Scientific Views of Creativity and Factors Affecting Its Growth

Scientific Views of Creativity and Factors Affecting Its Growth
Author(s): E. Paul Torrance

Reviewed work(s):
Source: Daedalus, Vol. 94, No. 3, Creativity and Learning (Summer, 1965), pp. 663-681
Published by: The MIT Press on behalf of American Academy of Arts & Sciences
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E.
PAUL
TORRANCE
Scientific Views
its Growth
Definitions
of Creativity
and Factors Affecting
of Creativity
If creativity
and its growth are to be viewed scientifically,

creativity
and
observation
in a way
be defined
that permits
objective
measurement
and is compatible with common and historical usage.
At the time I began a program of research concerned with factors
was unable to find such a definition
for
affecting creative growth, I
which
there was any sort of consensus.
are formulated
Some definitions
in terms of a product
(invention
and discovery,
for example);
others, in terms of a process, a kind of
new
or a set of conditions.
The production
of something
person,
or to the culture)
in almost all of
is included
(to the individual
these definitions.
Some writers have defined creativity as being dif
ferent from conformity
and as requiring non-habitual
rather than
habitual
Some specify
that creative
must
behavior.
contributions
be true, generalizable,
and surprising in view of what existed at the
time of the discovery.
Some scholars insist that the term "creative"
be reserved for very rare and particularized
kinds of ability, while
others apply the term to a general creative ability possessed
to some
all
individuals.
Others
have
healthy
degree by
essentially
suggested
that we think in terms of different
levels of creativity,
ranging from
simple expressive creativity, where skills and the quality of the prod
as in the spontaneous
uct are unimportant,
of children, to
drawings
a kind of
is
an
that
new
manifested
in
creativity
entirely
principle
or assumption
new
around which completely
flourish.
developments
On the basis of an analysis of the diverse ways of
cre
defining
and
what
I
a
consider
the
of
for keep
definition
ativity
requirements
a program
of research on factors
creative
in
ing
affecting
growth
as the process of
sensitive
to
context, I defined creativity
becoming
dis
deficiencies,
gaps in knowledge,
elements,
problems,
missing
and so on;
the
solu
for
harmonies,
identifying
difficulty;
searching
must
663

E. PAUL TORRANCE
about the deficien
tions, making
guesses, or formulating
hypotheses
these hypotheses
and possibly modifying
cies; testing and retesting
and retesting
the results. This
them; and finally communicating
a natural human process.
definition
describes
Strong human needs
are involved
at each
we sense some
or
If
stage.
incompleteness
are uncomfortable
want
tension
is
aroused.
and
to
We
disharmony,
are
relieve the tension. Since habitual ways of
inadequate,
behaving
we
and obvious
(but in
begin
trying to avoid the commonplace
solutions
and
correct)
by investigating,
diagnosing,
manipulating,
or
or
estimates.
Until
the
have
guesses
guesses
making
hypotheses
been tested, modified,
and retested, we are still uncomfortable.
The
we
our
is unrelieved,
tension
tell
until
of
dis
however,
somebody
covery.
It
this definition.
favoring
the kinds of abilities,
enables
operationally
defining
that facilitate or
characteristics
and
mental
personality
functioning,
an
the kinds
for specifying
inhibit the process. It provides
approach
of products
that result from the process, the kinds of persons who can
that
in the process,
and the conditions
engage most
successfully
also seems to be in harmony
facilitate
the process. The definition
in scientific,
with historical
usage and equally
literary,
applicable
Some
dis
and
scholars,
however,
dramatic,
creativity.
interpersonal
a few of their
review
I
shall
and
with
definition,
my
objections.
agree
on the
it does not
Ausubel1
grounds that
objects to the definition
as a
and sub
between
creativity
highly particularized
distinguish
of intellectual
constellation
and as a generalized
stantive capacity
traits. He states
and problem-solving
variables,
abilities, personality
of general creative abilities but
that he does not deny the existence
the essence of creativity. When
that such abilities do not constitute
in the creative process as
involved
one tries to spell out the abilities
refers to as "a generalized
I have defined it, he obtains what Ausubel
and
of intellectual
constellation
abilities,
variables,
personality
that this constellation
traits." This does not mean
problem-solving
constitutes
the essence of even the process as I have defined it. A high
as
of these abilities
fluency, flexibility,
(usually designated
degree
sense
and redefine )
and ability to
elaborate,
deficiencies,
originality,
a
in
that the possessor will behave
does not guarantee
highly creative
increases a person's
manner. A high level of these abilities, however,
that the validation
and I believe
of behaving
chances
creatively,
later support this contention.
studies to be summarized
for referring to crea
historical
is considerable
There
precedent
There
are many
us to
begin
other
reasons
for
664

