ACSAD Conference on

Rainwater Harvesting as an Option for Adaptation to Climate Change in Arab Region,

20 22 May 2013 in Beirut, Lebanon
Climate Change and the Application of
Rainwater Harvesting
Prof. Dr. Dieter Prinz
Professor (retired) at Karlsruhe University / KIT, Institute of Water and River Basin
Management, Karlsruhe, Germany
Abstract
The Arab World is changing at a tremendous rate: Not only political unrest (Arab Spring), but
even more the changes in lifestyles, increasing population, growing urbanization and
economic development will shape the future of this part of the world.
Global Climate Change is just an additional stress: Most probably, the climate in the MENA
region will become even hotter and drier with more extreme weather events, such as stronger
storms, longer droughts, and heavier floods.
Rainwater is an underutilized resource and has to be included in any water resources
planning in Arab region. Rainwater, including overland flow, can be (1) used on-the-spot (insitu rainwater management) for agricultural use or recharge, or (2) collected, concentrated
and stored (Rainwater Harvesting). Rainwater harvesting is defined here as the collection and
concentration of rainwater and runoff and its productive use for domestic and livestock
consumption, the irrigation of annual crops, pastures and trees and for groundwater recharge.
We distinguish three methods of rainwater harvesting (RWH), depending on the size of the
catchment: Microcatchment Water Harvesting, Macrocatchment Water Harvesting and
Floodwater Harvesting. Various RWH techniques are applied to meet the requirements of the
user (human beings, domestic animals, crop plants) and the type of use, e.g. as drinking
water, for irrigation, for groundwater recharge etc.
Climate Change impacts the application of rainwater harvesting by (1) shifting the application
belts of RWH methods synchronously to the shifting of the ecological belts, and (2) altering the
application of techniques, the physical structures and the kind and volume of water storage to
fit to the altered climatic conditions. Exemplary some adaptation measures are given: (1)
Higher water demands of people, crops and livestock due to higher temperatures have to be
met by an increase in catchment area and/or by increasing runoff coefficients on catchment
areas and/or by a higher water use efficiency, supplemented by an increase in storage
volume. (2) Higher rain intensities and more erratic rainfall demand a larger catchment-tocropping-area ratio and a strengthening / raising of water harvesting structures (bunds, dams,
walls). (3) Adaptation to more/larger floods can be achieved by increasing size of structures for
water diversion, for impoundment and spill of excess water.
Rainwater harvesting can, in combination with in-situ rainwater management, more water
storage and Supplemental Irrigation, contribute to a more secure water supply, to a reduced
flood and soil erosion risk, to improved agricultural production. However, it is only a single out
of numerous elements which have to integrated in a water resources management which can
cope with future climatic and socio-economic challenges.
To achieve the objective of satisfying future water demand in the Arab region by making best
use of rainwater resources, an Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) approach
shall be applied. The most important tools to adopt are a suitable policy (including laws and
regulations), adapted spatial, watershed-based planning, capacity development at various
levels, stakeholder participation and a sound environmental management.
Prof. Dr. sc. agr. Dieter Prinz, D-76133 Karlsruhe, Damaschkestr. 124, Germany, e-mail:
prof.prinz@t-online.de, phone: +49-(0)721-758990

1 Introduction
The Arab region is one of the worlds most water-scarce regions with a growing population and
a high share of climate-sensitive agriculture. Tremendous economic, demographic and social
changes have been taking place during recent decades and will continue for the decades to
come, such as migration from rural to urban areas, movement from traditional farming
activities to manufacturing and service sector and changes in lifestyle. A high degree of
diversity exists across the Arab Region.
The region is particularly vulnerable to Climate Change. Climate Change will pose an
additional stress on the ecological and socio-economic systems of the region, which are
already under pressure. Land degradation, desertification, loss of biodiversity and finally a
reduction in food and water security of the region will aggrevate in future.
2. The General Setting
Population: The population of the Arab countries nearly tripled between 1970 and 2010,
climbing from 128 million to 359 million. According to UN projection, the Arab Region will have
about 600 million inhabitants by 2050, increasing by two-third, i.e.about 240 million more
people than in 2010 (Mirkin 2010). The total fertility declined from 6.8 children per woman in
1970-1975 to 3.6 children per woman in 2005-2010 and is expected to fall to 2.1 children per
woman by 2045-2050 (UN-DESA 2009). While some countries are at or near the replacement
level, in other countries high fertility persists (UN-ESA 2012).

