CH 7

Lauralee Sherwood
Hillar Klandorf
Paul Yancey
Chapter 7
Endocrine Systems
Kip McGilliard Eastern Illinois University
7.1 Introduction: Principles of Endocrinology

Endocrinology is the study of the evolution
and physiological function of hormones.
The endocrine system regulates and
coordinates distant organs through the
secretion of hormones.
Hormones are signal molecules delivered by
circulatory fluids.
In contrast to the nervous system, the
endocrine system controls activities that
require duration rather than speed.

Chemical classes of hormones
Peptide and protein hormones
Chains of amino acids
Hydrophilic
Example: Insulin
Amines
Derived from tyrosine

Catecholamines (e.g. epinephrine) are hydrophilic
Thyroid hormones (e.g. thyroxine) are lipophilic
Steroids
Derived from cholesterol

Lipophilic
Examples: Testosterone and estradiol

Hormone synthesis and secretion
Peptide hormones
Synthesized as large precursor proteins,

preprohormones
Portions are cleaved and peptide hormone is
packaged into secretory vesicles
Released from cell by exocytosis
Steroid hormones
Cholesterol is synthesized or obtained from diet

Chemically modified by a series of enzymatic
reactions
Once synthesized, steroid hormones immediately
diffuse across the plasma membrane
Cholesterol
Pregneneolone
17-Hydroxypregneneolone
Progesterone
17-Hydroxyprogesterone
Dehydroepiandrosterone
(adrenal cortex hormone)
Androstenedione
Estrone
(female sex hormone)
11-Deoxycorticosterone
Deoxycortisol
Mineralocorticoid
(adrenal cortex
hormone)
Estradiol
Androgens
(male sex hormones)
Corticosterone
Aldosterone
Testosterone
Cortisol
Estriol
Glucocorticoid
(adrenal cortex
hormone)
Estrogens
(female sex
hormones)
Figure 7-3 p272

Mechanisms of hormone action
Hormones are widely distributed, but only target cells
have receptors to respond to each hormone
Peptides and catecholamines bind with membrane
receptors
Alter the conformation of adjacent ion channels, or
Activate second-messenger systems
Steroid and thyroid hormones pass through the

plasma membrane and bind with internal receptors
Receptors inside the cell are transcription factors that

regulate specific genes
Hormone receptor complex binds with hormone
response element (HRE) on nuclear DNA
Turns on synthesis of a specific protein
Blood vessel
Plasma
protein
carrier
Steroid
hormone
ECF
Plasma
membrane
Cytoplasm
Cellular response
1 Free lipophilic hormone
9 New protein
brings about
desired response.
diffuses though plasma

membrane
Steroid
hormone
receptor
New
protein
Portion
that binds
hormone
8 New protein
is released from
ribosome and
processed into
final folded form.
Portion
that binds
to DNA
2 Hormone binds with
7 Ribosomes
read mRNA
to synthesize
new proteins.
intracellular receptor
specific for it.
DNA-binding
site (active)
6 New
mRNA
leaves
nucleus.
3 Hormone receptor
complex binds with

DNAs hormone
response element.
mRNA
4 Binding
activates gene.
5 Activated
gene
transcribes
mRNA.
DNA
Nucleus
Hormone Gene
response
element
Figure 7-4 p274

Regulation of plasma concentration of hormones
Negative feedback control
When plasma hormone levels fall, hormone

secretion is stimulated
Neuroendocrine reflexes
Produce a sudden increase in hormone secretion in

response to a specific stimulus
Biological rhythms
Secretion of most hormones rhythmically fluctuates

as a function of time (biological clocks)
Readjustment of set point by CNS
Example: Cortisol secretion rises at night to peak
in early morning (diurnal rhythm)

Endocrine disorders
Hyposecretion -- inadequate secretion of a hormone
Primary hyposecretion -- abnormality within the gland
Secondary hyposecretion -- deficiency of tropic
hormones
Hypersecretion -- excessive secretion of a hormone

Primary or secondary
Endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs)
Human-made substances released into the environment

that mimic or oppose the actions of hormones
Example: DDE and DDT act as anti-androgens in
mammals
7.2 Nonvertebrate Endocrinology