Scientific Views of Creativity

as "a constellation
of general abilities,
rather than as a
and
traits,"
variables,
personality
problem-solving
scholars of the
and substantive
capacity. Numerous
particularized
a
as
of generalized
to creativity
constellation
past have referred
in particular ways depending
abilities that may be manifested
upon
or acuities,
For ex
and opportunity.
interests, sensory deficiencies
tive abilities
and tendencies
out that since Kant's Critique

in 1892 pointed
of
ample, Burnham
to
between
Pure Reason
it has been customary
reproduc
distinguish
There was a
tive imagination
and creative productive
imagination.
and
involved in remembering
that the mental
abilities
recognition
into
are different
from
those
information
play
brought
reproducing
new wholes.
It is
to produce
in recombining
impressions
original
as
saw creative
Burnham2
that
imagination
especially
interesting
as
in degree rather
but
limited by reproductive
varying
imagination
or memory
that
than in kind. It was the reproductive
imagination
that "all
to him. He also maintained
is particularized,
according
or creative
children, unless they be idiots, have productive
imagina
in some
tion
measure."
are also
that I have no right to use the term
objections3
as
"creative" outside such fields
art, music, and writing. Kreuter and
that the orientation
Kreuter
of my work has clearly been
charge
and
toward the recognition
of scientific creativity
and development
that even my definition
shows this concern. My research associates
There
theo
creative writers, philosophers,
we have
and
and
anthropologists,
logians, psychologists,
sociologists,
to the professional
contributed
literature in these and other fields.
In our experimental work, we have actually included more activities
creative dance, and creative music
related to art, creative writing,
I have talked with creative artists and
than to science. Whenever
are
to them when
in the
writers about what happens
they
engaged
creative process and how they guide the creative behavior
of their
as
I have given seems to fit their creativity
students, the definition
well as it does that of the creative scientist.
have
included
artists, musicians,
the early part of this century

a
content
of
non-particularized,
generally
for
asserted
that
free mental
"the
creativity.
Spearman,
example,
new
to
create
mind
of
human
the
power
content?by
transferring
new correlates?extends
its sphere
relations and thereby generating
to
sensuous
not only to representation
of ideas, but also
pre
fully
such as are given in ordinary seeing, hearing,
sentations,
touching,
and the Uke, of every one of us."4
Scientific
investigators
during
the concept
championed
665

E. PAUL TORRANCE
in connection
with
his
similar arguments
Simpson5 advanced
as the
creative
of creative
He
defined
ability
imagination.
to break away from the
initiative
that one manifests
by his power
usual sequence of thought. He believed
that we should be concerned
with
the
type of mind
synthetic
searching,
combining,
identifying
as I have, that we should add tests of creative thinking
and
argued,
out that intel
He pointed
tests of
ability to traditional
intelligence.
and do not
tests
kinds
abilities
call
for
of
Ugence
reproductive
that his
evaluate what he termed "a vital creative energy." Noting
a visual
to creative action,
test deals
stimulus
with
imagery
primarily
more
that some people would probably
respond
Simpson conceded
in his
an
that
He
to
stimulus.
argued, however,
auditory
creatively
to draw, but
test one gets an image of some object that he wishes
is involved in forming this image or
that the whole
thinking process
ex
He held that visual imagery usually
association
of neurograms.
and
personal,
imagery,
auditory
pands into scraps of kinesthesias,
or verbal references.
organic,
is that it does not
to my definition of creativity
Another objection
or
creative
and other
between
creativity
problem-solving
distinguish
that it equates
Some
have
maintained
of
types
problem-solving.
It is one of the limitations
of a brief
creativity with all thinking.
and that
that there must be implicit distinctions
verbal definition
can be made
a few distinctions
implicit in
explicit. Certainly
only
are
scholars
made
other
the
distinctions
definition
by
usually
my
creative
and
creative
between
Generally,
problem-solving.
thinking
as one special kind of problem-solving.
thinking has been treated
Shaw, and Simon state that problem-solving
Newell,
may be called
conditions
creative "to the extent that one or more of the following
are satisfied:
test
1. The product of the thinking