Fig. 1: Urban population trends 1970 to 2050 in Arab countries

Source: Schaefer 2013, based on UN-ESA 2010
Urbanisation: The Arab region is one of the most urbanized regions in the world: Between
1970 and 2010 the region experienced 400% urban growth; during the next 40 years a growth
of 200% is expected: Whereas in 2010 about 56% of the total population lived in cities, in 2050
the percentage will have risen to 68% (Fig. 2). Cairo will remain the largest city of the Arab
region, growing to 16 million inhabitants in 2050. The urbanization process is driven by
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economic development, migration to oil-rich countries, drought and conflict, the importance
varying by sub-region (Schaefer 2013). Water demand of urban dwellers is generally higher
than of rural ones, causing the overall water demand to increase.

Fig. 2: Urban and rural populations of the Arab region 1980 - 2050
Source: ESCWA 2009
3 Climate Change and its impacts
3.1 Temperature
The people of the Arab region are used to adapting to severe heat and drought. Most parts of
the Arab region are arid with high mean annual temperatures, ranging from 20C to 25C in
the desert regions, up to 28C on the Arabian Peninsula and between 15C and 20C in the
Mediterranean and subtropical zones. Within the past 100 years a warming trend has been
observed by most meteorological stations in the Arab region.
For recent years almost all stations showed a positive trend of 0.3C to 0.4C per decade,
which is expected to continue during the 21st century (Fig. 3). This likely warming by 3 to 4 0C
during this century is roughly 1.5 times the global mean response. According to IPCC (2007;
A1B
emission
scenario),
warming will be evident in all
seasons, with the greatest
increase in summer (Fig. 4).
The Arab countries are
expected to see increased
temperatures of at least 2
Celsius in the next 15-20
years.

Fig. 3: Projected temperature

increase due to climate
change for late this century. Mean annual temperature change, 1980 1999 to 2080 2099
Source: Verner 2012, p. 56

In urban areas heat waves and an increased heat island effect will impact living conditions
(such as a decreasing water quality, worsening air quality, and ground ozone formation), will
heighten the water demand and result in increased pressure on groundwater resources, which
are currently being extracted in most areas beyond the aquifers recharge potential. A 3
increase in nighttime temperatures in cities (additional to the overall 3 temperature increase
by 2080) is forecasted.

Fig. 4: Mean seasonal temperature changes for the 2080s projected for various Moroccon
cities (downscaled from HadCM3 model under the A2 emission scenario).
Source: Verner 2012, p. 68, based on Wilby 2007
The anticipated changes in temperature show strong differences as well in total values as in
seasonal values between cities even of the same country. Wilby (2007) studied the situation in
Morocco, and he predicts smallest temperature increases in Agadir (coastal station) and
largest in Ouarzazate in the Atlas Mountains, where the summer temperature is projected to
rise by more than 6C by the 2080s. The frequency and severity of heat waves is projected to
increase (Verner 2012).
For the planner, changes in extremes are more interesting than changes in average values as
they do have a stronger and often long lasting effect on peoples life. In regard to temperature,
not only the general increase of mean temperature, but in particular an increase of extreme
warm days, will increase the risk of heat stress. According to Diffenbaugh et al. 2007, the
number of days with a dangerous or extremely dangerous heat index is dramatically increased
along the Mediterranean coast of all Arabic countries by the end of the century in comparison
with the present baseline period (Fig. 5). The peak changes may be up to 65 days per year
(Verner 2012).
3.2 Impact on rainfall and water resources
The reduction in rainfall and hence in (renewable) water availability is a problem effecting
many parts of the world, particularly in Africa, the Americas and Australia (Fig. 6). According to
IPCC, the MENA region is the region most severely affected by climate change, particularly
because the effects will accentuate already severe water scarcity (Verner 2012). Much of the
Arab region will undergo significant reductions in precipitation levels and increases in
temperatures that will increase evapotranspiration rates, reduce soil moisture and natural
groundwater recharge (Bates et al. 2008).
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Fig. 5: Probability of monthly heat index above 30 0C. Measured changes in 1990-2009 and
projected changes in 2040-59 and 2080-99 in comparison with baseline period 1960-79
Source: Verner 2012, p. 72 (high emission scenario), based on Diffenbaugh et al. 2007
The region experiences grave spatial differences in rainfall, varying from less than 50 mm/a in
Central Sahara to almost 1000 mm/a at the border to Southern Sudan (Evans 2010).