Growth and molting in insects
Ecdysone is secreted by the prothoracic glands
Secretion of ecdysone is stimulated by
prothoracotropic hormone (PTTH) secreted by
neurosecretory cells in brain
Ecdysone initiates the molting process
Juvenile hormone (JH) is secreted by the

corpora allata
JH assures that larval characteristics are retained

JH levels progressively decline at each larval stage
Ecdysone in the absence of JH enables

metamorphosis to the adult form
7.2 Nonvertebrate Endocrinology
Stimuli
(related to feeding activities)
anterior end of larva
Hormone
secretory cells
in brain
Juvenile
hormone
Brain
Corpus
hormone
allatum
Prothoracic
ecdysone
ecdysone
gland
Changing blood concentrations of hormones
Larval stages
Pupa
Adult
Figure 7-7 p280
7.3 Vertebrate Endocrinology:

Central Endocrine Glands
Pineal
Hypothalamus
Pituitary
Parathyroid
Thyroid
Thymus
Heart
Stomach
Adrenal gland
Pancreas
Duodenum
Kidney
Skin
Ovaries in
female
Placenta in
pregnant
female
Testes
in male
Figure 7-1 p269
ANIMATION: Major human endocrine

glands
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Pineal gland
Secretes melatonin
Maintains circadian rhythms
Melatonin secretion increases up to 10-fold in

darkness
Seasonal changes in melatonin secretion

patterns trigger reproduction
In mammals melatonin output is controlled by
the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) of the
hypothalamus
SCN receives light information from the eyes

Pineal
gland
Photoperiod
Retina
Anestrous
Breeding
Melatonin
SCN
Kisspeptin
neuron
GnRH
Pituitary
LH pulse
Frequency
Follicle
Estradiol
feedback
Ovary
Figure 7-8 p282

Pituitary gland (hypophysis)

Located at the base of the brain, connected to the
hypothalamus by a thin stalk, the infundibulum
Posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis)
Nervous tissue
Anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis)

Glandular epithelial tissue
Intermediate lobe (pars intermedia)
Absent in birds and cetaceans

Rudimentary in humans after birth
Size of intermediate lobe correlates with ability of
animal to adapt to coloration of its environment

Hypothalamus
Bone
Anterior
lobe of
pituitary
Posterior
lobe of
pituitary
(a) Relation of pituitary gland to hypothalamus

and rest of brain
Figure 7-9a p285
Hypothalamus
Optic
chiasm
Anterior
pituitary
Connecting stalk
Posterior
pituitary
(b) Enlargement of pituitary gland and its
connection to hypothalamus
Figure 7-9b p285

Intermediate lobe
Secretes melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH)
-MSH controls skin coloration via dispersion of
storage granules containing melanin
In lower vertebrates, -MSH is opposed by melaninconcentrating hormone (MCH)
Melanocortin-1 receptor (MC1R) determines skin
color, pelage and feather pigmentation in animals
lacking pars intermedia
Excessive MSH secretion darkens human skin
MSH reduces appetite and suppresses immune system

Posterior pituitary
Connects to the hypothalamus by a neural
pathway
Neurosecretory neurons have cell bodies in

supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei of
hypothalamus
Axons terminate on capillaries in posterior pituitary
Secretes vasopressin and oxytocin

Evolutionary precursor, arginine vasotocin,
is found in many vertebrates

Posterior pituitary hormones

Vasopressin
Enhances retention of water by kidneys

(antidiuretic effect)
Causes contraction of arteriolar smooth muscle
(vasoconstriction)
Oxytocin
Social bonding
Contraction of uterine smooth muscle
Ejection of milk from mammary glands
Arginine vasotocin
Involved in osmoregulation
Vasoconstriction

Supraoptic
nucleus
Neurosecretory
neuronal cell bodies
in hypothalamus
(produce vasopressin
and oxytocin)
Hypothalamus
Paraventricular nucleus
Axons
Hypothalamic posteriorpituitary stalk

Capillary
Anterior
pituitary
Posterior pituitary
Systemic
arterial blood in
Vasopressin
Neuronal terminals in
posterior pituitary
(release vasopressin
and oxytocin into
systemic blood)
Systemic
venous blood
out
Oxytocin
Figure 7-10 p286
Vasopressin
Nephrons
in kidneys
Increases
permeability
of distal and
collecting
tubules to H2O
Arterioles
throughout
body
Causes
vasoconstriction
Oxytocin
Uterus
Stimulates
uterine
contractions
Mammary
glands
Stimulates
milk ejection
during breastfeeding
Figure 7-10 p286

Anterior pituitary hormones
Growth hormone (GH, somatotropin)
Stimulates growth and affects metabolism
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH, thyrotropin)
Stimulates thyroid hormone secretion by thyroid gland
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH, corticotropin)