the thinker or for his culture
has novelty
).
in a
is unconventional,
thinking
or rejection of previously
modification
2. The
and value
sense
that
accepted
(either
for
it requires
ideas.
and persistence,
motivation
taking
thinking requires high
either over a considerable
span of time (continuously
place
or
) or at high intensity,
intermittently
3. The
so
was vague and undefined,
as
4. The problem
initially posed
the problem
itself."6
that part of the task was to formulate
666


Identifying Creative Ability
or Potential
that I have offered, it

the definition of creativity
If one accepts
creative
creative behavior,
to recognize
becomes
thinking
possible
test
non-test pro
and
and creative potential both through
abilities,
the
in large degree
it is done will depend
cedures. How
upon
to
do
reasons for
to recognize
creativity, who is attempting
wanting
are
resources
available. From the stand
so, and what professional
seem
to
it would
and
teacher
of
the
counselor,
important
point
in the way
that make a difference
those kinds of potential
recognize
reason for my interest
A
and
be
should
persons
major
taught
guided.
is that I
measures
of the creative
in developing
thinking abilities
can
one useful basis for mak
that such instruments
believe
provide
con
students. Since abilities
for different
different
ing instruction
some
and
to
the
basis
needs
at
of
least
extent,
motivations,
stitute,
creative
about a person's
frequently
thinking abilities
knowledge
for ways
of learning.
clues about differential
preferences
provides
of tests of creative
of the development
The history
thinking,
and the like is a long and interesting
creative imagination, originality,
one.7 Although
there has been a variety of promising
developments
over at least the past seventy-five
years, there has been
extending
so little sustained
interest and support for them that there is not yet
a standardized
on the market
battery of tests of creative
thinking.
to make available
has begun
Guilford8
few
the
years,
past
During
channels some of his tests of divergent
thinking,
through commercial
ladder these can
but it is not yet certain how low on the educational
for clues concerning
work
be extended. Drawing
upon Guilford's
and scoring criteria, my associates and I believe that
task dimensions
a
we can make available
we are
for ex
point where
approaching
use alternate batteries
tests for use from kindergarten
of
perimental
school.
through graduate
from the factor
These tests represent one rather sharp departure
tests
associates.
his
We
Guilford
and
made delib
type
by
developed
erate
test tasks that would

to construct
of the
be models
attempts
creative process, each
different kinds of thinking and each
involving
something unique to the batteries under development.
contributing
tasks are thus fairly complex and have features
of what we know about the nature of the creative
Test
use
thinking proc
and creative personalities.
products,
of the test tasks in these batteries,
description
re
and the results accruing
from their use would
esses, the qualities

Even a minimal
their objectives,
that make
of creative
667

E. PAUL TORRANCE
quire many times the space allotted to this paper. A brief description
of some of the test tasks, their administration,
and scoring, however,
should show how the tests are related to the definition already offered
and to the factors that affect creative growth.
One of the clearest and most straightforward
is found in
models
the Ask-and-Guess
Test of which
there are several forms. In all
forms, subjects are shown a picture
(Mother Goose prints for chil
dren and certain professional
similar to those used
groups, pictures
in the Thematic
Test
for
of boys
nurses, a picture
Apperception
so
a small business
for
and
and
salesmen,
forth)
given the
starting
:
series of instructions
following
The next three tasks will give you a chance to see how good you are at
asking questions to find out things that you do not know and in making
about
guesses
causes
possible
and
of
consequences
events.
at
Look
the
can you tell for sure? What do you