Fig. 6: Change in water availability compared with average 1961-1990 (%). 2050 based on
IPCC scenario A1 (IPCC 2007)
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During the last two decades, there has been a significant reduction in the amount of
precipitation in most parts of the area. According to IPCC (2007, Chapter 11, p. 866) annual
rainfall is likely to decrease in much of Mediterranean Africa and northern Sahara, with the
likelihood of a decrease in rainfall increasing as the Mediterranean coast is approached (Fig.
7 & 8).

Fig. 7: Mean annual rainfall

in second half of 20th
century in Arab countries
Source: Verner 2012, p. 46

Fig. 8: Mean annual rainfall

change, 1980-99 to 2080-99
Source: Verner 2012, p.56

An average reduction in precipitation, ranging from 10%30% for this century in the MENA
region, was forecasted by several studies. Within the Arab region stark differences will occur:
The Levant (Syria, Lebanon, Palestine) will be one of the regions in the Middle East most
affected by changes in precipitation (Alpert et al. 2008). High resolution climatic models predict
a 25% decrease in mean annual precipitation in the Middle East that coincides with increases
in mean annual temperature up to 4.5C towards the end of the twenty-first century (Suppan
et al. 2008).
According to IPCC projections, total regional renewable water shortage will be about 200
cubic kilometers per year in 204050. Unfortunately, the demand is expected to rise by
about 25 percent in 202030 and up to 60 percent in 204050, whereas renewable supply will
drop by more than 10 percent over the same period in the region. As a result, unmet demand
for the entire Middle East and North Africa region, expressed as a percentage of total demand,
is expected to increase from 16 percent currently to 37 percent in 202030 and 51 percent in
204050 (Verner 2012, p.112).
A look at the world map (Fig. 6) reveals, that large parts of the USA and Southern Canada, of
Europe and Brazil will suffer from reduced precipitation, too, which might reduce food
exports from these countries in future food, which will be badly needed by most Arab
countries.
The differences within the region and within countries will be substantial (Fig. 9). Higher
temperatures and reduced precipitation will increase the occurrence of droughts, an effect that
is already materializing in the Maghreb.

Fig. 9: Scenario of mean temperature and annual rainfall evolution in 2050 (a) rise in mean
temperature (0C), (b) variation in mean rainfall (%) in Tunisia
Source: Omrani & Ouessar (2012)

3.3 Changes in runoff

The runoff in North Africa and the eastern Mediterranean (including the headwaters of the
Euphrates and Tigris) is expected to drop by up to 50 percent, southern Saudi Arabia and East
Africa (including the headwaters of the Nile) will experience increases in runoff by up to 50
percent (Verner 2012). The decreases in run-off are mainly due to higher temperatures
(sometimes in conjunction with lower rainfall figures), which lead to higher evapotranspiration
losses (Evans 2009).

3.4 Flooding
Climate change is expected to increase the frequency and intensity of flooding.

Fig. 10: Lebanese farmers

watch flood waters after their
land was inundated in Jadra,
south of Beirut in January
2013. The flood was caused
by heavy rain in the coastal
areas.
Photo: ADTECH / Internet

The increasing frequency of flash floods in many Arab cities is due to

increasing rainfall density
the widespread sealing of urban surfaces and the steady loss of green spaces
inefficient and clogged drainage networks,
settlements in upslope areas, deforestation of slopes
constructions (roads, buildings, squatter settlements in wadis (Fig. 10).
As a result, the size of the population affected by floods in Arab cities has multiplied in the
past 10 years to 500,000 people across the region.