Stimulates cortisol secretion by the adrenal cortex
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)

Regulates gamete production
Luteinizing hormone (LH)
Regulates sex hormone secretion

Ovulation and formation of corpus luteum in females
Prolactin (PRL)
Stimulates milk production by mammary glands

Wide range of additional actions

Hypothalamus
Anterior pituitary
Posterior pituitary
TSH
ACTH
Thyroid
gland
Prolactin
Adrenal
cortex
Thyroid
hormone
(T3 and T4)
Mammary
glands
Breast
growth and
milk
secretion
Cortisol
Increased
metabolic rate
Metabolic actions;
stress response
Growth hormone
Adipose tissue,
muscle, liver
Liver
IGF-I
Bone
(ovaries in
females)
Soft tissues
Growth
LH
Metabolic
actions
FSH
Gonads
Sex hormone
secretion
(estrogen and
progesterone in
females,
testosterone in
(testes
in males)
Gamete production
(ova in females,
sperm in males)
Figure 7-11 p287
ANIMATION: Anterior pituitary function


Hypothalamic releasing and inhibiting hormones
Secretion of each anterior pituitary hormone is
regulated by hypothalamic hypophysiotropic
hormones
Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH)
Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)
stimulates release of FSH and LH
Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH)
Growth hormone-inhibiting hormone (GHIH,
somatostatin)
Prolactin-releasing hormone (PRH)
Prolactin-inhibiting hormone (PIH)

Hypothalamic releasing and inhibiting hormones
Releasing and inhibiting hormones reach the anterior
pituitary through the hypothalamic-hypophyseal
portal system
Regulation of hypophysiotropic hormone secretion
Neural input (e.g. CRH secretion in response to stress)
Negative-feedback effects of anterior pituitary or target
gland hormones (e.g. cortisol levels above a set point
inhibit CRH and ACTH secretion)

Neurosecretory neurons
in hypothalamus (secrete
releasing and inhibiting
hormones into portal system)
Hypothalamus
Capillaries in
hypothalamus
Systemic
arterial
blood in
Endocrine cells of
anterior pituitary
(secrete anterior
pituitary hormones
into systemic blood)
KEY
2
Hypothalamichypophyseal
portal system
Posterior
pituitary
Capillaries in
anterior pituitary
Systemic
venous
blood out
Releasing
and inhibiting
hormones
= Hypophysiotropic hormones
Anterior
pituitary
= Anterior pituitary hormone

Figure 7-13 p289

7.4 Endocrine Control of Growth and Development

in Vertebrates
Growth depends on:

Adequate diet
Malnourished animals do not reach full growth

potential
Seasonally shortened day length reduces growth
by reducing food intake
Freedom from chronic disease and stressful

environmental conditions
Glucocorticoids secreted during stress inhibit
growth
Growth-influencing hormones
Placental hormones promote fetal growth

Growth hormone and other hormones promote
growth after birth

in Vertebrates
Direct effects of growth hormone (GH)
Metabolic effects
Target organs are adipose tissue, skeletal muscles
and liver
Mobilizes fat stores as a major energy source
Conserves glucose for use by the brain
Decreases glucose uptake by muscles and

increases glucose output by the liver
Enhances immune system
GHs growth-promoting actions are mediated by

insulin-like growth factors (IGFs)

in Vertebrates
GH/IGFs growth promoting effects

Growth of soft tissues
Increases number of cells (hyperplasia)

Increases size of cells (hypertrophy)
Promotes uptake of amino acids into cells
Stimulates protein synthesis and inhibits protein
degradation
Growth of bone
Promotes increases in bone thickness and length

Thickness depends on addition of new bone by
osteoblasts
Length depends on proliferation of cartilage cells
(chondrocytes) in epiphyseal plates and invasion
by osteoblasts

in Vertebrates
Articular
cartilage
Bone of epiphysis
Epiphyseal plate
Bone of diaphysis
Marrow cavity
(a) Anatomy of a long bone
Figure 7-14a p294
Bone of epiphysis
Diaphysis
Resting
chondrocytes
Epiphyseal plate
Bone of
epiphysis
Chondrocytes
1 undergo cell
Causes
division.
thickening of
epiphyseal
The 2 older
chondrocytes plate
grow larger.
As the extracellular matrix
calcifies, the entrapped
chondrocytes die.
The dead chondrocytes are
cleared away by osteoclasts.
Osteoblasts swarm up from
diaphysis and deposit bone
over persisting remnants of
disintegrating cartilage.
(b) Two sections of the same epiphyseal plate at different times,

