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Vatistas
August 2006
The Spring
For a linear spring:
Fs=ky
F
N=
k ! s =m
y
kg m
s 2 = kg
m
s2
unstreched
position
0
y
Fs
Fs ( N )
k is the slope
y(m)
The Damper
A damper is a dissipative device that converts mechanical energy into heat. This
device is mathematically modeled by:
Fd = c V = c
dy
,
dt
The units of c:
c !
Fd
1 = kg
= N = Nms = kg m s m
s
V
m/s
s2
0
y
k
no load
(unstreched possition)
yo
0
loaded
(static equilibrium)
m
y
W=mg
Fs ( N )
k is the slope
Fs o
yo
y(m)
When the solid body with mass m is attached the spring will stretch until Fs = W.
At this point the system is in static equilibrium, or,
=0
or
W-Fso=W-kyo=0 !W=kyo
Starting from this static position let us begin to pull the mass down with a varying
velocity (an acceleration dV dt).
position
no load
without
possition
the mass
yo
0
F so
loaded
(static equilibrium)
y
Fs
Newtons 3
rd law
Fs
Fso
Equilibrium
possition
(with the
mass
attached
W=mg
________________________________________________________________________
When a solid material is cut for the sake of analysis then the internal forces that bind the
solid together must be included in the free-body diagram, see for example the solid rod
before and after the cut.
after
before
Fi Fi
+ ve x - direction
Note: that when we put the two parts (on the right) together to obtain the uncut rod, the
total force is from Newtons 2nd law Fi - Fi = 0.
________________________________________________________________________
From Newtons 2nd law:
d mV =
dt
d m V = m d V + V d m = W - F s o -F s = W - k y o - k y
dt
dt
dt
Since we are dealing with a solid body, dm/dt = 0. Also, from above W = k yo. Then,
Newtons second law applied to the mass (free-body-diagram)gives,
d2y
m d V = - k y or m
=-ky
dt
dt 2
remember that V =
dy
dt
Rearranging:
d2y k
+ y =0
dt 2 m
k =0
r2 + m
Alike to all equations, the differential equation must possess dimensional homogeneity
i.e. all terms must have exactly the same units:
d2y
y
!
= m
2
dt
t2 s2
d indicates an action; take the infinitesimal difference and as such it has no units.
2
Similarly d has no units.
kg
s2
k
m
m y ! kg = s 2
k t
m
+ B sin
k t
m
k t !
m
kg
s2
kg
Let us now consider the case where the mass is pulled down until y = yin, it is
stopped for a while, and then at t = 0 is released. The initial conditions are then:
i.
ii.
t = 0, y = yin = 0.2 m
t = 0, Vin = dy/dt = 0
dy
dt
=-A
t=0
k sin
m
k 0
m
+ B
k cos
m
k 0 = 0 or B = 0
m
The first initial condition gives that A = yin. = 0.2 m. Therefore, the position of the top of
the mass is then given by:
y t
= 0.2 cos ! t
Since the cosine function appears in the solution, the mass will oscillate. Let us now
plot amplitude y as a function of time for different values of k/m. The results are given in
the following figure.
0.4
4 4
1k / m = 1
99
y ( t ) in m
0.2
-0.2
-0.4
0
10
12
t in s
m/k in
f = 1 = 1
T 2!
k/m
in cycles / s or hz
Frequency f is known as the natural frequency of the system and will designated
henceforth by fn.
It is clear that this system will undulate indefinitely. The reason behind this
unrealistic behavior is that in the mathematical modeling of this system the energy
dissipation due to friction inside the spring and air have been neglected. The last paradox
(contrary to what is expected) will be rectified in a subsequent section. Is also apparent
that as the k/m value goes up, the number of oscillations within the same time interval (or
fn) of the system increases. On one hand, if m is kept constant, increasing the stiffness of
the spring (k) will result into a higher frequency of oscillations. On the other hand,
increasing the mass m while keeping k constant will result into a lower frequency of the
system.
A practical way to find fn of the system, by only one simple measurement, is as
follows.
The static deflection of the spring-mass system was given previously by:
g
k
W=kyo ! mg=kyo ! y = m
o
Then
fn = 1
2!
k/m = 1
2!
g/y o
in hz
Therefore, the natural frequency of the system cam be obtained by loading the
mass to the sprig and measure the static deflection yo.
or
d2y
dy
= - F s - Fd = - k y - c
!