is happening? What
picture. What
need to know to understand what is happening, what caused it to happen,
and what wiU be the result?
are asked to dictate
their responses to an adult and
Young children
theirs. In the written
older children and adults are asked to write
are
for
the first of the three
instructions
the
version,
given
following
tasks:
this page, write out all
picture on the page before
need to know for sure what
be answered just by looking
On
of the questions you can think of about the

this one. Ask all of the questions you would
is happening. Do not ask questions that can
at the drawing.
five minutes,
subjects are given
:
task (Guessing Causes)
After
the
instructions
following
for
the second
In
the
spaces
below,
as
Ust
many
possible
causes
as you
can
of
the
action
shown in the picture. You may use things that might have happened
just before the event in the picture or something that happened a long
time
that made
ago
the
event
happen.
Make
as
many
as
guesses
you
can.
Do not be afraid to guess.

the following
instructions
another five minutes,
:
the third task (Guessing Consequences
)
After
are
given
for
In the spaces below, Ust as many possibiKties as you can of what might
as a result of what is
happen
taking place in the picture. You may use
or
that
afterwards
things
might happen right
things that might happen as
a result
afterwards
long
to guess.
be afraid
not
Do
The
what
he
in the
future.
Make
as
many
guesses
as
you
can.
to reveal the subject's ability to sense

first task is designed
at the picture
cannot find out from
and to ask
looking
668


that will enable him to fill in the gaps in his knowledge.
questions
to reveal the subject's ability
The second and third tasks are designed
cause and effect. The number
to formulate
concerning
hypotheses
a
one measure
of
of relevant responses produced
subject yields
by
or
in
of
number
ideational fluency. The number of shifts
thinking
one
of questions,
different categories
causes, or consequences
gives
measure
of these questions,
of flexibility. The statistical infrequency
or the extent to which
the response repre
causes, or consequences
or
sents a mental
from the obvious and commonplace
departure
leap
one measure
incor
detail and specificity
of
gives
originality. The
one measure
into
of
and
the
porated
questions
hypotheses
provide
to
elaborate.
ability
In another task, subjects are asked to produce unusual or pro
vocative questions
about common objects such as tin cans, cardboard
are
or
to ask questions
ice.
that lead to
boxes,
Subjects
encouraged
a
answers and that
arouse
and
of
different
interest
variety
might
in
others
the
curiosity
object.
concerning
The Product Improvement
Task calls for the production
of clever,
a
and
unusual
of
stuffed
animal
(for
ways
toy
interesting,
changing
a
or
so that it will
toy dog, monkey,
elephant,
example,
kangaroo)
be more interesting for children to play with. The Unusual Uses Test
calls for interesting and unusual uses of common objects such as tin
cans, cardboard boxes, and books. The Just Suppose Test presents
situation and asks him to "just sup
the subject with an improbable
and to think of all of the
situation
that
the
happened
pose"
things
occur as a result. The
that
situations
include
improbable
might
such things as:
it was raining all the rain
Just suppose when
drops stood still in
were
the air and wouldn't move?and
solid.
they
someone
a
in
and
got caught
Just suppose
big soap bubble
couldn't get out.
an
is accompanied
by
"Just Suppose"
interesting
drawing
situation.
the
improbable
depicting
Stories Test calls for writing
The Imaginative
stories
imaginative
some
and people
about animals
characteristic.
having
divergent
are asked to select from one of a set of ten titles such as:
Subjects
Each
The Flying Monkey.