depicting the lengthening of long bones
Figure 7-14b p294

in Vertebrates
Regulation of growth hormone secretion

Negative feedback loop involving hypothalamuspituitary-liver axis
IGF-I inhibits secretion of GH by somatotropes in
anterior pituitary
IGF-I inhibits GHRH-secreting cells and stimulates
somatostatin-secreting cells in hypothalamus
Other stimuli to GH secretion
Onset of sleep
Exercise, stress, and hypoglycemia
High protein meal
Ghrelin

in Vertebrates
Bone of epiphysis
Diaphysis
Resting
chondrocytes
Epiphyseal plate
Bone of
epiphysis
Chondrocytes
1 undergo cell
Causes
division.
thickening of
epiphyseal
The 2 older
chondrocytes plate
grow larger.
As the extracellular matrix
calcifies, the entrapped
chondrocytes die.
The dead chondrocytes are
cleared away by osteoclasts.
Osteoblasts swarm up from
diaphysis and deposit bone
over persisting remnants of
disintegrating cartilage.
(b) Two sections of the same epiphyseal plate at different times,

depicting the lengthening of long bones
Figure 7-14b p294

in Vertebrates
Growth hormone administration

Increases bone growth
Treatment of dwarfism in humans
Increases muscle mass
Abuse by athletes
Improved meat production in swine
Increases milk production in dairy cattle
7.5 Thyroid Gland

Thyroid gland is located in the throat below
the larynx
Composed of follicular cells arranged in fluidfilled spheres (thyroid follicles)
Colloid serves as an extracellular storage
site for thyroid hormones in the form of
thyroglobulin, a large glycoprotein
7.5 Thyroid Gland
Thyroid
gland
Right lobe Trachea Isthmus Left lobe

(a) Gross anatomy of thyroid gland
Figure 7-16a p298
Follicular cell
Colloid
C cell
(b) Light-microscopic appearance of thyroid gland

Figure 7-16b p298
7.5 Thyroid Gland

Thyroid hormone synthesis
1.
Thyroglobulin (Tg) is synthesized by thyroid

follicular cells (incorporating tyrosine) and secreted
into colloid by exocytosis
2. Thyroid follicular cells efficiently capture iodide (I-),

obtained from the diet, using an iodide pump
3. Iodide is activated and attached to tyrosine
molecules on Tg in colloid
Monoiodotyrosine (MIT) has one iodine

Diiodotyrosine (DIT) has two iodines
7. Iodinated tyrosines couple to form

tetraiodothyronine (T4, thyroxine) and
triiodothyronine (T3)
7.5 Thyroid Gland

Secretion of thyroid hormones
1. Follicular cells take up a piece of colloid (containing
iodinated Tg) by phagocytosis
2. Lysosomal enzymes split off T4, T3, MIT and DIT in
the process of breaking down Tg
3. T4 and T3 (biologically active thyroid hormones)
diffuse across follicular cell membrane into blood,
while MIT and DIT are recycled to iodide and
tyrosine
7.5 Thyroid Gland
Thyroid
follicular cell
Blood
Colloid
Endoplasmic
reticulum
Golgi
complex
Tg
MIT
I
8b MIT
8a
Tg
4a
T3 T4
Lysosome
DIT 7
T3
T4
MIT
DIT
T3
T4
3
MIT
DIT
T3
T4
5a
4b
DIT
5b
2 DITs
1 MIT + 1 DIT
T3
T4
Thyroid
follicle
Figure 7-17 p299
7.5 Thyroid Gland

Mechanism of thyroid hormone action
T3 is the major biologically active form of
thyroid hormone
Most secreted T4 is activated by conversion
to T3 by a deiodinase enzyme
T3 binds with nuclear receptors attached to
thyroid-response elements of DNA
Alters transcription of specific mRNAs and
synthesis of specific proteins
7.5 Thyroid Gland

Effects of thyroid hormones
Increase basal metabolic rate (BMR) through
increased mitochondrial and Na+-K+ pump activity
Modulate synthesis and degradation of metabolic fuel
molecules
Molting in birds and mammals
Sympathomimetic effect -- increase target cell
responsiveness to catecholamines
Increase heart rate and force of contraction

Essential for growth (permissive effect on GH)
Development of CNS
Metamorphosis in amphibians
7.5 Thyroid Gland
Hypothalamus
Thyroid gland
TRH
TSH
Anterior pituitary
Conversion of
thyroxine (+ GH)
into triiodothyronine
(a)
1 day
(b)
8 days 21 days 27 days
30 days
40 days
Figure 7-18 p302
7.5 Thyroid Gland

