:t
,;;;
;;;J:lt#r#il-
lrt' Itolt' oI
St.t t ist
rt'lr
'l'lrt'rarrge tt'lls lts ovcr lrow rri.lny scores thc data arc sprearcl, btrt it titrcs
not give Lts any information about how the scores are distributed over the
range. lt is limited because it relies on only two scores from the entire distriL'rtrtion. But it does provide us with some useful information about the spread
of the scores and it is appropriate for use with ordinal, interval, and ratio data.
A more commonly used measure of dispersion is the standard deviation. The standard deviation may be thought of as expressing the average
distance that the scores in a set of data fall from the mean. For example,
imagine that the mean score on an exam was74.If the class all performed
about the same, the scores might range from 67 to 81; this set of data
would have a relatively small standard deviation, and the average distance from the mean of 74 would be fairly small. On the other hand, if the
members of the class performed less consistently-if some did very well,
but others did quite poorly, perhaps with scores ranging from 47 to 100the standard deviation would be quite large; the average distance from
the mean of 74 would be fairly big.
The standard deviation and its counterpart, the variance (the standard deviation squared), are probably the most commonly used measures
of dispersion. They are used individually and also are embedded within
other more complex formulas. To calculate a standard deviation or variance, you need to know the mean. Because we typically calculate a mean
with data measured on interval or ratio scales, standard deviation and
variance are not appropriate for use with nominal data.
Learning to calculate standard deviation and variance is not necessary for the purposes of this book (although it is presented in appendix
A). The underlying concept-the notion of how spread out or clustered
the data are-is important, however, especially in research where two or
more groups of data are being compared. This issue will be discussed a
little later in the chapter.
;ill.n
Ifl;fple
The weather report includes information about the normal temperature for the day. Suppose that today the temperature is l0 degrees above
normal. To determine if today is a very strange day or not especially
to know the standard deviation. lf we learn that the standard deviation is l5 degrees, what might we conclude about how normal
or abnormal the weather is today? lf the standard deviation is 5 degrees,
what d":.
about today's w3af3r?
strange, we need
:h1: :yBest
Measures of Relationships
Often a researcher will want to know more than the averttgr' .rrrr1
degree of dispersion for different variables. Sometimes, the reseirrclrcr'
7?
w.rrrts to leirrrr how nruch two variables are rcl;rtet1 to orrt..lnotht'r. lrr tlris
cilse, thc rcsearrcher would want to calculate a correlation. A crlrrclrrtion is
ir measure of the degree of relationship between two variables. For exam-
( 'lt,tPlct' lrotrt'
Sttl],S r,) arrcl
73
Grcc,k synrbtll
which the Corresponding
Spcarrmirn,S rlrtl (ftlr
being correlated are mea-
is 7,). l,c.rrs.r.,s
Figure
4.1
and numbers
exam scores
q"i:t of midterm
the exam
l6
t)
!oo
>\.
;E
oi
O!,
-0c
c0)
)uD
30 45 50
t>
Figure 4.2
Scattergrams rePresenting
strengths and directions
(e) No correlation
('lt,tpl1'1. l,'prrl.
76
Table
4.1
Scales of Measurement
,,..r.ilrrJl
Scales of Measurement
Statistical
Technique
Nominal
l. Averages
Ordinal
lnterval
mode
mode, median
Ratio
mode, median,
mode, median,
2. Measures of
dispersion
3. Correlations
eQhi)
Spearman's
coefficient
4. Single group
compared to
population
5. Two separate
grouPs
72 Goodness-- 72 cooanessof-Fit
72 Tolb
of-Fit
x2 Tol
mean
mean
range, s.d.,"
variance
range, s.d.,
variance
Pearson's r
Pearson's r
z-test, single_
z-test,
sample
single_
sample
Wilcoxon's
Wilcoxon's
rank-sum,
rank-sum,
72 Tol
5. Three or more
grouPs
72 Tol
7. One group
72 Tol
72 Tol, independent-samples t
ANOVA,
ANOVA,
Kruskal-Wallis
Kruskal-Wallis
Mann-Whitney
U, dependent-
tested twice
a
Standard
77 turt of independence
a"ui".ioi---
samples
Mann-Whitney
U, dependentsamples t
SurvuvlARy
Researchers use statistics
to herp them test their
hypotheses. often, sta_
tistics are used to generalize
the rer,rlt, from u ,umpt"
to a larger population.