3.5 Sealevel rise and seawater intrusion

The sealevel is rising worldwide and might reach 0.5 m at the end of the century. An elevation
of that magnitude will cause large tracts of land and many cities of the Arab region inundated,
e.g. 1800 km2 of the Nile delta, affecting 4 million people.
The reduction in precipitation in conjunction with the sealevel rising induced by climate
change is expected to affect coastal communities by seawater intrusion. The coastal aquifers
of the Levant and North Africa already suffer from seawater intrusion that has caused
salinization of thousands of wells (Verner 2012, p. 127).

3.6 Shifting of ecological belts

The pace of shifting of ecological belts northwards differs depending on landscape and is
lowest in mountainous areas. Projections range from 7.5 km per decade (Evans 2009) to 100
km. A value of 30 km per decade might be regarded as an average value.
3.7 Agricultural production
The impacts of climate change will
bring about a profound change in
all fields of agriculture. In regard to
cropping, in future a higher portion
of precipitation will be lost as
evaporation & transpiration will be
increased and deep percolation
reduced
significantly.
Runoff
remains more or less at same
level (Fig. 11).
Fig. 11: Schematic drawing of
average hydrologic conditions
under semi-arid climate. Comparison between conditions late 20 th
century and second half of 21 st
century.
In most of the MENA countries, the agricultural sector is the largest consumer of water. On
average, it accounts for approximately 80% of water budgets, but reaches 90% and above for
six countries in the region. The reduction in rainfall, aggrevated by higher temperatures, will
affect negatively rainfed agriculture, the reduction in renewable water resources the irrigation
sector. Together they will decrease the regions agricultural output by 20-40% by 2080 (Verner
2012) (Fig. 12). In addition, agriculture yields in rainfed areas, are expected to fluctuate more
widely, ultimately falling to a significantly lower long-term average.
The impacts of climate change will bring about a reallocations of the water resources at the
expense of the agricultural sector, as has already been the case in Yemen, Jordan, Israel, and
Libya (Verner 2012).
It is no longer debated, that climate change in arid lands will cause a productivity decrease of
agriculture, rangeland and forestry, but biodiversity, soil organic matter and soil fertility are
also negatively affected. This will worsen poverty and food insecurity. Populations will be
forced to migrate
Evans (2009) analyzed the impact of climate change in the Middle East. According to his
study, 8,500 square kilometers of rainfed agricultural land will be lost by midcentury and
170,000 square kilometers by the end of the century in the area covering the Islamic Republic
of Iran, Iraq, Lebanon, the Syrian Arab Republic, the West Bank and Gaza.

Fig. 12: Cereal productivity in North Africa under a scenario of the IPCC showing atmospheric
CO2 concentrations at 520-640 ppm by 2080
Source: GRID-UNEP Vital Graphics; orig. from PNUD Rapport sur le Developpement Humain
2006

3.8 Socio-economic impacts

Climate change will interact with other social, economic and political variables to exacerbate
social and political vulnerabilities. In general, climate change acts as a threat multiplier for
vulnerable countries and populations (Sowers et al. 2011).
Displacement and migration is becoming an increasingly important issue due to the changing
climate.
Climate change disproportionately affects the poor and has a greater impact on the daily lives
of women. Poor people have little capacity to respond to higher water demand and extreme
events, and in Yemen, for example, women must travel greater distances to fetch fresh water
(Stern 2006).
If no measures to build resilience are taken in the next 30 to 40 years, climate change could
lead to a cumulative reduction in household incomes of about 7 percent in Syria and Tunisia.
Yemen - because of the expected declines in agriculture - could suffer an income reduction of
24 percent.
In Jordan, the fourth driest country in the world, this fall in water supply would be disastrous.
At present, it needs 1.5 million cubic metres of water to meet demands, but only 900,000 cubic
metres are available. A temperature increase and rainfall reduction, compounded with a
growing population, will result in extreme food and water insecurity (Verner 2012).
3.9