Regulation of thyroid hormone secretion
Negative feedback loop involving
hypothalamus-pituitary-thyroid axis
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) stimulates
almost every step of thyroid hormone synthesis and
secretion
Hypothalamic thyrotropin-releasing hormone
(TRH) stimulates TSH secretion by thyrotropes in
anterior pituitary
Elevated T3 and T4 levels inhibit TSH secretion
Other factors affecting thyroid hormone secretion

Stress inhibits TSH secretion
Cold stimulates TSH secretion (infants)
7.5 Thyroid Gland
Stress
Cold in
infants
Hypothalamus
Thyrotropin-releasing
hormone (TRH)
Anterior pituitary
Thyroid-stimulating
hormone (TSH)
Thyroid gland
Thyroid hormone
(T3 and T4)
Metabolic rate and heat production;

enhancement of growth and CNS development;
enhancement of sympathetic activity
Figure 7-19 p303
7.5 Thyroid Gland

Abnormalities of thyroid function
Hypothyroidism -- low thyroid activity
Causes
Primary failure of thyroid gland or
Secondary to a deficiency of TSH (or TRH) or
Inadequate dietary supply of iodine
Symptoms stem from reduced metabolic activity

(e.g. weight gain, fatigue, poor tolerance of cold)
Hyperthyroidism -- elevated thyroid activity

Symptoms stem from increased metabolic activity
(e.g. weight loss, increased heart rate, anxiety)
7.6 Adrenal Glands

Adrenal glands are located above the kidneys
Outer adrenal cortex is composed of
steroidogenic cells of mesodermal origin
Inner adrenal medulla is composed of
chromaffin cells of neural crest origin
Steroidogenic and chromaffin tissues are
intermingled in most non-mammalian species
7.6 Adrenal Glands

Steroid hormones of the adrenal cortex
Derived from cholesterol
Modified by stepwise enzymatic reactions
Mineralocorticoids (e.g. aldosterone)

Influence mineral (electrolyte) balance
Produced in zona glomerulosa
Glucocorticoids (e.g. cortisol)
Role in metabolism of glucose, proteins and lipids

Produced in zona fasciculata
Sex steroids (e.g. dehydroepiandrosterone)
Androgenic (masculinizing) effects

Produced in zona fasciculata and zona reticularis
7.6 Adrenal Glands
Adrenal
cortex
Adrenal medulla
Adrenal gland
Kidney
(a) Location and gross structure of adrenal glands

Figure 7-20a p305
Mineralcorticoids
Connective tissue
capsule
Zona
glomerulosa
Zona
fasciculata
Cortex
Glucocorticoids
(sex hormones)
Zona
reticularis
Catecholamines
(b) Layers of adrenal cortex
Medulla
Figure 7-20b p305
7.6 Adrenal Glands
Cholesterol
Pregneneolone
17-Hydroxypregneneolone
Progesterone
17-Hydroxyprogesterone
Dehydroepiandrosterone
(adrenal cortex hormone)
Androstenedione
Estrone
(female sex hormone)
11-Deoxycorticosterone
Deoxycortisol
Mineralocorticoid
(adrenal cortex
hormone)
Estradiol
Androgens
(male sex hormones)
Corticosterone
Aldosterone
Testosterone
Cortisol
Estriol
Glucocorticoid
(adrenal cortex
hormone)
Estrogens
(female sex
hormones)
Figure 7-3 p272
7.6 Adrenal Glands

Effects of glucocorticoids
Metabolic effects -- increase blood glucose,
while reducing protein and fat stores
Permissive actions (e.g. permit catecholamines
to induce vasoconstriction)
Enhanced memory
Adaptation to long-term stress
Anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive
effects, especially at high doses
7.6 Adrenal Glands

Regulation of glucocorticoid secretion
Negative feedback loop involving
hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) stimulates
cortisol secretion
Hypothalamic corticotropin-releasing hormone
(CRH) stimulates ACTH secretion by corticotropes
in the anterior pituitary
Elevated glucocorticoid levels inhibit CRH and
ACTH secretion
Other factors affecting glucocorticoid secretion

