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When current is passed through a conductor, the conductor becomes hot. When a
magnetic material is brought in the vicinity of an alternating magnetic field, heat is
produced in the magnetic material.
Similarly it was found that when an electrically insulating material was subjected to
electrical stresses, it too underwent a temperature rise (Dielectric heating).
There are various method of heating a material but electric heating is considered to be far
superior for the following reasons:
(i)Cleanliness:
Due to complete elemination of dust and ash, the charges to maintain cleanliness are
minimum and the material to be heated does not get contaminated.
(ii)Ease of control:
With the help of manual or automatic devices, it is possible to control and regulate
the temperature of a furnace with great ease.
(iii)Uniform heating:
Whereas in other forms of heating a temperature gradient is set up from the outer
surface to the inner core.
The core being relatively cooler, in case of electric heating, the heat is uniformly
distributed and hence the charge is uniformly heated.
Resistance of conducting element varies with the temperature, this variation should be
small in case of an element.
Otherwise when switched ON from room temperature to go upto say 1200C, the low
resistance at initial stage will draw excessively high currents at the same operating
voltage.
If temperature is negative the element will draw more current when hot.
A higher current means more voltage, a higher temperature or a still lower resistance,
which can instability of operation.
Its melting point should be sufficiently higher than its operating temperature.
Otherwise a small rise in the operating voltage will destroy the element.
The resistivity of the material used for making element should be high.
This will require small lengths and shall give convenient size.
vi)Ductile
To have convenient shapes and sizes, the material used should have high ductility and
flexibility.
It should not be brittle and fragile.
viii)Mechanical Strength
The material used should have sufficient mechanical strength of its own.
Direct resistance heating, indirect resistance heating, direct arc heating, and indirect
arc heating.
Resistance Heating:
This method is based upon the I2R loss. Whenever current is passed through a
resistive material heat is produced because of I2 R loss.
Advantages :
High efficiency.
It gives uniform heat and high temperature.
Application :
In this method the current is passed through a highly resistance element which is
either placed above or below the over depending upon the nature of the job to be
performed.
The heat proportional to I2R losses produced in heating element delivered to the
charge either by radiation or by convection.
Sometimes in case of industrial heating the resistance is placed in a cylinder which is
surrounded by the charge placed in the jackes as shown in figure3.29.
The arrangement provides as uniform temperature.
Automatic temperature control can be provided in this case.
Both A.C and D.C supplies can be used for this purpose at full mains voltage
depending upon the design of heating element.
Application :
This method is used in room heater, in bimetallic strip used in starters, immersion
water heaters and in various types of resistance ovens used in domestic and
commercial cooking.
Arc Furnaces
There are two common types of arc furnaces: (1)Three-phase furnace and (2)Single
phase furnace.
Three phase furnaces are used in the production of alloy steels.
Single phase furnaces are used for the manufacture of gray iron casting also.
Three phase furnaces are used for power ratings from 250KVA, 10,000KVA and
capacities upto 25 tonne.
Generally graphite electrodes are used. As they are subjected to volatilization, they are
to be replaced.
The arc temperature is between 3000 and 3500C, so that the process is carried out
between 1500C and 2500C.
The main components of a three phase furnace are:
1)Variable ratio power transformer
2)Reactors
3)Automatic current regulator
4)Control panel
5)Electric motor and tilting motor
6)Circuit breaker and connecting switches.
The chamber in which arc is struck is placed on a metal frame work. The chamber is
lined inside with a refractory linning, which is acidic or basic in nature.
The electrodes arc inserted from the top or sides of the chamber, and are placed in
such a way as to be replaced easily or adjusted easily.
To have a through mixing, the furnace is made amenable for tilting.
The arc is struck directly with the charge, when a current flows through it and
produces intense heat, which results, in high temperature.
Although some furnaces up to 100 tonne are made, generally furnaces up to 25 tonne
are in general use.
Stirring action is automatic and gives a uniform product. It is used for alloy steel
manufacture and gives a purer product.
Merits:
When compared with cupola method,
Demerits:
It is very costlier.
Eventhough it is used for both melting and refining but wherever electric energy is
expensive it is economical to use cupola for melting and arc furnace for refining.
Application:
Electrodes are inserted from the sides and the heat produced is transmitted by
radiation to the charge.
As there is no inherent stirring action, the furnace should be rocked.
This furnace is used for only single phase supplies. Also the capacity of the furnace is
limited up to 100 tonne.
The furnace is rocked thoroughly to ensure, that the metal will cover the refactory
lining and prevent it from reaching high temperatures.
Melting of non-ferrous metals is mostly carried out in this type of furnace.
In both the type of furnaces, large quantities of electrodes are used.
The energy used is about 500-800kw/tone corresponding to maximum power input,
the power factor is 0.87 and efficiency 70%.
Application:
Induction heating:
The magnetic coupling between the primary and secondary is very weak, therefore the
leakage reactance is very high. This causes low power factor.
Low frequency supply is necessary because normal frequency causes turbulence of
the charge.
If current density exceeds about 5 amps/mm2 the electromagnetic force produced by
this current density causes interruption of secondary current.
Hence the heating of the metal is interrupted. It is called pinch effect.
The crucible for the charge id of odd shape and inconvenient from the metallurgical
point of view.
The furnace cannot function if the secondary circuit is open.
It must be closed. For starting the furnace either molten metal is poured into the
crucible or sufficient molten metal is allowed to remain in the crucible from the
previous operation.
Such furnace is not suitable for intermittent services.
Advantages:
Applications:
This furnaces is used for melting non ferrous metals like brass, zinc, tin, bronze,
copper etc.
Indirect core type induction furnace is shown in fig. I n this type of furnace induction
principle has been used for heating metals.
In such furnace an inductively heated element is made to transfer its heat to the
change by radiation.
It consists of an iron core linking with the primary winding and secondary. In this case
secondary consists of a metal container forming the walls of the furnace.
When the primary winding is connected to the supply, current is induced in the
secondary of the metal container.
So heat is produced due to induced current. This heat is transmitted to the charge by
radiation.
The portion AB of the magnetic circuit is made up of a special alloy and is kept inside
the chamber of the furnace.
The special alloy will loose its magnetic properties at a particular temperature and the
magnetic properties are regained when the alloy will cooled.
As soon as the furnace attains the critical temperature the reluctance of the magnetic
circuit increases many times and the inductive effect correspondingly decreases
thereby cutting off the heat supply.
The bar AB is removable type and can be replaced by other, having different critical
temperature. Thus the temperature of the furnace can be controlled very effectively.
Advantages:
Dielectric heating:
Advantages:
Applications:
Welding:
Welding is the process of joining two similar metals by heating. The metal parts are
heated to melting point. In some cases the pieces of metal to be joined are heated to
plastic stage and are fused together.