Future water demand in MENA countries

Keeping in mind the already tenuous water supply situation today in most Arab countries, the
future will ask for even more strenuous efforts to cover the water demand.
How will the water demand look like in about 50 years time?
Population rise will contribute to the total water demand in 50 years time by about 70%,
Migration to cities, changing lifestyles and industrial development will be responsible
for at least a 15 % increase
Global warming will cause at least a rise of 35% above todays level. In total.
The total water demand will most probably be 120% above the present one (Fig. 13),
but rainfall will be about 15% less than today (25 % at the end oft he century).
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Fig. 13: Three major factors contribute to an ever increasing water demand in MENA
countries: (1) Population increase, (2) industrial development, urbanisation & lifestyle and (3)
Global warming. The figures are just indicative and vary considerably between countries.
Configuration of impact factors
Fig. 14 visualizes the most important drivers and impacts of climate change in the Arab region.

Fig. 14: Most important drivers and impacts of climate change in the Arab region. First order
impacts are given in white, second order impact in light yellow and third order impacts in
darker yellow.
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4 Rainwater Harvesting
4.1 Overview
Dry areas suffer not only from limited rainfall but also from inefficient use of this scarce
resource: - a large portion of rainwater is lost directly or indirectly, and becomes unavailable
for domestic use or agriculture. Water harvesting is in general a low-cost, easy-to-use,
environ-mentally-friendly way to recover a large part of this lost water. But water harvesting
can not only alleviate water-related stress for human beings, livestock and agricultural crops,
but also substitute and recharge groundwater, reduce flooding and soil erosion risk and can
improve living conditions in general (Fig. 15) (Falkenmark et al. 2001).

Fig. 15: The goals of rainwater harvesting in dry areas

Water harvesting is defined here as the collection and concentration of rainwater and runoff
and its productive use for domestic and livestock consumption, for irrigation of annual crops,
pastures and trees and for groundwater recharge. Rainwater harvesting has got a long
tradition in the MENA countries. The earliest water harvesting structures are believed to have
been built 9000 years ago in the Edom Mountains in southern Jordan to supply drinking water
for people and animals (Prinz, 1996). Oweis et al. (2004) provide an overview of indigenous
water harvesting systems in this region.
The basic principle of agricultural water harvesting is to capture precipitation falling on one
part of the land and transfer it to another part, thereby increasing the amount of water
available to the latter part. The objective is to provide enough water to crops on one part of the
land to support economical agricultural production.
There are some other terms under the umbrella of agricultural water harvesting such as
Runoff rrigation,Runoff farmingand Spate irrigation (for floodwater harvesting).
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Fig. 16: Position of rainwater

harvesting with and without
Supplemental Irrigation compared to other types of
agriculture
Source: Prinz 1996

4.2 Methods and Techniques of Rainwater Harvesting

4.2.1 The three methods of agricultural water harvesting
There are several classifications of agricultural water harvesting methods, but the most
commonly used system is based on the size of the catchment, i.e. micro-catchments, macrocatchments and floodwater harvesting:
Micro-catchments are < 0.1 hectares in size.
Macrocatchment systems are long-slopes systems (0.1 200 hectares total size) and
Floodwater systems have got catchment areas >200 hectares.

Agricultural rainwater harvesting shall be a linking

element between rainfed and irrigated agriculture,
soil and water conservation and supplemental
irrigation (Fig. 20). When planning water harvesting
projects, the principles of Integrated Water
Resources Management (IWRM) shall be applied.
Fig.16 The position of agricultural rainwater
harvesting between rainfed and irrigated agriculture,
integrating elements of soil and water conservation
and supplemental irrigation.

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4.2.2 Rooftop and Courtyard Water Harvesting

Rooftop and Courtyard Water Harvesting describes installations on and around buildings to
facilitate rainwater collection, mainly to cover drinking water / domestic water demand or to
use the collected water for groundwater recharge. In a wider sense, the harvesting of water
from roads, bridges, parking lots and other sealed areas in urban environments are covered by
this technique, too.
5 Adaptation of Water Harvesting Techniques to Climate Change
5.1 Water Harvesting Techniques for Agriculture / in Rural Areas
5.1.1 RWH and the shift of ecological belts
Climate Change impacts the application of rainwater harvesting by
shifting the application belts of RWH methods synchronously to the shifting of the ecological
belts (Fig. 17), and
altering the application of techniques, the physical structures and the kind and volume of
water storage to fit to the altered climatic conditions.