Stress stimulates CRH secretion
Circadian rhythm
7.6 Adrenal Glands
Stress
Diurnal rhythm
Hypothalamus
Corticotropin-releasing
hormone (CRH)
Anterior pituitary
Adrenocorticotropic
hormone (ACTH)
Adrenal cortex
Cortisol
Metabolic fuels
and building blocks
available to help
resist stress
Blood glucose
(by stimulating
gluconeogenesis
and inhibiting glucose uptake)
Blood amino acids
(by stimulating protein
degradation)
Blood fatty acids
(by stimulating lipolysis)
Figure 7-21 p307
7.6 Adrenal Glands

Abnormalities of adrenocortical function
Cushings syndrome -- excessive cortisol secretion
Most common cause -- overstimulation by excess ACTH
Consequences of excessive gluconeogenesis
High blood glucose and protein loss
Redistribution of fat in humans and dogs
Addisons disease (primary adrenocortical

insufficiency) -- deficiency of adrenal steroids
Most common cause -- autoimmune destruction of the
adrenal cortex
Aldosterone deficiency can be fatal
Cortisol deficiency causes poor response to stress,
hypoglycemia, and lack of permissive actions
7.6 Adrenal Glands

Chromaffin cells in the adrenal medulla are
modified postganglionic sympathetic neurons.
Secrete norepinephrine (NE) and epinephrine
(ratio varies between species)
Both are catecholamines derived from tyrosine
Most synthetic steps take place in cytoplasm
Stored in chromaffin granules
Secretion is by exocytosis (similar to
neurotransmitter secretion)
Secretion is stimulated by the sympathetic
system (e.g. during fear or stress)
7.6 Adrenal Glands

Effects of adrenal catecholamines
Increased cardiac output and arterial blood
pressure
Vasodilation of coronary and skeletal-muscle
arterioles
Dilation of respiratory airways
Inhibition of digestive activity
Mobilization of stored carbohydrates and fat
CNS arousal
Sweating
Dilation of pupils and flattening of lens
7.6 Adrenal Glands

Multifaceted stress response is
coordinated by the hypothalamus
Hypothalamus receives input concerning
physical and emotional stressors
Activates sympathetic nervous system
Secretes CRH
Secretes vasopressin
Chronic stress responses are detrimental

Breakdown of body structures
Reproductive failure
Increased susceptibility to disease
7.6 Adrenal Glands
7.7 Endocrine Control of Fuel Metabolism

in Vertebrates
Metabolism refers to all chemical

reactions that occur within body cells.
Anabolism -- synthesis of larger organic
molecules from smaller subunits
Requires energy in the form of ATP

Manufacture of molecules needed by the cell
Storage of nutrients
Catabolism -- breakdown of organic

molecules into smaller subunits
Hydrolysis of large organic macromolecules

Oxidation of smaller molecules (e.g. glucose)
to release energy for ATP production

in Vertebrates

in Vertebrates
Regulation of metabolic fuels

Dietary intake is usually intermittent
Absorptive state
After a meal
Glucose is plentiful and used as the major energy
source
Excess nutrients are stored as glycogen or
triglycerides
Postabsorptive state
Between meals (fasting)

Endogenous energy stores are mobilized to provide
energy
Fatty acids are the major energy source for most
tissues

in Vertebrates
Pancreas is composed of both exocrine and

endocrine tissues
Exocrine portion secretes digestive enzymes through
the pancreatic duct into the digestive tract lumen
Islets of Langerhans are integrators of endocrine
regulatory responses and secrete hormones
Pancreatic hormones are the dominant hormonal
regulators of glucose homeostasis
cells secrete insulin

cells secrete glucagon
D cells secrete somatostatin
F cells secrete pancreatic polypeptide

in Vertebrates
Effects of insulin
Lowers blood glucose and promotes storage of
carbohydrates
Facilitates glucose transport into most cells

Stimulates glycogenesis in skeletal muscle and liver
Inhibits glycogenolysis in liver
Inhibits gluconeogenesis in liver
Lowers blood fatty acids and promotes storage of

triglycerides
Stimulates production of fatty acids from glucose
Inhibits lipolysis
Lowers blood amino acids and enhances protein

synthesis
Promotes uptake of amino acids into cells

in Vertebrates
Factors that increase blood glucose
Factors that decrease blood glucose

Transport of glucose into cells:
For utilization for energy production
For storage
*as glycogen through glycogenesis
*as triglycerides
Glucose absorption from

digestive tract
Blood
glucose
Hepatic glucose production:
Through glycogenolysis
of stored glycogen
Through gluconeogenesis
Urinary excretion of glucose