The Lion That Won't
The Man Who
The Woman
Roar.
Cries.
Who
Can But Won
tTalk.
669

E. PAUL TORRANCE
The
Sounds and Images Test asks the subject to produce

imagi
a series of four
and original
images suggested
by each of
a familiar and
sound effects,
sound
ranging from
well-organized
effect to one
six
of
unrelated
rather
and
strange
consisting
relatively
series is presented
sounds. The four-sound
three times, and each
time the subject is asked to stretch his
further.
imagination
Each of the tasks is based on a rationale developed
from some
research finding concerning
the nature of the creative process,
the
or the conditions necessary
creative personality,
for creative achieve
ment. The tasks are
to involve as many different aspects of
designed
as
are evalu
verbal creative functioning
possible. Most of the tasks
ated for fluency
of
different
relevant
ideas),
(number
flexibility
of response),
(number of shifts in thinking or different
categories
that show
(number of statistically
responses
infrequent
originality
creative
and
elaboration
intellectual
of
different
(number
energy),
out the details of an idea ).
ideas used inworking
a
the
variety of figurai test tasks have been developed,
Although
consist of three tasks, each
to tap a
standardized
batteries
designed
different aspect of creative functioning.
The Picture Con
somewhat
the
struction Test is accompanied
instructions:
following
by
native
At the bottom of this page is a piece of colored paper in the form of a

curved shape. Think of a picture or an object in which this form would be
an important part. Then lift up the piece of colored paper and stick it
wherever you want it on the next page, just like you would a postage
stamp. Then add lines with pencil or crayon to make your picture.
no one else will think of. Keep adding new
Try to think of a picture that
ideas to your first idea to make it tell as interesting and as exciting a story
as
you
can.
When you have completed your picture, think up a name or title for it
and write it at the bottom of the page in the space provided. Make your
title as clever and unusual as possible. Use it to help tell your story.
This, as weU as the other two figurai tasks, can be administered
at all educational
to
levels from kindergarten
school and
graduate
a
is
to
to various occupational
It
which
task
groups.
kindergarteners
one which
can
sufficient encourage
provides
respond in groups and
to be useful with graduate
ment
to regression
students and other
as a tear
or
adults. In each battery a different
shape (such
drop
as
the
stimulus
is
used
object.
jeUy bean)
Test consists of
for the Figure Completion
The stimulus material
ten incomplete
is
instruc
and
the
by
figures
accompanied
following
tions:
670


some
By adding lines to figures on this and the next page, you can sketch
some picture or object
interesting objects or pictures. Again, try to think of
that no one else will think of. Try to make it tell as complete and as in
teresting a story as you can by adding to and building up your first idea.
Make up a title for each of your drawings and write it at the bottom of
each block next to the number of the figure.
The Repeated Closed Figures Test consists of two pages of closed
for
(circles, squares, triangles, and so on). The instructions
figures
the Circles version of this test are as follows:
In
see
ten minutes
how
many
or
objects
you
pictures
can make
from
the
circles below and on the next page. The circles should be the main part
of whatever you make. With pencil or crayon add lines to the circles to
complete
circles,
your
picture.
the
and outside
can
place
circles?wherever
marks
You
inside
you
the
to
want
your picture. Try to think of things that no one else will

as
as
many
can
you
story
as
or
different
you
in each
can.
pictures
one. Make
names
Add
or
objects
them
titles
as
tell
you
as
in the
can
and
complete
spaces
circles,
in order
on
the
to make
think of. Make
as
ideas
many
put
a
and as interesting
provided.
as
three different
triad of test tasks in a sense represents
or
creative
Incom
The
three
different
tendencies.
of
creativity
pects
task calls into play the tendency
toward structuring
plete Figures
in the be
create tension
and integrating.
The incomplete
figures
to
must
the
tension
make
holder who
mental
control this
long enough
to get away from the obvious
and commonplace.
leap necessary
to delay
closure
Failure
usually results in the premature
gratification
an obvious or commonplace
of the incomplete
response.
figures and
to
to "make the drawing
invitation
tell a story" is designed
The
in
and the further filling
of gaps. The Circles
motivate
elaboration
as other closed
as well
into play the
Test,
tasks,
figures
brings
create some
structure
to
in
toward
of
order
tendency
disruption
an
new. The repetition
a
stimulus
of
requires
ability to
thing
single
return to the same stimulus again and again and perceive
it in a
sets in motion
Test
different way. The Picture Construction
the
a
no
toward
for
that
has
definite
purpose
something
tendency
finding
and to elaborate
it in such a way
is
that the purpose
purpose
This
and their applications may take place in two

a
to discover
there
may be deliberate
(1)
major ways:
attempts
creative solution to a problem or (2) some discovery may occur and
sets out to see what
the discoverer
the discovery wiU solve.
problems
Test
the
Picture
Construction
the latter.
Theoretically,
symbolizes
achieved.
Discoveries
671