Electric welding:
In electric welding process, electric current is used to produce large heat, required for
joining two metal pieces. There are two methods by which electric welding can be
carried out. These are
1. Resistance welding and
2. Arc welding.
Resistance welding:
In resistance welding heavy current is passed through the metal pieces to be welded.
Heat will be developed by the resistance of the work piece to the flow of current.
The heat produced for welding is given by
H=I2Rt
Where,
H= Heat developed at the contact area.
I= Current in amperes.
R= Resistance in ohms.
t= time of flow of current.
i) Butt welding:
In this process heat is generated by the contact resistance between two components.
In this type of welding the metal parts to be joined end to end as shown in fig.
Sufficient pressure is applied along the axial direction.
A heavy current is passed from the welding transformer which creates the necessary
heat at the joint due to high resistance of the contact area.
Due to the pressure applied, the molten metal forced to produce a bulged joint.
This method is suitable for welding pipes, wires and rods.
ii) Spot welding:
Spot welding is usually employed for joining or fabricating sheet metal structure. This
type of joint only provides mechanical strength and is not air or water tight.
Spot welding arrangement is shown in fig. The plates to be welded are placed overlapping
each other between two electrodes, sufficient mechanical pressure is applied through the
electrodes. The welding current flows through electrodes tips producing a spot weld. The
welding current and period of current flow depend on the thickness of the plates.
Arc welding:
If the electrode is made positive then the carbon contents may flow into the weld and
cause brittleness.
The heat from the arc forms a molten pool and the extra metal required to make the
weld is supplied by the filler rod.
This type of welding is used for welding copper and its alloy.
In metal arc welding a metal rod of same material as being welded is used as an
electrode.
The electrode also serves the purpose of filler. For metal arc welding A.C or D.C can
be used.
Electric supply is connected between electrode and work piece.
The work piece is then suddenly touched by the electrode and then separated from it a
little. This results in an arc between the job and the electrode.
A little portion of the work and the tip of the electrode melts due to the heat generated
by the arc.
When the electrode is removed the metal cools and solidifies giving a strong welded
joint.
-------------------------------------------------*****----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------**********************---------------------------------------
An electric motor is a better prime move for driving mechanical load than hydraulic,
steam or diesel engines as it is possible to control the performance of an electric
motor is quite easy.
For obtaining electric drives, both A.C and D.C motors are used. However A.C
system is preferred.
The utilization of electric energy is always advantageous as it is cheaper.
It is easy to maintain the voltage at consumer premises within the prescribed limits
and it is possible to increase or decrease the voltage without appreciable loss of
power.
Inspite of the advantages of A.C system sometimes it becomes essential to use D.C
energy as industrial drive.
Electric drive
Individual drive
Individual drive consist of single motor is used to drive one individual machine.
Most of the industries use this type of drive.
In some cases the motor, along with its control equipment, may form an integral part
of the machine, which results in better appearance, cleanliness and safety.
Advantages:
Disadvantages:
Group drive
A group drive consist of a single large motor, which operates a number of machines.
The motor is mechanically connected to a long shaft.
It is also called line shaft drive.
The line shaft is fitted with multistepped pulleys and belts.
The driven machines are connected to these pulleys and belts for their required speed.
The fig shows the group drive.
Advantages:
When compared with the individual drive,
Disadvantages:
Multimotor drive
In multimotor drives separate motors are used for operating different parts of the same
mechanism.
Eg in case of an overhead crane, different motors are used for hoisting, long travel
motion and cross travel motion.
Such drive is also essential in complicated metal-cutting machine tools, paper making
machines, rolling mills.
Fig shows a multimotor drive.
Selection of motors
An industrial process needs a particular electric drive for its successful and efficient
operation which in turn calls for appropriate selection of the driving motor.
While selecting a motor, the following factors must be taken into consideration:
a. Electrical characteristics
Running characteristics
Starting characteristics
Speed control
Braking
b. Mechanical characteristics
Types of enclosures
Bearings
Transmission of drive
Noise level
c. Size of motor and
Continuous rating
Intermittent or variable load rating
Over load capacity
Pull out torque
d. Cost
Capital cost
Running cost
The first three are the technical factors and the last one is the economic factor.
Many a time, there are conflicts between the technical and economic factors, but in
any commercial organization, the economic factor overpowers the technical factors as
the correct choice of a motor is one which gives the required service at the minimum
overall cost.
Since the load on a motor is an integral part of the drive system we study various
types of loads.
It is essential that the motor characteristics match with those of the load for stable
operation of the system.
Electrical characteristics
Running characteristics
The running characteristics of a motor include the following speed- torque or speedcurrent characteristics, losses, magnetizing current, efficiency and power factor at
various loads.
The magnetizing current and power factor are to be considered in case of A.C motors
only.
Starting characteristics
The starting torque developed by a motor should be sufficient to start and accelerate
the motor at its load to the rated speed in a reasonable time.
Some motors may be have to start against full load torque.
E.g motors driving grinding mills or oil expellers, traction work etc.
The starting characteristics of D.C motor is the relation between the torque and the
armature current.
The torque of a D.C motor is proportional to the product of field flux () and
armature current (Ia).
i.e., T Ia
Where
Ia= armature current
= field flux
In DC shunt motor, the field current is constant from no load to full load.
Therefore the field flux also constant.
Hence the starting torque is directly proportional to the armature current i.e. (T Ia).
Fig shows the torque current characteristics of D.C shunt motor.
In D.C series motor, the field winding is connected in series with the armature.
Hence the field current, armature current and load current is same (ie Ia=Ise=IL). hence
field flux and armature flux also same ie., se= a.
Since the series field flux is proportional to the armature current upto saturation
point, the torque produced is proportional to the square of the armature current up to
saturation point.
Hence up to OA, the torque current characteristics is in parabolic shape.
ie T Ia
upto saturation point, field flux Ia
Hence T Ia2
During the starting period, the squirrel cage induction motor has low starting torque
and take high starting current.
The condition for maximum starting torque is R2=X2. During the starting period X2 is
higher in compare to rotor resistance R2.
Therefore if the rotor resistance R2 increases the starting torque also increases(since T
R2).
It is not possible to increase the rotor resistance on squirrel cage induction motor.
Therefore, the rotor current will flow through the outer cage, with the result that the
starting torque is high (since T R2).
During normal running the reactance of the inner cage decreases (since rotor current
frequency f is decreased) and hence the rotor current flows through the low resistance
inner cage.
This gives a high efficiency of the motor.
In slip ring induction motor, extra resistance can be added in the rotor circuit during
the starting period.
Hence a high starting torque is produced. In addition, it also limits the starting current.
i.
ii.
iii.
This type of motor is called split phase motor. When the motor picks up the speed at
75% of synchronous speed, a centrifugal switch is open and disconnects the starting
winding.
This motor has a very low starting torque.
If a capacitor is used for spilt the phase at starting then it is called capacitor start
motor . the main winding is connected directly across the line.