Fig. 17: The application zones of the various WH methods will in general move with the
relevant ecological belts, but changes in CCR and runoff coefficient will allow to apply the WH
techniques in zones with lower precipitation than before. This will retard the process of climate
change impacting agricultural production.
As the ecological belts, defined by their rainfall and temperature characteristics, are shifting,
synchronously the belts where grazing or rainfed cropping are feasible will shift, too. Areas,
which have been marginally suitable for grazing will turn to become desert (a process, which
14

takes already place since decades due to overgrazing). Areas marginally suitable today for
rainfed agriculture will turn to become grazing areas and so forth.
The application zones of the various WH methods willl move with the relevant ecological belt.
These application zones are defined by their minimum average precipitation amounts:
The various WH methods need to be viable:
Floodwater harvesting techniques in MENA countries need a minimum of 100 mm/a in
most of the catchment area to yield ample volumes.
The minimum precipitation for macrocatchment systems is in the range of 150 to 200
mm/a.
For microcatchment techniques this limit stands in the range of 200 to 250 mm/a.

5.1.2 Countermeasures
There is a wide range of possible adaptation measures in rural areas:
Higher water demands of people, crops and livestock due to higher temperatures have to
be met
a. by an increase in catchment area and/or by increasing runoff coefficients on
catchment areas
b. by a higher water use efficiency (e.g. using an efficient water supply system,
cultivating crops in greenhouses, keeping other growing conditions (e.g. soil fertility)
at high level, covering the soil with plastic or organic mulch etc.)
c. by an increase in storage volume.
Higher rain intensities and more erratic rainfall demand
a. a larger catchment-to-cropping-area ratio and
b. a strengthening / raising of water harvesting structures (bunds, dams, walls).

Adaptation to more/larger floods can be achieved e.g.

c. by increasing size of structures for water diversion,
d. by enlarging the impoundment and
e. by designing larger / stronger spillways to evacuate excess water.

The drier the area, the more there is the need for supplemental irrigation, i.e. storage of
water for life-saving irrigation. Interannual water storage above ground or in aquifers is
needed to deal with longer-lasting droughts.
This is also true for areas under spate irrigation, depending on floodwater. Floodwater
harvesting will in future experience a smaller number of floods, but these will be even more
voluminous (and presumely more destructive).

15

Fig. 18: The most important countermeasures in rural areas of the Arab region to curb the
impacts of climate change
5.1.3 Achieving a higher water use efficiency
The harvested water has to be utilized as efficiently as possible, today and even more in
future. There are many ways to arrive at a higher water use efficiency in agriculture, in
households and in combinations of both.

Fig. 19: Model of re- and multiple use of rainwater in a rural environment
16

Fig. 19 shows a model for efficient rainwater use in a rural environment: Water from rooftop
and courtyard is collected (A), stored in a tank (B), and either used for domestic purposes (C)
or to fill a fishpond (D). The nutrient rich water is used for irrigation (E). The Greywater is
stored in a tank (F) and used for toilet flushing. The blackwater is treated in a constructed
wetland (G) and the effluent is used for tree crop irrigation (H).
There is an urgent need for efficient use of rainwater under water scarcity conditions in farming
and in rural areas in general. Reuse and multiple use of rainwater are often part of it.
5.2 Water Harvesting in Urban Environments
5.2.1 Future problems of water management in urban areas
The various implications of climate change in regard to water management in urban areas
can be summarised as follows:
The process of urbanization will accelerate in future and more and more people will be in
need of a reliable water supply.
Higher temperatures will bring about an increasing water demand (per city dweller) to be
satisfied by the water works, causing further stress on already scarce water resources.
The flow of permanent rivers will be even more erratic and in general lower than before.
Flood disasters will be more frequent and of larger magnitude (Fig. 20).
The regeneration of groundwater will be lower.
The water supply and wastewater collection networks have to be expanded permanently;
high investments (and sufficient manpower) will be needed to satisfy the demand.
More efforts have to be invested in training people how to save water and to make use of
rainwater
Surge of national and regional conflicts (e.g. between agriculture and the other economic
sectors) over the use of shared water resources might develop.
Increase in water-related diseases due to the deterioration of water quality.