2
dt
dt
d2y
dy
+ c
+ k y = 0
2
m
m
dt
dt
d2y
dy
+c
+ky = 0
2
dt
dt
position
without the
mass
position
without
the mass
c
0
Fs
Fd
Fs
Fd
Equilibrium
position
(with the mass
attached
0
y
y
m
W=mg
The above equation is a second order, ordinary, homogeneous, linear equation with
constant coefficients. Its characteristic equation is:
c 2-4 k
- c
m
m
m
c
k
r2 + r +
= 0 ! r1, 2 =
m
m
2
Depending on the values of k, m, and c the roots of the characteristic equation could be
(A) two real and distinct, (B) two real double, and (C) two complex conjugates. The three
cases will be examined next.
CASE A
Let k = 1 N/m, m = 1 kg, and c = 3 Ns / m. Then
r1, 2 = - 3 5
2
2
r1, 2
- c
! m
c
m
2
k
-4m
- c
! m
c
m
2
k
-4 m
kg
= -3
2 s kg
3 kg
2 s kg
-4
kg
s 2 kg
= - 3 s1
2
3 1
2 s
- 4 1 s1
s2
-3 5
2
2
1
s
t = 0, y = yin = 0.2 m
t = 0, Vin = dy/dt = 0
and
A -3 + 5 + B -3 - 5 =0
2
2
2 2
A= 3+ 5
10 5
and
B =-3+ 5
10 5
Then
y t =
1
10 5
3 + 5 exp - 3 + 5 t
2
2
+ - 3 + 5 exp - 3 - 5 t
2 2
V t =-
1
5 5
exp - 3 + 5 t
2
2
- exp - 3 - 5 t
2 2
CASE B
Let us now decrease the value of c to 2 Ns / m while keeping the rest of the
parameters the same. In this case the roots of the characteristic equation are r1 = r2 = -1/2.
The general solution is thus
y t =
At +B
exp - t
2
A = t and B = t
10
5
Therefore the position y ( t ) and the velocity V ( t ) are given by
y t = 1 1 + t
5
2
exp - t
2
and V t = - t exp - t
20
2
CASE C
Decrease now c further, say to 1 Ns / m. while keeping the rest of the parameters
constant. In this case the roots of the characteristic equation are complex conjugate:
r1, 2 = - 1 i 3
2
2
Then
y t = exp - 1 t
2
3 t + B sin
2
A cos
3 t
2
y t = 1 exp - t
5
2
cos
3 t + 1 sin
2
3
3 t
2
and
V t =
2 exp - t
2
5 3
sin
3 t
2
!= c
m
k
- 4m
10
0.25
A yA. OVER DAMPED
0.2
B B.
y CRITICALLY DAMPED
C C.
y UNDER DAMPED
y ( t ) in m
0.15
0.1
0.05
-0.05
0
10
t in s
0.05
V ( t ) in m / s
-0.05
A A.
V OVER DAMPED
BB.
V CRITICALLY DAMPED
CC.
V UNDER DAMPED
-0.1
-0.15
0
10
t in s
For
CASE A.
11
CASE B.
CASE C.
The position and velocity for the three above case are plotted in the figures given
above.
It is evident from thee graphs that as t increases ( t ) the system tends to
static equilibrium state i.e. y ( t ) 0 and V ( t ) 0. The reason behind this behavior is
that in all the cases considered here we have accounted in the mathematical model for
dissipation of mechanical energy (damper). The system will only oscillate (with a
diminishing amplitude) when it is under damped. The analysis considered here
constitutes the basic methodology in the design of car, truck, locomotive, and aircraft
suspension systems. In this case however, the spring instead of being stretched it is
compressed. Nevertheless, the analysis is the same.
position
without
the mass
0
m
Equilibrium
possition
(with the
mass
attached
In the case of an aircraft, in addition to the damping of any bumps on the runway
(providing thus comfort to passengers) it must also absorb the touchdown impact during
landing.
When the car mechanic wishes to find out if the car suspension needs repairs (in
addition to other diagnostic techniques) it pushes the vehicle down and then lets it go. If
the car oscillates excessively, the mechanic then knows that the damping provided is not
enough (under damped system), the hydraulic damper has lost liquid (due to leaks) and it
must be replaced.