The starting winding is connected in series with the capacitor through centrifugal
switch and connected across the single phase supply.
Such an arrangement gives a high starting torque.
In permanent capacitor motor the capacitor remains in the circuit during starting and
running.
This indicates that speed of D.C shunt motor decreases with increase in armature
current due to loading.
The variation of speed with armature current characteristics is drooping slightly as
shown in fig.
The percentage of speed change will be about 5% at full load due to armature
resistance drop. But due to armature reaction, the flux is weakened.
Hence the speed will increase. (N (Eb / )). This increase in speed compensates the
drop in speed due to Ia Ra drop.
Therefore the shunt motor is considered as constant speed motor.
b) Speed-Torque characteristics
We know
T Ia
and
N (Eb / ).
----------------------------- (1)
Ia= KT
N Eb
N (V-IaRa)
-------------------------- (2)
---------------------------- (3)
From equation (3) we know that, when the torque increases, speed decreases as shown in fig.
Performance curve
Fig shows the performance curves of D.C shunt motor. These curves are namely
torque, speed, current and efficiency., each plotted against output power.
When supply voltage V is kept constant, the speed of the motor will be inversely
proportional to flux N (1 / ).
On the light loads the flux produced will be weak and therefore the speed will be
dangerously high.
For small value of flux , the speed will be very high. Hence the shape of the curve
will be hyperbolic.
When the load current increases, the flux also increases, after saturation the flux
remains constant.
Therefore the speed will be constant and low at heavy loads as shown in fig.
N (V-IaRa)/
If IaRa drop is negligible
N V/ -------------------------- (1)
We know that,
T Ia
T .
(since Ia )
T 2
2 =T
2 = T ------------------------- (2)
From the equation, speed is inversely proportional to torque. Hence the characteristics
curve is hyperbolic in shape.
This is shown in fig.
In D.C series motor, as torque increases with decrease of speed. Hence series motor is
suitable for operating cranes, lifts, trains etc.
Performance curve
Then the slip value increases. The torque increases with increase in slip upto rated
load.
The torque will reach a maximum value at slip S=R2/X2. After the rated load, the
increased load on the motor will increase the slip and on the decrease the torque.
Any further more increase in load on the motor results, the motor slowing down and it
finally stops.
The stable operating region of the motor lies for the slip values S=0 and that
corresponds to maximum torque.
The operating region is hatched in fig.
Performance curve
Fig shows the performance curve of three phase squirrel cage induction motor namely
slip, current, power factor, efficiency and speed each plotted against power output.
The running characteristics of slip ring induction motor are same as squirrel cage
induction motor.
By introducing resistance in the rotor circuit at running, the torque can be increased.
The motor is designed to provide improved starting characteristics (i.e. high starting
torque with low starting current).
Inner cage has high inductance and low resistance whereas outer cage has high
resistance and low inductance.
At the time of starting inner cage offers high reactance. Because the frequency of
rotor current is very high. (since at starting slip=1, hence frequency of rotor current f
increases, since f = s f).
Hence most of the current flows through outer cage where resistance is high. Thus
more starting torque is developed.
After the motor has picked up its full speed, the frequency of rotor current becomes
very low.
Therefore most of the current flows through the inner cage. Hence at running, copper
losses are reduced and the efficiency of motor is increased.
The speed- torque characteristics of double cage induction motor are shown in fig.
Single phase induction motors are used in domestic appliances like fans, refrigerators,
vacuum cleaners etc.
Speed control
In D.C motor the speed can be controlled by following methods
Braking
When the load is removed from an electric motor and supplied to it be disconnected it
will continue to run for sometime due to inertia.
To avoid danger to the worker or damage to the products manufactured quick
stopping of motor is required. It is done by braking.
The braking system should be reliable and quick in action. The braking torque must
be controllable.
There are two types of braking.
i) Mechanical braking
ii) Electrical braking
While selecting a motor for a particular drive, the mechanical characteristics are also
taken into account.
The following features determine the suitability of the motor.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Types of enclosures
Bearings
Noise
Transmission of drive
Types of enclosures
All the major parts of the motors such as windings, bearings, insulation etc are to be
protected from the surroundings contaminated air.
In an industry the air surrounding the motors may contain metal, dust, oil, mist, water,
dust inflammable fumes etc. also accidents may occur to persons coming in contact
with the moving parts.
Therefore it is necessary to provide proper enclosures.
The different types of enclosures are as follows.
a) Open type
This type can only be used where the atmosphere and surroundings are
free from all contaminations and surrounding air completely dry.
The advantage of this type of motor is that the cost of cooling is very
low.
But this type is rarely used since there is no protection to the motor
parts.
b) Screen protected type
In this type of machines openings provided for ventilation are covered
with wire mesh screen.
This type of enclosures does not protect the motor against dirt and dust.
But larger bodies and big insects cannot enter into the machine.
c) Drip proof type
This motor has ventilating opening provided in such a way that drops of
liquid or solid falling on it vertically are prevented to enter inside.
This type of motor cannot be used where inflammable dust particles are
present in the surrounding air.
Such motors are used in damp atmosphere. E.g Pumpsets.
d) Totally enclosed type
This type of motors has solid frames and end shields but no opening for
ventilation.
They are cooled by surface radiation only. In this type machines no dirt or
foreign matter can enter and block the air passage.
These machines are used for very dusty atmosphere.
E.g saw mills, coal handling plants and stone crushing quarries.
Bearings are the parts of machines which house and support the main shaft.
It provides free rotation of the moving parts with minimum friction.
There are two types of bearings usually employed in motors.
1. Ball or Roller bearing
2. Sleeve or brush bearing
Ball or roller bearing consist of an inner and outer race and cage containing steel
roller or balls.
The outer race is attached to the housing(end cover) and the inner race is attached to
the shaft.
When the shaft rotates, the steel ball also rotates. Hence the friction of the shaft is
minimized.
It has a longer life and maintenance costs are low.
It occupy less space. But the initial cost of ball and roller bearings is high.
It is used in three phase induction motor where smaller air gap is possible.
It is used for chain, belt and gear drives.
Transmission of drives
Direct drive
Belt drive
Rope drive
Chain drive and
Gear drive
Direct drive
In direct drive, motor is coupled directly to the driven machine with the help of solid
or flexible coupling.
Flexible coupling protects the motor from jerks.
It is more efficient and requires minimum space and it is the simplest method.
It can be used where driven and driving machine speed are same.
Belt drive
In belt drive, belt is used to transmit the power from motor to driven machine through
pulley system.
The mechanical power wasted due to slip is about 3 to 4 percentage.
Maximum power of 300 H.P can be transmitted through this drive.
Advantages
Rope drive
This method for transmission for power is used, when it is not possible to employ belt
drive.
A number of ropes run in V-grooves over pulleys.
The advantages of rope drive are negligible slip and ability of taking sudden loads.