There is a need for rethinking in dealing with floods: Instead of practicing a water excess
management, which aims (only) at
trying to evacuate the flood waters as
quickly as possible, the goal should
be to make best use of the water
already in the upper and middle parts
of the catchment and finally in flood
diversion basins in the lowlands.

Fig. 20: Flood aftermath in Jericho.

January 9th, 2013
Source: MIDDLE EAST demotix.com

17

5.2.2 The potential of urban rainwater harvesting

Equipping as many urban buildings as possible with RWH devices and storing the runoff in
tanks could
contribute to a realively safe, decentralized water supply to be used at least for domestic (if
not for drinking) purposes,
minimize the water supply problems (and costs) of water works,
minimize the stormwater volume, avoiding floods to a large extent (Koenig 2001).
Recommended further RWH measures in the city are
capturing rainfall from any sealed surface (e.g. parking lots) to recharge local aquifers or to
use it for domestic purposes such as toilet flushing (IRHA 2010)
creating as many infiltration ponds as feasible in suitable locations to catch rooftop runoff
from large buildings for recharge purposes
keeping as many green spaces (parks, public lawns, gardens) in the city andi mproving the
soils infiltration capacity in those spaces.
Taking Beirut as an example: The city's metropolitan area covers 67 square kilometers; the
average annual rainfall is given as 860 mm/a (Wikipedia 2013). Hence Metropolitan Beirut
receives a total of 57.6 mio m3 of rainwater annually. When recognizing reduction in rainfall
due to climate change, and calculating with 800 mm/a, we still have a potential of 53.6 million
m3 rainfall. According to Worl Bank figures, the daily water demand of Beirut is around
250,000 m3 daily, which adds up to 92 million m3 per year. A comparison of these figures
shows the huge potential of rainwater harvesting in an urban agglomeration. As still a
considerable volume of water is (legally and illegally) pumped from groundwater, any quantity
of rainwater infiltrating into the ground (natural or artificial groundwater recharge) can be
regarded as an asset.
What is needed, is the development (and implementation) of innovative solutions, such as
the collection of rainwater not per building, but per settlement or even per (newly constructed)
suburb (Fig. 21): The rainwater from all buildings could be collected, stored in a tank or cistern,
purified and pumped back to the water users. When the water demand exceeds the stored
rainwater volume, water from other sources (surface or groundwater) is added to the system.
In most cases a two-pipe water supply system will be needed: One system for drinking
water only and another one for general domestic purposes, lower in water quality. This twopipe water supply system can be complemented by a two-pipe wastewater collection
system: One system for (reusable) greywater and another one for black water, to be treated
in a municipal treatment plant. Some hotels at the Jordanian side of the Dead Sea practice this
already.

18

Fig. 21: Instead of individual rainwater collection per building it might be more economic to
collect it as communal activity, (e.g. if a housing complex or even a suburb is established by
one company).
Source: Prinz 1999
5.2.3 The need for holistic solutions
Many cities in Arab region are located at or near the sea, suffering from
urban growth,often beyond the capacity of the administration to keep even modest
infrastructural standards,
dwindling renewable water resources
rising temperatures and reduced precipitation due to climate change
rising sea levels
seawater intrusion into coastal aquifer fostered by overexploitation
growing number of storms and floods with rising magnitudes.
Beirut is a good example of a city showing all the above mentioned features (Fig. 22).