E. PAUL TORRANCE
tasks tend to discriminate
These
between
the good elaborators
and
the productive
a
num
thinkers.
Some
subjects produce
original
large
ber of very original ideas but fail to elaborate any of them very well;
some
them very
very few ideas of any kind but make
produce
or
a
elaborate
still
others
number
of very
"fancy";
produce
large
ideas
with
little
elaboration.
commonplace
it is seen that we have tried
to base the test
Thus,
deliberately
test
on the
the
and
stimuli,
tasks, instructions,
scoring procedures
best that we know from research about creativity.
The same test
at all educational
tasks, in most
instances, have been administered
or not chil
it possible
levels. This has made
to determine whether
dren and young people identified as "creative" behave in ways similar
to the ways
in which
eminent creative people of the past behaved
were
when
It also enables us to
children
and young people.
they
as
crea
or not adults identified
determine whether
today
relatively
in ways that can be called
tive on the basis of outside criteria behave
the evidence
has
"creative" on the basis of test scores. In general,
in spite of the complexities
been rather positive
introduced by prob
and the difficulties
of motivation,
unfavorable
of
conditions,
Much
of
studies.
this
evidence
has
well-controlled
been
conducting
in Guiding Creative Talent and in
Creative
summarized
Rewarding
here.
Behavior.9 Only the briefest review is possible
lems
In observational
studies,10 we found that children
scoring high
on tests of creative
a
thinking initiated
larger number of ideas, pro
duced more original ideas, and gave more explanations
of the work
their
creative
less
science
than
unfamiliar
did
of
peers when
toys
ings
in five-person
matched
for intelligence,
sex,
groups. When
placed
in
most
creative
the
children
and
race,
teacher,
forty-six classrooms
than their controls had
from grades one through six more frequently
wild
fantastic
for
and
ideas, produced
reputations
drawings
having
and other products
judged to be original, and produced work char
acterized
by humor,
playfulness,
relative
lack of rigidity,
and relaxa
tion.Weisberg and Springer11 studied a sample of gifted (high IQ)

the lower
pupils. In comparison with those who made
fourth-grade
the higher scores were rated significantly
test scores those who made
ease of
on
early recall of life experi
strength of self-image,
higher
of Oedipal
ences, humor, availability
anxiety, and even ego develop
toward
Ink Blots, they showed a tendency
ment. On the Rorschach
and
fanciful
and
unreal
unconventional
responses,
percepts,
imagi
was described
as
native treatment of the blots. Their performance
more
than
that
their
of
sensitive and more
both
independent
being
672


less creative
children, Fleming
peers. Among
sixth-grade
between
traub12 found significant
relationships
negative
ures of
measures
and
and
flexibility
fluency,
originality,
.50 between
found correlations
of around
Yamamoto13
test scores and a composite measure
of originality based
writings.
Studies
and Wein
the meas
of rigidity.
creativity
on creative
In my own
adults have also been encouraging.
that those who
classes, I have found rather consistently
graduate
achieve high scores on the tests of creative thinking develop original
ideas in the content area of the course and make more creative ap
with
of knowledge
than do their less creative peers. Hansen
plications
and I found that the more creative business education
teachers asked
more
more
and more
questions,
provocative
questions,
self-involving
a num
ones than their less creative peers. Hansen
found
divergent
significant differences between her high and low creative
that the more creative
teachers, as identified by
teachers,
showing
as
in
the tests, behaved more
the
classroom
creatively
judged by
detailed
Blockhus14
classroom observations.
found that the students
creative
of the more
showed more
business
education
teachers
a semester than did the
in
growth
pupils of the
originality
during
less creative ones. Sommers15 found that students carefully identified
industrial arts instructors as creative scored significantly
by college
on the tests of creative
higher
thinking than did their less creative
in the upper third
that
saleswomen
found
Wallace16
peers.
ranking
on sales in a
on
store
scored
large department
significantly
higher
tests of creative
in
than did their peers
the lower
thinking
ranking
third. He also found that the more creative women
had tended to
to those departments
as re
gravitate
judged by personnel managers
more
also found
that measures
of
creativity. Wallace17
quiring
ber of other
and fluency differentiated