Chain drive
Gear drive
Gear drive is used when high speed motor is to drive a low speed machine.
The coupling between the two is through a suitable ratio gear box.
Noise
Noise is the another important features to be considered while making the selection of
a motor.
It should be kept as low as possible in the workshops, hospitals and other domestic
purposes.
The noise may be due to bearing, vibrations, magnetic pulsations and faulty
foundations.
To reduce noise, journal bearing may be used in place of ball bearings.
The motor should be mounted on a heavy concrete or cast iron block.
The electrical connections should be made through flexible conduits.
The rating of motor is the amount of power which it can deliver without becoming
unduly hot. The rating of a motor is classified as follows.
1. Continuous rating.
2. Intermittent rating or short time rating.
Continuous rating
This is the rating or the output of a motor which can be delivered continuously for
long periods without exceeding the permissible temperature.
This rating is applicable to drives like fans, pumps, textile, mills etc. which operate
continuously for long periods.
This is an output that a motor can give for specified short time without exceeding the
permissible temperature rise.
Such motor is loaded for short period of time and is then put off for sometime.
During that period the motor cools off as in mixies.
As per IS 4722 1968 various load time variations are encountered the eight standard
classes of duty.
1. Continuous duty.
2. Short time duty.
3. Intermittent periodic duty.
4. Intermittent periodic duty in the starting.
5. Intermittent periodic duty with starting and braking.
6. Continuous duty with intermittent periodic loading.
7. Continuous duty with starting and braking.
8. Continuous duty with periodic speed changes.
Continuous duty denotes the motor operation at a constant load torque to reach steady
state temperature. The load time and temperature time graph are shown in fig.
Paper mill drives, compressors, conveyers, centrifugal pumps and fans are some
examples of continuous duty.
It denotes the operation of motor at constant load for short period followed by rest to
cool down to the original starting temperature.
Short time duty timings are generally 10, 30, 60 and 90 minutes.
The load time and the temperature time graph are shown in fig.
Crane drivers, drives for household appliances, sluice gate drives, valve drives and
machine tool drives are some examples of short-time duty.
It denotes the operation of motor a sequence of indential duty cycle each of constant
load and rest period.
In this duty, heating of machine during starting and braking operation is negligible.
Fig shows the load time and temperature time graph. Pressing, cutting and drilling
machine drives are some examples of intermittent periodic duty.
This is intermittent periodic duty where heat losses during starting cannot be
neglected.
Thus it consists of a period of starting, a period of operation at a constant load and rest
period.
The operating and rest periods are too short to attain the steady state temperature in
one duty cycle.
Its characteristics are shown in fig. in this duty heating of machine during braking is
considered to be negligible.
Some examples are metal cutting, drilling tool drives, mine hoist drives for lift trucks.
This is the periodic duty where heat losses during starting and braking cannot be
ignored.
Thus it consists of a period of starting, a period of operation with constant load, a
braking period, and a rest period.
Thermal equilibrium is not reached in one duty cycle.
Braking is done electrically and is quick. Its characteristics is shown in fig
Several machine tool drives, drives for electric suburban trains and mine hoist are
some examples of this duty.
The operation of motor has a sequence of indentical duty cycle, each consisting of a
period of operation and a period of operation on no load.
Thermal equilibrium is not reached in one duty cycle. Its characteristics are shown in
fig.
This duty is distinguished from the intermittent periodic duty by a period of running at
constant load is followed by a period of running at no load instead of rest.
Pressing, cutting, shearing and drilling machine drives are the examples.
Operation of the motor has a sequence of indentical duty cycle, each cycle is having a
period of running at one load and speed and followed by another period of running at
different speed and load.
There is no rest period. Its characteristics are shown in fig.
2.
3.
4.
5.
It is required to adjust the speed at any one group of rolls relative to other in order
to draw the paper.
Rolling mills or steel mills separately excited DC motor
Separately excited DC motor is mainly used in rolling mills.
The motor required for these mills should have high starting torque about 2 to 2.5
times the rated torque.
It should have strong construction.
The ward leonard speed control of D.C motors or slip ring induction motors are
used.
Textile mills Double cage induction motor
In textile mills group drive is employed.
The motors employed must have high starting torque with constant speed.
The motors used must be totally enclosed and moisture proof to prevent entry of
dust and moisture enter into machine.
Hence totally enclosed, fan cooled, high torque double cage induction motors are
used.
Cement mills
Various types of loads available in a cement factory and the motor used for them
are given below
a) Hammer crusher Three phase slip ring induction motor
The lime stones are broken into smaller sizes in the crushing mill.
For this purpose high starting torque motor is required.
Hence three phase slip ring induction motor is used because it has high
starting torque.
b) Ball mills Synchronous motor
In ball mills, the raw materials grind in powder form synchronous motor
are used for this process.
c) Rotary driers Slip ring induction motor
The cement slurry is dried by blowers and speed of blower is varied
depending upon the amount of air required to blow.
Hence slip ring induction motor with pole changing speed control is
employed.
d) Slurring pumps and agitators Three phase Squirrel cage induction motor
These are used in the wet process
Three phase Squirrel cage induction motors used for slurring pumps and
agitators.
Machine tools D.C shunt motor or 3 Squirrel cage induction motor
The starting torque required is less in most of the machine tools since they
start up light.
Therefore 3 phase squirrel cage induction motor is used for machine tool
application.
Different speed operation is obtained by using two or three speed motor with
suitable gear combination.
D.C shunt motors are used for machine tool application like planners where
rapid reversal, and wide speed control are required.
In the case of grinders, totally enclosed motors are used to prevent metallic
dust getting into it.
6. Lift and hoists DC compound motor or 3 slip ring induction motor
The essential requirements for a lift are high overload capacity, high smooth
accelerating torque of 2 to 2.5 times the full load torque at starting and
maximum degree of silence.
D.C compound motor and three phase slip ring induction motor are used for
lifts and hoists.
7. Belt conveyor Double squirrel cage induction motor
The conveyors are required to transport bulk materials like coal, are sand on
either flat belt or bucket system.
It requires a high starting torque so as to accelerate the load for transport.
Hence totally enclosed surface cooled motors are used.
Double squirrel cage induction motors are used in belt conveyors.
8. Ship Synchronous motors
Three phase induction motors and synchronous motors are used for very big
ships.
A three phase alternator gives the supply to the synchronous motor.
The prime mover used for the alternator is steam turbine by varying the
voltage and frequency of alternator the speed of motor is controlled.
9. Air compressor - 3 Induction motor
Air compressors are used for pneumatic drill, 3 induction motors are used to
drive compressors.
Repulsion motor is used for various industrial machinery air compressors.
Single phase induction motor is used for small air compressors.
10. Punches and shears
For punches and shears D.C cumulative compound motors and
A.C 3 slip ring induction motors provided with fly wheel are used.