(occurs only abnormally, when
blood glucose level becomes so
high it exceeds the reabsorptive
capacity of kidney tubules during
urine formation)
Figure 7-24 p317
ANIMATION: Hormones and glucose

metabolism


in Vertebrates
Regulation of insulin secretion

Direct negative-feedback system between
pancreatic cells and the blood glucose level
During absorption of a meal, insulin secretion
increases
Other factors that stimulate insulin secretion:

Increased blood amino acids
Gastrointestinal hormones -- glucoseindependent insulinotropic peptide (GIP),
glucagon-like peptide (GLP)
Increased parasympathetic activity

in Vertebrates
Gastrointestinal
hormones (incretins)
Blood glucose
concentration
Blood amino acid

concentration
Major control
Food intake
Parasympathetic
stimulation
Islet cells
Sympathetic stimulation
(and epinephrine)
Insulin secretion
Blood glucose
Blood fatty acids
Blood amino acids
Protein synthesis
Fuel storage
Figure 7-25 p319

in Vertebrates
Glucagon
Effects oppose those of insulin
Increases hepatic glucose production and raises
blood glucose levels
Promotes fat breakdown and inhibits triglyceride
synthesis, raising fatty acid levels in blood
Promotes protein breakdown in liver, but does not
affect muscle protein
Glucagon secretion is increased during the

postabsorptive state when blood glucose
levels are low

in Vertebrates
Blood glucose
cell
cell
Glucagon
Insulin
Blood glucose
to normal
Blood glucose
cell
cell
Glucagon
Insulin
Blood glucose
to normal
Figure 7-26 p321
Blood glucose
Blood glucose
a cell
b cell
a cell
b cell
Glucagon
Insulin
Glucagon
Insulin
Blood glucose
to normal
Blood glucose
to normal
Stepped Art
Figure 7-26 p321

in Vertebrates
Diabetes mellitus
Elevated blood glucose levels (hyperglycemia)
Glucose in the urine attracts water to cause
excessive urination
Type I (insulin-dependent) diabetes mellitus
Lack of insulin secretion by pancreatic cells

Requires administration of insulin
Type II (non-insulin-dependent) diabetes mellitus

Insulin levels are normal or elevated
Reduced sensitivity of target cells to insulin
7.8 Endocrine Control of Calcium Metabolism

in Vertebrates
Importance of calcium
In mammals, 99% of calcium (Ca2+) is stored in the
skeleton and teeth
Only free Ca2+ in plasma is biologically active and
subject to regulation
Both Ca2+ homeostasis and Ca2+ balance must be

regulated
Ca2+ plays a vital role in:
Neuromuscular excitability
Excitation-contraction coupling in cardiac and smooth
muscle
Stimulus-secretion coupling
Maintenance of tight junctions between cells
Clotting of blood

in Vertebrates
Parathyroid hormone (PTH)

Secreted by the parathyroid glands, located near the
thyroid gland
Essential for life
Raises plasma Ca2+ levels
Promotes transfer of Ca2+ from bone fluid into plasma

Promotes resorption of bone by osteoclasts
Increases reabsorption of Ca2+ in the kidneys
Indirectly increases Ca2+ absorption from the small
intestine by activating vitamin D
PTH secretion is increased in response to a fall in

plasma Ca2+ levels

in Vertebrates
Osteoblast
Osteocyte
Osteocytic
osteoblastic
bone
membrane
Osteoblast
Osteoclast
Mineralized
bone
Outer
surface
Blood vessel
Central canal
Canaliculi
Bone fluid
Lamellae
(a) Osteocyticosteoblastic bone membrane

Figure 7-30a p328
In canaliculi
Mineralized bone:
stable pool of Ca2+
In central canal
Bone fluid:
labile pool
of Ca2+
1
2
Fast exchange
Slow exchange
(Bone
dissolution)
Plasma
Ca2+
Ca2+
Osteocyticosteoblastic bone membrane