12
d2y
dy
+c
+ky = F t
2
dt
dt
or
d2y
c dy + k y = 1 F t =f t
+m
m
m
dt
dt 2
position
without the
mass
position
without
the mass
c
0
Fs
Fd
Fs
Fd
Equilibrium
position
(with the mass
attached
0
y
y
m
W=mg
Suppose
`
f t = A sin ! f t
Then
d2y
c d y + k y = A sin ! f t
+m
m
2
dt
dt
y h t = B cos
k t
m
+ D sin
k t
m
+ M sin ! f t
13
Then
and
dy p
= - Q ! f sin ! f t
dt
+ M ! f cos ! f t
dy 2
p
dt 2
= - Q !f 2 cos ! f t - M !f 2 sin ! f t
k -!2 = 0
Q m
f
k -!2 =A
and M m
f
" Q=0
and M =
A
k
2
m - !f
y t = B cos
k t
m
+ D sin
k t
m
A
sin ! f t
k -!2
f
m
t = 0, y = 0
t = 0, Vin = dy/dt = 0
gives:
A
sin ! f t - ! f sin t
1 - !f 2
Remember k = 1 N/m and m = 1 kg. Suppose that the amplitude of the externally applied
2
force F ( t ) divided by the mass i.e. f(t) is equal to 0.1 (m/s ), then
y t =
y t =
1
10 1 - !f 2
sin ! f t - ! f sin
!n =
k = 1 rads
s
m
14
lim
! f " !n = 1
y t
sin ! n t - ! n sin t
lim
! f " ! n = 1 10 1 - ! 2
f
=#
y ( t ) in m
0.5
-0.5
0.9
0.6
-1
0.3
-1.5
0
10
20
30
40
in s
B cos
3 t + D sin
2
15
3 t
2
50
60
+ M sin ! f t
Then
and
dy p
= - Q ! f sin ! f t
dt
+ M ! f cos ! f t
dy 2
p
dt 2
= - Q !f 2 cos ! f t - M !f 2 sin ! f t
+ M sin ! f t
= 0 cos ! f t + A sin ! f t
M=
A 1 - !f 2
1 - !f
2 2
and
! f2
Q =-
A !f
1 - !f 2
+ ! f2
yp t =
A
1 - !f
2 2
1 - !f 2 sin ! f t - ! f cos ! f t
! f2
3 t + D sin
2
B cos
+
1 - !f
2 2
! f2
1 - !f 2 sin ! f t - ! f cos ! f t
t = 0, y = 0
t = 0, Vin = dy/dt = 0
yields
y t = yh t
3 t
2
+ yp t
16
where
yh
A = 0.1 ! f exp - 1 t
2
t =
2
2
1 - !f
+ ! f2
cos
3 t - 1 - 2 !f 2 sin
2
3
3 t
2
and
yp t =
A = 0.1
1 - !f
2 2
! f2
1 - !f 2 sin ! f t - ! f cos ! f t
C 12 + C 22 sin x + arctan C 1
C2
and C 2 = 1 - !f 2
C1 = - !f
"f
1 - "f 2
Similarly
yh t = !h
sin
3 t - arctan
3
2
1 - 2 "f 2
where
!p =
A = 0.1
1 - "f
2 2
+ "f
and ! h =
A = 0.1 " f
1 1 - 2 " 2 2+ 1 exp - 1 t
f
3
2
2
2
2
1 - "f
+ "f
In the following figure the homogeneous and particular solutions are plotted separately.
17
0.15
y h ( t ) , y p ( t ) in ( m )
0.1
0.05
0
-0.05
By ( t )
h
-0.1
yBp ( t )
-0.15
0
10
15
20
25
30
t in s
Due to the presence of exp( - 0.5 t ) term, the homogeneous solution will rapidly
diminish with time to zero*. In this problem, after 20 s the percentage of the
homogeneous solution amplitude of y is less than 0.004 % of the total ( h / x100,
= h + p ). Therefore, yh is only important at the start up phase.
(b)
For relatively long time levels, the solution tends to the particular solution.
Therefore, when the transient effects have died down the system vibrates
harmonically following closely the particular solution. At this level, the system
oscillates with a frequency equal to the frequency of the forcing function (f).
We have seen previously that when the damping was neglected as f n the
amplitude of oscillations of the system was tending to infinity. This however is not true in
real situations (when friction is present). The maximum amplitude at steady state (when
the transient effects are over) for different values of c are given in the following figure.
NOTE: Only the cases c = 0 Ns / m and c = 1 Ns / m (k = 1 N/m, m = 1 kg) were treated
thoroughly here. One however can produce the rest of the curves following exactly the
same procedure as before but with different c values.
The maximum amplitude of the particular case is obtained by:
d
d !f
or
A = 0.1
1 - !f
2 2
+ !f
=
2
! f 2 ! f2 - 1
1 - !f
2 2
+ !f
3/2
=0
Theoretically when t .In reality however, infinity may be closer than we think. If a property cannot
be sensed (detected, measured) its existence is uncertain. In engineering, t representing infinity may be
taken as value of time, at which the magnitude of y reaches the limit of certainty of the best available
measuring instrument.