11. Rotary printing
The rotary printing machinery requires variable speed motor.
D.C compound motors or A.C 3 induction motors with rotor resistance
control are used for printing machineries.
12. Pumps
Centrifugal pump
The load torque varies as square of the speed in a centrifugal pump.
At starting the torque required is less.
Hence 3 squirrel cage induction motor is used for centrifugal pump.
The liquid handled by the pump does not enter the motor.
Hence totally enclosed motor is preferred.
Reciprocating pump
A reciprocating pump requires two times the full load torque at starting.
A double cage induction motor is suitable for reciprocating pump.
3 slip ring induction motor is also used for this type of pump.
(v)
Cost
The choice of motor speed is the most important factor as it not only affects
the performance of motor but also overall cost.
The dimension and, therefore, the first cost of a motor for a given output are
approximately inversely proportional to the speed, so for the some output kW
the cost of a high speed motor is less than that of a slow speed motor.
In case of induction motor, the efficiency and power factor decreases with
decrease in speed.
Thus for a low-speed drive high speed motor using a reduction gear is usually
found cheaper than a low-speed direct-coupled motor.
In case of linear motion, the rating of the motor required is given by,
P = F x v/2 x 102 kW
------------------------------------ (2)
Where,
F = force caused by the load, Kg, and
v = velocity of motion of the load, m/s.
P = F x v/2 x 102 kW
The velocity of normal passenger lift cabins vary from 0.5 to 1.5 m/s.
In case of pumps, the rating can be determined from the following relation:
P = QH/102 kW
Where,
= Density of liquid pumped, kg/m3,
Q = Delivery of pumps, m3/s, and
H = Gross head (static head + friction head), m.
varies from 0.8 to 0.9 for reciprocating pumps and from 0.4 to 0.8 for centrifugal pumps.
For small power fans, the efficiency may be taken as 0.6 and for large power ones it may
reach a value up to 0.8.
The rating of a motor used in metal shearing lathes can be found from the relation.
P = F x v/ 102 x 60 kW
Where,
F = shearing force, kg,
v = Velocity of shearing, m/min, and
= Mechanical efficiency of the lathe.
The method consists of finding average losses Qav in the motor when it
operates according to the given load diagram.
These losses are then compared with Qnom, the losses corresponding to the
continuous duty of the machine when operated at its nominal rating.
This method presupposes that when Qav = Qnom, the motor will operate without
temperature rise going above the maximum permissible for the particular class
of insulation.
In this case,
Qm = Qav / A = Qnom/ A.
The loss diagram of the electric motor is shown. The rating of the electric
motor can be found from method of successive approximations.
The losses of the motor are calculated for each portion of the load diagram by
referring to the efficiency curve of the motor. The average losses are given by
Qav = Q1t1 + Q2t2 + Q3t3 +. + Qntn/ t1 + t2 + t3 +.+ tn ------------ (1)
The average losses as found from eqn (1) are compared with losses of selected
motor at rated frequency.
In case the two losses are equal or differ by a small amount the motor is
selected.
However, in case the losses differ considerably, another motor is selected and
the calculations repeated till the motor having almost the same losses or the
average losses is found.
This method is accurate and reliable for determining the average temperature
rise of the motor during one work cycle.
The disadvantage of the method of equal losses is that it is tedious to work
with and also many a times the efficiency curve is not readily available and the
efficiency has to be calculated by means of empirical formulae which may not
be accurate to work with.
This method is based on the assumption that the actual variable current may be
replaced by an equivalent current Ieq which produces the same losses in the
motors as the actual current.
Ieq = (I12t1 + I22t2 + I32t3 + + In2tn) / ( t1 + t2 + t3 + + tn)
The heating and cooling conditions in self ventilated machines depend upon
its speed. At low speed the cooling conditions are poorer than at normal
speeds.
The equivalent current as found from eqn should be compared with the rated
current of the motor selected and the conditions Ieq < Inom should be met.
The machine selected should also be checked for its overload capacity.
For D.C motors.. Imax/ Inom < 2 to 2.5
For the selection of suitable capacity of the motor it often becomes necessary
to use torque or power load diagrams.
The equivalent torque or power is found in the same manner as the equivalent
current.
Assuming constant flux and constant power factor, the torque is directly
proportional to current and, therefore, the equivalent torque is:
Teq = [T12t1 + T22t2 + T32t3 +. + Tn2tn/ t1 + t2 + t3 +..+ tn]
The equation for equivalent power follows directly from above eqn. as power
is directly proportional to the torque.
At constant speed or where the changes in speed are small, the equivalent
power is given by:
Peq = [P12t1 + P22t2 + P32t3 +. + Pn2tn/ t1 + t2 + t3 +..+ tn]
The equivalent current method is the most accurate out of all the above
methods discussed above.
This method may be used to determine the motor capacity for all uses except
where it is necessary to take into account the changes in so constant losses
i.e. the iron and mechanical losses.
The equivalent torque method cannot be used for cases where equivalent
current method cannot be applied.
It cannot be used for selection of motor rating for cases in which the field flux
does not remain constant like D.C series motors and for squirrel cage
induction motors under starting and braking conditions.
The disadvantage of the equivalent power method is that it cannot be used
for motors whose speed varies considerably under load, especially when
dealing with starting and braking conditions.
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
VAR = VA sin
VA = W/ cos
VA = VAR/ sin
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
The installation of power factor improvement device, to raise the power factor
results in one or more of the following effects and advantages:
1) Reduction in investment in the system facilities per kW of the load
supplied.
2) Reduction in circuit current.
3) Reduction in copper losses in the system due to reduction in current.
4) Increase in voltage level at load.
5) Improvement in power factor of the generators.
6) Reduction in kVA loading of the generators and circuits.
7) Reduction in kVA demand charges for large consumers.
It is known that static capacitor/ condenser takes current which leads the
voltage by nearly 90.
Thus if condenser is connected across an inductive load resultant quadrature
component of the whole combination will be difference of leading component
of condenser current (Ic) and lagging component of lead current (I sin 1) as
shown in fig.
In view of reduced magnitude of quadrature component of current, p.f of the
whole combination is improved from cos 1 to cos 2.
Power factor of the system can be improved by placing static capacitors in
series with the liner as shown in fig.
Capacitors connected in series with the line neutralize the line reactance.
The capacitors, when connected in series with the line, are called series
capacitor, and when connected in parallel with the equipment, are called
shunt capacitors.
Shunt capacitors are used in factories, plants and also on transmission lines.
Series capacitors are used on long transmission lines as they provide automatic
compensation with the variations in load.
Advantages of capacitors
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
Small losses (less than 0.5 percent) or higher efficiency (say 99.6).
Low initial cost.
Easy installation.
Little maintenance.
Long life.
Greater reliability in service.
Flexible in operation.
No restriction on the choice of site for capacitor and can be installed in
relatively small banks located near the load.