(formed by filmy cytoplasmic extensions of
interconnected osteocytes and osteoblasts)
(b) Fast and slow exchange of Ca2+ between bone and plasma
Figure 7-30b p328

in Vertebrates
Plasma Ca2+
Plasma Ca2+
Parathyroid glands
Thyroid C cells
PTH
Plasma Ca2+
Calcitonin
Plasma Ca2+
Figure 7-31 p328

in Vertebrates
Calcitonin
Produced by C cells of the mammalian thyroid
gland, ultimobranchial glands in birds, and
connective tissue sheets around the heart in fishes
Decreases plasma Ca2+ levels
Decreases transfer of Ca2+ from bone fluid into plasma
Decreases bone resorption by inhibiting activity of
osteoclasts
Ability to lower blood Ca2+ is especially important in
marine fishes because of Ca2+ in sea water
Calcitonin secretion is increased in response to an

increase in plasma Ca2+ levels

in Vertebrates
Vitamin D (cholecalciferol)
Produced in skin from 7-dehydrocholesterol
on exposure to sunlight
Can also be obtained in the diet
Activated by sequential alterations in the liver

and kidneys, forming 1,25-(OH)2-vitamin D3
(calcitriol)
Promotes Ca2+ absorption in the intestine
Increases sensitivity of bone to PTH

in Vertebrates
Precursor in skin (7dehydrocholesterol)
Dietary vitamin D
Sunlight
Vitamin D3
Hydroxyl group (OH)
Liver enzymes
25-OH-vitamin D3
Hydroxyl group
PTH
Plasma Ca2+
Kidney enzymes
Plasma PO43
1,25-(OH)2 -vitamin D3
(active vitamin D)
Promotes intestinal
absorption of Ca2+ and
PO43
Figure 7-32 p329

in Vertebrates
Relieves
Plasma Ca2+
Parathyroid
glands
PTH
Kidneys
Renal tubular
Ca2+ reabsorption
Enhances
responsiveness
of bone to PTH
Activation
of vitamin D
Bone
Mobilization of
Ca2+ from bone
Intestine
Urinary excretion
of Ca2+
Absorption of
Ca2+ in
intestine
Plasma Ca2+
Figure 7-33 p330

in Vertebrates
Disorders of Ca2+ metabolism

Hyperparathyroidism -- excess PTH
secretion
Bones, stones, and abdominal groans
Vitamin D deficiency
Impaired intestinal absorption of Ca2+

Demineralized bone is soft and deformed
Rickets in children; osteomalacia in adults
Excessive demands for Ca2+
Parturient paresis (milk fever) in dairy cattle

Egg laying in birds

CH 7

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Lauralee Sherwood

Kip McGilliard Eastern Illinois University

7.1 Introduction: Principles of Endocrinology

7.1 Introduction: Principles of Endocrinology

Derived from tyrosine

Derived from cholesterol

7.1 Introduction: Principles of Endocrinology

Synthesized as large precursor proteins,

Cholesterol is synthesized or obtained from diet

7.1 Introduction: Principles of Endocrinology

(female sex hormone)

Figure 7-3 p272

7.1 Introduction: Principles of Endocrinology

Steroid and thyroid hormones pass through the

Receptors inside the cell are transcription factors that

7.1 Introduction: Principles of Endocrinology

1 Free lipophilic hormone

diffuses though plasma

2 Hormone binds with

complex binds with

Figure 7-4 p274

7.1 Introduction: Principles of Endocrinology

When plasma hormone levels fall, hormone

Produce a sudden increase in hormone secretion in

Secretion of most hormones rhythmically fluctuates

7.1 Introduction: Principles of Endocrinology

7.1 Introduction: Principles of Endocrinology

Hypersecretion -- excessive secretion of a hormone

Endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs)

Human-made substances released into the environment

7.2 Nonvertebrate Endocrinology

Juvenile hormone (JH) is secreted by the

JH assures that larval characteristics are retained

Ecdysone in the absence of JH enables

7.2 Nonvertebrate Endocrinology

Changing blood concentrations of hormones

Figure 7-7 p280

7.3 Vertebrate Endocrinology:

ANIMATION: Major human endocrine

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7.3 Vertebrate Endocrinology:

Melatonin secretion increases up to 10-fold in

Seasonal changes in melatonin secretion

7.3 Vertebrate Endocrinology:

7.3 Vertebrate Endocrinology:

Pituitary gland (hypophysis)

Anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis)

Intermediate lobe (pars intermedia)

Absent in birds and cetaceans

7.3 Vertebrate Endocrinology:

(a) Relation of pituitary gland to hypothalamus

Figure 7-9b p285

7.3 Vertebrate Endocrinology:

7.3 Vertebrate Endocrinology:

Neurosecretory neurons have cell bodies in

Secretes vasopressin and oxytocin

7.3 Vertebrate Endocrinology:

Posterior pituitary hormones

Enhances retention of water by kidneys

7.3 Vertebrate Endocrinology:

Hypothalamic posteriorpituitary stalk

7.3 Vertebrate Endocrinology:

Stimulates growth and affects metabolism