\Mhich type oi statisticar
t".t",r-,iq.r" i, .rrJ d"p"r,d,
on ttre scale of mea_
suremn! on which the
data ur" .br".t"d. D;;;
measured on a nominal
scale are classified in
different lategories. order
is not important for nomi_
nal data, but it is for autu
mear.*"a
o;;;;
scale of measurement.
data mehsured on an interval
The
",.
scale "" ,.,;uJ;rl"",
are also ordered but, in
addition, the units of measutu."r-,,.*"
"f equal
throughout the scale. The
scale of measurement
ratio
is much like the *d;;i;.Ilu,
true zero, which indicates
that it includes a
"r,."pt
of the construct
being measured.
The scale of measu.u-"-ilor
";;;;-ount
the
data anJthe questioriueing
by the researcher determi"u
asked
*^ut
when describin g dut?,.d;;.tp*e statistical technique should be used.
statistics are used. These
ages and measures
include aver_
of disperri"".
lt
77
'l'hcrc irrc thrce ways tcl mcasure an averagc: thc moclr', tltt'rttt'tli,rrr,
ancl thc mean. The mode is the most frequent score; the mediartr is tltt't'r'tt
tral scclre; and the mean is the arithmetic average of the data set.
Measures of dispersion provide information about how clusterecj
together or spread out the data are in a distribution. The range describes
the number of score values the data are spread across. The variance and
standard deviation provide information about the average distance the
scores fall from the mean.
A researcher might also ask if two variables are related to each other.
This question is answered by calculating a correlation coefficient. The correlation coefficient is a number between -1.00 and +1.00. The closer the
coefficient is to either -1.00 or +1.00, the stronger the correlation is. The
negative and positive signs indicate whether the variables are changing
in the same direction (a positive correlation) or in opposite directions (a
negative correlation).
Finally, a researcher may wish to compare sets of scores in order to
determine if an independent variable had an effect on a dependent variable. A number of statistical techniques can be used to look for this difference. The appropriate technique depends on a number of factors, such as
the number of groups being compared and the scale of measurement on
which the data were collected.
If data at the ratio or interval level were collected, the statistical techniques that look for differences between groups have the same underlying logic. A difference between groups is considered to exist when the
variation among the scores between the groups is considerably greater
than the variation among the scores ruithin the group.
When data are measured on ordinal or nominal scales, other statistical techniques can be used; these tend to be less powerful than those used
for data on ratio and interval scales, though.
Statistical techniques are necessary to test research hypotheses once
data have been collected. Knowledge of this field is essential for research
psychologists.
multimodal
negative correlation
nominal scale
nonparametric tests
ordinal scale
outliers
bimodal
correlation
descriptive statistics
error variance
interval scale
mean
measurement
measures of central
parameter
tendency
measures of dispersion
parametric tests
population
7tl
('lr,rpl1,1.;;.,,,,
I
l)( )si
ti
v('
t'or-r.r,la t iorr
standard cleviatiorr
raltgc
f-test
variance
ratio scale
sample
scattergram
within-group variance
ExpncrsEs
of variables corresponding to
each of the scales of
::""ri1"L*t"ples
,:^I;?Xr;^er measures height in
' ^
b' rf a researcher
Ifj"'::ff;.i:i:i:1,#J"Tr-"isht
ji.1,'.tliy;ffj'.Xil,"T,
4. Which correlation is stron
"
ger:
;id;;;:
_.g7or +.55?
ANswERs To CorucEpT
euESTroNs AND
Oon-NuMB ERED ExERCriEs
Note: There w'l often be more
than one correct answer for
these questions. Consurt
each
-ith yo,rr instructor about your own answers. of
Concept euestion 4.1
a. ratio
b. ordinal or interval
c. nominal
d. ratio
e. nominal
ordinal
f.
lrc
7q
and/or mode.
b. The mean.
Concept Question 4.3
If the standard deviation is 15, a day that is 10 degrees above the normal temperature is not an unusually warm day; however, if the standard
deviation is 5, a day that is 10 degrees above the normal temperature is
twice the average distance from the mean (roughly), and thus is an
unusually warm day.
Exercises
c. range
5. A positive correlation describes a relationship in which two variables
change together in the same direction. For example, if the number of
violent crimes increases as crowding increases, that would be a positive correlation. A negative correlation describes a relationship in
which two variables change together in opposite directions. For
instance, if weight gained increases as the amount of exercise
decreases, that would be a negative correlation.