Besides p.f improvement, capacitors are employed to perform the following functions
also:
1)
2)
3)
4)
To reduce losses.
To reduce voltage regulation of the line.
To meet a demand for reactive power.
To utilize fully the capacities of generators, transformers and transmission
and distribution network.
Synchronous condensers are usually built in large units and are employed
where a large quantity of corrective kVAR is required.
From the fig we observe that angle of lag() is much smaller than L ; thus
overall factor is improved from cos L to cos M by the use of synchronous
condenser.
Advantages
Disadvantages
The cost is higher than that of static capacitors of the same rating, except in
size above about 5000 kVAR.
Higher maintenance and operating costs comparatively.
Comparatively lower efficiency, due to losses in rotating parts and heat losses.
Increase of short-circuit currents when the fault occurs near the synchronous
condenser.
For starting synchronous condensers an auxiliary equipment is required.
Possibility of synchronous condensers falling out of synchronism causing
interruption of supply.
During operation noise is produced.
The p.f of an induction motor falls mainly due to its exciting current drawn
from the A.C. supply mains, because exciting current lags behind the voltage
by 90.
It may be improved by equipping the set with an A.C. exciter or phase
advancer which supplies this exciting current to the rotor at slip frequency.
Such an excitor may be mounted on the same shaft as the main motor or may
be suitably driven from it.
Use of phase advancer is not generally economical in connection with motors
below 150 kW output but above this size, phase advancers are frequently
employed.
Shunt and series type of phase advancers are available according to whether
the exciting winding of the advancer is connected in parallel or series with the
rotor winding of the induction motor.
As mentioned earlier, the use of phase advancers may not be economical for
induction motors below 150 kW output.
Power factor improvement of the system is achieved by the use of phase
compensated motors such as torda, osnos and scharge motors.
These motors are however very costly and require more maintenance than
plain induction motors.
As such these motors are chosen when we are sure that they will be loaded to
rated output for most of the time and that they will effect more saving in the
energy cost due to higher p.f than the additional expenses incurred on them.
-----------------------------*********************-------------------------------
ELECTRIC TRACTION
The locomotive in which the driving or tractive force is obtained from electric motors
is called Electric traction.
Electric traction has many advantages as compared to other non-electrical systems of
traction including steam traction.
Electric traction is used in:
i) Electric trains
ii) Trolley buses
iii) Tram cars
iv) Diesel-electric vehicles etc.,
Traction systems
Steam engine drive, though losing ground gradually due to various reasons, it
is still the amply adopted means of propulsion of railway work in
underdeveloped countries.
In this type of drive, the reciprocating engine is invariably used for getting the
necessary motive power.
Advantages
Following are the advantages of steam engine drive:
Simplicity in design.
Simplified maintenance.
Easy speed control.
Simplicity of connections between the cylinders and the driving wheels.
No interference with communication network.
Low capital cost as track electrification is not required.
The locomotive and train unit is self contained, therefore, it is not tied to a
route.
It is cheap for low density traffic areas and in initial stages of communication
by rail.
Operational dependability.
Disadvantages
Advantages
Disadvantages
In an I.C engine electric drive the reduction gear and gear box are eliminated
as the diesel as the diesel engine is to drive the D.C. generator coupled to it at
a constant speed.
This type of drive is finding considerable favour for railway work and
locomotives of this type are being widely used.
Advantages
Disadvantages
Petrol-electric traction:
This system, due to electric conversion, provides a very fine and continuous
control which makes the vehicle capable of moving slowly at an imperceptible
speed and creeping up the steepest slope without throttling the engine.
Petrol-electric traction is employed in heavy lorries and buses.
In this system the locomotive carries the secondary batteries which supply
power to D.C. motors employed for driving the vehicles.
This type of drive is well suited for frequently operated service such as for
local delivery of goods in large towns with maximum daily run of 50 to 60
km, shunting and traction in industrial works and mines.
Battery vehicles are started by series-parallel for starting and running at the
speed upto half maximum speed and in series for running at full maximum
speed.
Advantages
Disadvantages
The major disadvantages of this type of drive are the small capacity of
batteries and the necessity for frequent charging.
Limited speed range.
Electric drive:
Here the drive is by means of electric motors which are fed from overhead
distribution system.
The drive of this type is most widely used.
Advantages
As it has no smoke, electric traction is most suited for the underground and
tube railways.
The motors used in electric traction have a very high starting torque. Hence, it
is possible to achieve higher accelerations of 1.5 to 2.5 km/h/s as against 0.6 to
0.8 km/h/s in steam traction.
An electric locomotive is ready to start at moments notice against about two
hours required for steam locomotive to heat up.
The maintenance cost of an electric locomotive is 50 percent of that of steam
locomotive; its maintenance time is also much less comparatively.
By the use of electric traction high grade coal can be saved, since electric
locomotives can be fed either from hydroelectric stations or thermal power
station which use cheap low-grade coal.
In electric traction system it is possible to use regenerative braking.
Owing to complete absence of smoke and fumes, this system is healthier from
the hygienic point of view.
The vibrations in electrically operated vehicles are less as the torque exerted
by the electric motor is continuous.
Electric equipment can withstand large temporary overloads and can draw
relatively large power from the distribution system.
Disadvantages
High initial cost of laying out overhead electric supply system. Unless the
traffic to be handled is heavy, electric traction becomes uneconomical.
Power failure for a few minutes can cause traffic dislocation for hours.
The electric traction system is tied up to only electrified routes.
Communication lines which usually run parallel to the power supply lines
suffer from electrical interference. Hence, these communication lines have
either to be removed away from the rail track or else underground cables have
to be used for the purpose which makes the system still more expensive.
Additional equipment is required for regeneration. In case of D.C. series
motors regeneration is not a simple process.
In case of electric traction provision of a negative booster is essential. By
avoiding the flow of return currents through earth, it curtails corrosion of
underground pipe work and interference with telegraph and telephone circuits.
Whereas steam locomotives can use their steam for heating the compartments
in cold weather very cheaply, the electric locomotives have to do it at an extra
cost.
In cold countries a service locomotive is required to run up and down the line
in order to prevent the formation of layer of ice on the conductor rails.
It is the curve drawn between speed of train in km/hour along y-axis and time
in seconds along x-axis.
The speed time curve gives complete information of the motion of the train.
This curve gives the speed at various times after the start and run directly.
The distance travelled by the train during a given interval of time can be
obtained by determining the area between the curve and the time axis
corresponding to this interval.
A typical speed time curve for main line service is shown in fig. This curve
consists of five sections.
1. Notching up period (0 to t1)
During this period of run (0 to t1), starting resistance is gradually
cut so that the motor current is limited to a certain value and the
voltage across the motor is gradually increased and the traction
motor accelerates from rest.
To cut the starting resistance, the starter handle has to be moved
from one notch to another. Hence this period is called notching up
period.