Fig. 22 : The coastal aquifer of Beirut is endangered by seawater intrusion, as the natural
recharge became smaller and groundwater extraction in Beirut area increased constantly

19

Spatial planning is an indispensable tool to solve these problems. To overcome (at least
partially) the major water-related problems of a city like Beirut, the implementation of a holistic
concept is needed, starting with measures in the upper parts of the watershed (Fig. 23).
Fig. 23: Spatial dimension of the
application of recommended
measures in Greater Beirut Area
Source of map: Google Earth
2013
Some of the
implement are:

o
o
o

measures

to

o
Protecting vegetation in
upper
catchment
areas,
prohibiting any settlement there
o
Carrying out soil and
water conservation measures
within the upper and middle
reaches of the catchment
o
Catching and storing
runoff / overland flow upstream
of the city (Structural methods
such as recharge dams, spreading basins). The collected water can either be used as a
reserve for municipal water supply or devoted to recharge groundwater
Practicing RWH on as many buildings as possible within the city (Small scale RWH
techniques)
Improving the soils infiltration capacity in still green spaces
Capturing rainfall from any sealed surface (e.g. parking lots) to recharge local aquifers.

Legal interventions (i.e. laws & regulations and their enforcement) are necessary to stop or
reduce (legal and illegal) water pumping , to stop the construction of further settlements and to
practice RWH in the city.
A common problem hindering water efficiency improvements in buildings is linked to the tariff
system. In many parts of the Arab world,considerable segments of water users are still not
charged for water according to their actual consumption. Instead, their water tariffs are
based on fixed costs (Mirata & Emtairah 2010).
The potential of urban WH will remain untapped and water conservation measures not
introduced unless changes in water tariff are fixed and enforced.

6 General Considerations
As shown above, the already existing water-related problems will be aggrevated by climate
change. The water demand of agriculture, industry and municipalities is constantly rising and
the existing renewable water resources from groundwater and surface water (permanent
streams and rivers) can not cover the demand (Fig 24). Therefore rainwater and overland flow
in wadis have to be examined carefully to what extent they can fill the gap now and in future.

20

Fig.
24:
Rainwater,
overland flow and wadi
flow are sources of water
not fully utilized. Their
development
after
adaptation to climate
change
can
be
significant to balance
supply and demand. The
principles of IWRM have
to be applied.

Rooftop Water Harvesting in urban environments is

strongly linked to
urban planning, incl. surface water management
spatial per-urban planning,
architectural design of buildings and courtyards
and
watershed management incl. soil & water
conservation measures (Fig. 25).

Fig. 25: Linkages of Rooftop Water Harvesting in urban

environments

Planning within the IWRM framework needs

a holistic approach, taking into considerations all aspects of water demand and supply
management,
the analysis of all available and potential sources of water and
the means to save water (water conservation).
The objectives are satisfying future water demand of people, agriculture, industry and
environment by adapting RWH to climate change (Fig.26)
The role of RWH, in conjunction with soil and water conservation measures, is to retard
climate change impacts by making better use of the scanty rainfall.

21

Fig. 26: Goals, objectives, approach and tools of an IWRM scheme applied to our topic

Fig. 27: Parties involved in water harvesting for agriculture

Source: Oweis et al. 2012
22

To make full use of the potential of water harvesting, particularly to combat climate change
impacts,
suitable laws and regulations related to land and water use have to enable water harvesting
activities,
the farmers and city dwellers alike have to be well informed and convinced; their
participation in the decision-making process is essential,
modern tools, such as remote sensing and GIS, have to be employed to identify suitable
areas for collection and storage
the harvested water should be utilized in an effective way, as well in agriculture as in urban
environments. Re-use and multiple use of the harvested water is indispensable.
demonstrations and applied research activities have to be carried out,
skilled personnel for the hydrological & engineering planning and execution tasks has to be
available, when larger projects are to be installed,
micro-credits and/or subsidies as well as scientific support is needed by the authorities,
when larger-scale WH systems are to be implemented,
a well trained and motivated extension service will be needed, when beneficiaries are not
familiar with rainwater harvesting at all or with the methods to apply (Prinz 2002, Fig. 27).

When planning rainwater harvesting projects, the principles of Integrated Water Resources
Management (IWRM) shall be applied.
Rainwater harvesting is an option
to optimize the use of rainwater to meet the increasing water demand,
to stabilize agricultural production to a certain extent and to retard the impacts of
climate change in spite of moving ecological belts
to reduce wastage of runoff and diminish flooding risk,
but its implementation depends totally on the availability of the enabling framework
conditions.

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