18
! f 2 ! f2 - 1 = 0
The root f = 1/2 gives the frequency where the amplitude is maximum (at 0.115 m).
0.35
0.3
0.7
0.25
A = 0.1
"=
" ( in m )
1 - !f 2
+ c 2 !f
0.2
0.5
0.15
0.3
0.1
c=1
0.05
0
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
! f ( in rads / s )
19
VS
V R or Vout
Application of Kirchhofs second law: the sum of voltage drop in each of the
components is equal to the electrical voltage source, we have:
Voltage drop across
components
____________________
Governing Equation
di t
dt
L:
R:
i t R
di t
dt
+ i t R + 1 q t =V
C
C:
i t R
____________________
Where:
C
i
L
q
R
t
VS
VR
i t =
dq t
dt
and
V out = i t R = R
dq t
dt
respectively. Due to the first of the above two identities, the governing equation
transforms into:
L
d 2q t
dt 2
+R
dq t
dt
+ 1 q t =V
C
20
in V
+R
L
dq t
dt
1
CL
q t =1 V
L
t
s
+R
L
dq t
dt
1
CL
q t = Aampl sin ! f t
V
in V
s " Aampl = s
initial conditions:
i.
ii.
t = 0, y = 0
t = 0, Vin = dy/dt = 0
Electrical system
d2 q t
dt 2
+R
L
dq t
dt
1
CL
q t = A ampl sin ! f t
initial conditions:
i.
ii.
t = 0, q = 0
t = 0, iin = dq/dt = 0
We see that the two differ by scaling factors (constants). If now we let:
y ! q
c
R
m ! L
k
1
m !LC
(R/L = 1, 1/LC = 1, and Aampl = 0.1 as in the last example), then the expression for q(t) is:
q t = ! h sin
3 t - arctan
3
2
1 - 2 "f 2
21
"f
1 - "f 2
where
Aampl = 0.1
!p =
1 - "f 2
and ! h =
+ "f
1 1 - 2 " 2 2+ 1 exp - 1 t
f
3
2
2
2
2
1 - "f
+ "f
Because i(t) = dq(t)/dt, the current through the circuit can be obtained by
differentiating the above equation with respect to time.
i t =
dq t
= ! h 3 cos
dt
2
3 t - arctan
3
2
1 - 2"f 2
"f
1 - "f 2
The voltage across the resistor (VR or Vout), can then be calculated multiplying the
resulting equation by R.
Vout t = R i t = ! h
3 R cos
2
3 t - arctan
3
2
1 - 2"f 2
"f
1 - "f 2
The capacitors charge and current through the circuit versus time are plotted in
the subsequent figure. Note that this graph represents also the velocity of the mechanical
system. It is evident that the magnitude of the current through the circuit depends on the
frequency of the source. As the circular frequency approaches the value of 1/2, the
current amplitude increases. For high frequencies the amplitude is relatively
insignificantly small. Therefore this circuit is used to filter out frequencies other than the
frequency that will resonate the system. This is the reason that the RLC circuit is also
known as a filter. Filters can be found in many electrical and electronic systems.
0.15
q ( t ), i ( t ) Q, A
0.1
0.05
0
-0.05
-0.1
qq(t)
i i(t)
-0.15
0
10
15
20
t,
25
30
35
40
Because of the similarity between the two systems, any of the developments given before
for the mechanical system is also applicable to the electrical analog.
22
Vs
B
+ 1
CL
q t =0
Initially, switch A is closed and B is open. When the capacitor is charged with 0.2 Q,
switch A is opened and then B is closed.
Initial conditions
i.
ii.
t = 0, y = qin = 0.2
Q
t = 0, iin = dq/dt = 0 A
c
R
m ! L
k
1
m !LC
The solution is:
q t
= 0.2 cos ! t
23
fn = 1
2!
k/m
fn = 1
2!
1
LC
1
=
LC
1
= 1s
Vs sA
A V
Other equivalents systems can be constructed. If the solution is known in one then the
solution in the analogous system can be obtained through a simple variable
transformation.
24
Hydraulic Vortices
25
Bagai & Leishman 1993, Exp. Fluids, Vol. 15,, pp. 431 - 442.
Mathematical modeling of these two problems shows that the differential equations and
boundary conditions describing the two phenomena are similar. Therefore, the physical
problems must be analogous. The argument is confirmed by the experimental results
shown above.
26