The acceleration is almost uniform during this period. Therefore
speed- time curve is a straight line (OA).
2. Acceleration period (t1 to t2)
When all the starting resistances are cut out, the full voltage is
applied to the motor.
Now the torque decreases and speed increases according to the
speed torque characteristics of the motor.
Now the acceleration gradually decreases with the increase in
speed and finally reaches the required torque for the movement of
the train (at time t2).
3. Free running period (t2 to t3).
During this period i.e. t2 to t3 the power supplied to the motor is at
full voltage and speed of this period is constant, also during this
period power drawn from the supply is constant.
4. Coasting period (t3 to t4)
At the end of free running period supply to the motor is cut off and
the train is allowed to run under its own kinetic energy.
Due to train resistance speed of the train gradually decreases.
The rate of decreasing of speed during this period is known as
coasting retardation.
5. Braking or retardation period (t4 to t5)
At the end of coasting period the brakes are applied to bring the
train to stop.
In city service the distance between the two stations is very short i.e., between
0.75 to 1 km.
The time required for this run between the adjacent and retardation should be
sufficient high.
Fig shows the speed-time curve for urban or city service. It will be seen that
there will be no free running period.
The coasting period is also small.
Tractive effort
= 1000 M kg
Acceleration
= km/hr/sec
= x 1000/3600 m/sec2
When a train is accelerated in a linear direction, its rotating parts like the
wheels and armature of motors have to be accelerated in an angular direction.
Therefore the accelerating mass of the train is greater than the dead mass of
the train.
Generally the effective or accelerating mass is 10% more than the dead mass.
i.e. Me = 1.1 M
Let the effective mass of train = Me ton
= 1000 Me kg.
Force required for acceleration = Mass x acceleration.
i.e., Fa = Me x a
= 1000 Me x 1000/3600
= 277.8 Me Newtons
While moving, the train has to overcome the opposing force due to the surface
friction and wind resistance.
The train resistance depends upon various factors such as shape, size,
condition of track etc.
Tractive effort required to overcome the train resistance
Fr = M x r Newtons
Where M = Mass of train in tone
r = train resistance in Newtons/tone
Braking
Plugging
Series motors:
The arrangements of connection before and after the braking are shown in fig.
Shunt motors:
The arrangements of connections before and after braking for shunt motor are
shown in fig.
Total voltage of V+ Eb is available across the armature terminals which causes
a current I to flow around the circuit.
When Eb = V then the voltage across the armature is 2V and at the time of
braking twice the normal voltage is applied to the resistance in series with the
armature at this time in order to limit the current.
While the motor is being braked, the current is still being drawn from the
supply.
This method requires energy from the supply for its action and not only the
kinetic energy of the motor is being wasted, but this energy is also being
dissipated.
---------------------------- (1)
TB = K I ---------------------------- (2)
Where K is a constant
Current = V+ Eb / R
-------------------- (3)
Eb = K1N
--------------------- (4)
Where V is applied voltage
Eb is back emf of the motor.
R is the resistance of the motor
N is the speed
K1 is a constant
Substitute the value of Eb from equation (4) in (3)
Current I = (V + K1N )/ R -------------------- (5)
In view of equations (2) and (5)
TB = K [(V + K1N )/ R]
= K V/ R + KK1N 2/ R
Where
= K2 + K3 2N
K2 = KV/ R
--------------------- (6)
-------------------- (7)
And
K3 = KK1/R
--------------------- (8)
In the case of induction motor its speed can be reversed by inter changing any
of the two stator phases which reverses the direction of rotation of motor field.
Actually at the time of braking when the induction motor is running at near
synchronous speed.
The point Q represents the torque at the instant of plugging one can notice that
the torque increases gradually as one approaches the stand still speed.
Different values of rotor resistance give rise to different shapes of speed
torque curve in order to give any desired braking effect.
The rotor current I2 can be calculated during the braking period from the
following relation and is plotted as shown.
I2 = SE2 / [Re2 + (SX2)2] ------------------- (13)
Where E2 is the e.m.f. induced in rotor at standstill
R2 is the rotor resistance
X2 is the standstill reactance of the rotor and
S2 is the percentage slip
Plugging can be applied to the synchronous motors, with the only difference
that the field on the rotor will be rotating in opposite direction to that of the
rotating field on the stator with the synchronous speed and the relative velocity
between the two will be twice the synchronous speed.
This will meant that there is one synchronous motor torque but the same will
be produced by the induction in the starting winding.
Since most of the motors are equipped with starting winding, a synchronous
motor provides satisfactory braking.
Rheostatic braking
In this method of braking, the motor is disconnected from the supply and run
as generator driven by the remaining kinetic energy of the equipment that is
the energy stored in motor and load which are to be braked.
The following drives can be braked by the rheostatic method:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
Dc motors
Shunt motor
DC motor
Induction motor
Synchronous motor.
In this type of motor, the armature is simply disconnected from the supply and
is connected to as resistance in series with it, the field, winding remains
connect to the supply as shown in fig.
The braking can be adjusted suitably by varying the resistance in the armature
circuit.
In the case of failure of the supply, there is no braking torque because of
absence of the field.
Series motor
In this case of the connections are made as shown is fig during braking
operation.
The motor after disconnection from the supply in made to run as a DC series
generator.
The resistance inserted in the circuit must be less than the critical resistance
otherwise the generator will not be self exciting.
When the series motor is disconnected from the supply the direction of the
armature current is reversed.
Where
K2 = KK1/R
-------------------------------- (17)
In the case of a series motor the flux dependent upon the armature current
Electric braking torque for series motor
= K3Ia2N
-------------------------------- (18)
While in the case of shunt motor since flux is constant
Electric braking torque = K4N
------------------------------- (19)
In this case the stator is disconnected from the supply and is connected to DC
supply which excites the windings thereby producing a DC field.
The rotor is short-circuited across through resistance in each phase.
When the short circuited rotor moves it outs the steady flux produced in the air
gap due to DC current flowing in the stator produced in the air gap due to DC
current flowing in the stator and an e.m.f is induced in the rotor conductors.
The satisfactory application of this method is applicable only to the phase
wound inductor motor where external resistance can be inserted in each phase.
Regenerative braking
In this type of braking the motor is not disconnected from the supply but
remains connected to it and its feeds back the braking energy or its kinetic
energy to the supply system.
This method is better than the first and second methods of braking since no
energy is wasted and rather it is supplied back to the system.
This method is applicable to following motors:
(i)
D.C motors
(ii)
Induction motors
D.C motors
Shunt motor
Series motor
In this case, complications arise due to fact that the reversal of the current in
the armature would cause a reversal of polarity of the series field and hence
back emf would be reversed.
Tramways
The tramway is perhaps the cheapest type of transport available in very dense
traffic.
It receives power through a bow collector or a grooved wheel from an
overhead conductor at about 600 V D.C., the running rail forming the return
conductor.
It is provided with atleast two driving axles in order to secure necessary
adhesion, start it from either end and use two motors with series- parallel
control.
Two drum-type controllers, one at each end used for controlling the tramcar.
Though these controllers are connected in parallel, they have suitable
interlocking arrangement to prevent their being used simultaneously.
The main frame of the car body is made from high tensile steel. Aluminium is
extensively used for bodywork.
The under frame is of rolled steel sections. Seats are either in transverse
direction or a combination of transverse and longitudinal arrangement is used.
The equipment is similar to that used in railways but the output is considerably
smaller and does not exceed 60 to 75 H.P.
For normal service rheostatic and mechanical braking are employed.
For mechanical braking, electro-mechanical drum brakes are used. Also
magnetic tracks brakes are used for giving better retardation.
This traction system is losing ground to trolley bus or internal combustion
engine ominus system due to the following reasons:
i) Lack of operational flexibility in areas of heavy congestion.
ii) Undesirable effect of track on other road vehicles.
iii) It is an economical method of transportation only for large cities
having dense traffic.
Trolley-Bus
Serious drawback of tramway is the lack of manoeuvrability in congested areas and
noise; this is overcome by the trolley-bus drive.
The advantages of AC propulsion drive are good reliability due to static power
conversion equipment.
The important component of the AC traction is the three phase squirrel cage
induction motor.
A popular car pair used in modern electric traction uses the pulse width
modulation inverter principle.
The PWM inverter produces a symmetrical three-phase output voltage, whose
amplitude and frequency can be controlled continuously.
Hence the speed and torque of the squirrel cage induction motor used for
traction can be adjusted in monitoring and braking, as well as in both
directions, of rotation with a fully static device, that is no operational contacts
are required.
The PWMAC drives covers subway railcars, LRVS, trolley buses, diesel
electric and electric locomotives.
Class EA locomotive
ELECTROLYTIC PROCESSES
Introduction
The processes based on the fact that electrical energy can produce chemical changes are
called Electrolytic processes. These processes are widely used for:
(i) Extraction of pure metals from their ores(e.g., copper, zinc, aluminium, magnesium
etc.);
(ii) Refining of metals (e.g., gold, silver, copper, nickel etc.);
(iii)
Manufacturing of various chemicals (e.g., caustic soda, potassium
permagnate, chlorine etc.);
(iv)Electro-deposition of metals including electro-plating, electro-typing, electro-forming;
(v) Building up of worn parts in metallurgical, chemical and other industries.
All the processes mentioned above, though they appear differently in apparent detail, are
based on the principle of electrolysis.
ELECTROLYSIS THE BASIC PRINCIPLE
When a compound formed by electrovalent bond is dissolved in water which has high
dielectric constant results in the weakening of the electrostatic force of attraction
between the ionized atoms.
This results in the charged ions to lead an independent existence. Consider the case of
a copper sulphate (CuSO4) dissolved in water.
It dissociates into positively-charged copper ions (Cu ++) and negatively-charged
sulphate ions (SO4--) moving freely in the solution.
If two electrodes are placed in the electrolyte (i.e., CuSO 4 solution) and one of them is
made positive and the other negative, the positively-charged ions travel towards the
cathode and the negatively-charged ions travel towards the anode.
Each of the positively-charged copper ions (cations) reaching the cathode will take
two electrons from it and become a metallic atom of copper, and similary each of the
negative-charged sulphate ions (anions) reaching the anode will give up two electrons
to it and cease to be anion.
Thus the copper is deposited at the cathode as metal. The sulphate ions collect at the
anode and react with water giving out oxygen:
2H2O + 2SO4 = 2H2SO4 + O2
Oxygen is liberated as gas at the anode and H2SO4 is formed. If the cathode is made of
Cu, the sulphuric acid attacks it forming copper sulphate and liberating hydrogen:
H2SO4 + Cu = CuSO4 + H2
Thus the copper of the anode goes into solution and copper from copper sulphate is
deposited on the cathode.
During the process there is no accumulation of charge at any point in the circuit and
the mass of copper deposited at the cathode is exactly equal to that removed from the
anode.
The whole process described above is called electrolysis.
Michael Faraday (an English scientist) formulated the laws governing the electrolytic
processes, which are stated below:
Faradays First Law: It is stated as follows
The mass of a substance liberated from an electrolyte in a given time is proportional
to the quantity of electricity passing through the electrolyte.
That is
m Q It
m = Zit
where,
Z = A constant called the electrochemical equivalent,
I = the steady current in amperes, and
t = Time (second) for which current I flows through the electrolyte.
If I = 1A, t = 1s and Z = m
Thus electrochemical equivalent, Z, of a substance is defined as the amount of the
substance deposited on passing a steady electric current of 1A for one second through
its solution. The S.I. unit of Z is kilogram per coulomb (Kg/C).
Energy efficiency is defined as the ratio of theoretical energy to the actual energy
required for depositing a given quantity of metal.
Theoretical energy required
i.e., Energy efficiency = __________________________________________
Actual energy required
Application of electrolysis
The major applications of electrolysis are as under:
Electro-deposition
i.
Electroplating
ii.
Electro-deposition of rubber
iii.
Electro-metallisation
iv. Electro-typing
Manufacture of chemicals
Anodizing
Electropolishing
Electro-cleaning or pickling
Electro-parting or electro-stripping
i.
Electro-extraction
ii.
Electro-refining
Electro-deposition
The process of depositing a coating of one metal over another metal or non-metal
electrically is called the electro-deposition.
It is used for protective, decorative and functional purposes and includes such
processes as electro-plating, electro-forming, electro-typing, electro-facing, electrometallisation etc.
Nature of electrolyte:
The electrolyte from which complex ions can be obtained provides a smooth
deposit.
Current density:
The deposit of metal will be uniform and fine-grained if the current density is
used at a rate higher than at which the nuclei are formed. The deposit will be strong
and porous if the rate of nuclei formation is very high current density.
Temperature:
A low temperature of the solution favours formation of small crystals of metal;
and a high temperature, large crystals.
Conductivity:
Electroplating
Electroplating is an art of depositing a superior or a more noble metal on an inferior or
a base metal by means of electrolysis of an aqueous solution of a suitable electrolyte.
or
Electroplating is defined as the electro-deposition of metal upon metallic surfaces. It
is done to accomplish the following:
electrolytes should be used in the electrolytic bath and current density used should
have an appropriate value. The temperature should also be maintained at a proper
level.
The articles to be coated with nobler metals should be in as high a state of purity as
possible.
Deposition of metal:
In all types of metal deposition processes, article to be electroplated is made cathode,
solution is made up of salt of the metal to be deposited and anode is often of the same metal
which is to be deposited.
Details of preparation of solutions and current densities employed for deposition of
various metals are given henceforth.
Copper plating:
Copper plating baths are of the following two types.