the several echelons of person
originality
nel in a large national sales organization.
The measures
of flexibility
and elaboration
failed to differentiate
the highest
echelon of sales
executives
from the lower groups
but differentiated
within
the
various lower levels.
Some studies have shown that the measures
described herein are
to various kinds of school achievement,
related
while
positively
are unrelated
others have shown that such measures
or
negatively
related to measures
of school achievement.
A careful examination
of
these
studies
and methods
tive
of assessing
school achievement
suggests that methods
of instruction may both be important factors in crea
growth.
673

E. PAUL TORRANCE
set of correlation
for
coefficients
found the following
Bentley18
four different measures
in a
110
class
of
of achievement
graduate
students in educational
of crea
and a composite measure
psychology
tests and
tive thinking
on a battery of the Minnesota
based
ability
the Miller
Test, an instrument commonly used in graduate
Analogies
school admission procedures:
Achievement
Millers
Measure
Creativity
test) .03 .47
Recognition
(multiple-choice
Memory
(completion and short-answer test)
Productive Thinking
(creative applications)
Evaluation
and Judgment (decision making)
.11
.53
.38
.41
.37
.27
If one examines
the interaction
closely the research concerning
between
different kinds of abilities and different methods
of instruc
is obtained
tion, an interesting picture unfolds.19 When
knowledge
a measure
is a better
of mental
age or intelligence
by authority,
measures
than
achievement
of
of
predictor
fluency, and
originality,
in creative ways,
is
the like. When
for example
obtained
knowledge
measures
or
the
of
fluency,
by discovery
experimentation,
originality,
and the Uke seem to be better predictors
than scores on intelligence
tests. More wiU be said about these studies in the final section of
this paper.
Checklists
done on one's own, checklists

of creative
an inven
or
life
inventories,
achievements,
experience
biographical
a
and a
of
motivations,
checklist,
tory
personality
personal-social
measures
to
useful.
also
be
of
other
promise
non-aptitude
variety
results from such
have reported
Other
promising
investigators20
as
the
instruments
Interest
Vocational
well-known
Blank,
Strong's
the
of
Values,
Type
Study
Myers-Briggs
Allport-Vernon-Lindzey
the Barron-Welsh
the California
Indicator,
Inventory,
Psychological
in
Art Scale, the Thematic
Test, and biographical
Apperception
of activities
ventories.
crea
not be dependent
upon tests for identifying
even
them
tive potential
among students,
though tests may make
Non-test
aware of
would
that
missed.
otherwise
be
potentialities
activities
and
indicators may be obtained both in regular classroom
to evoke crea
situations especially
classroom
designed
by creating
these non
tive behavior. A great variety of suggestions
concerning
and others.
test indicators has been offered by Taylor,21 Torrance,22
One cannot identify even outstanding
jumping ability if he depends
to
individuals
how
observations
of
just happen
high
solely upon
In order to identify persons of outstand
activities.
in
ordinary
jump
Educators
need
674


and/or
ing jumping ability, one must create situations that motivate
seems appropriate
the
The
regarding
require
jumping.
analogy
identification
of creative talent.
Factors Affecting Creative Growth

that we do not yet know enough about the fac
Many
complain
tors
In my opinion, we have known enough
creative
affecting
growth.
about these factors since the time of Socrates and Plato to do a far
than is commonly
better
education
done. Socrates
job of creative
and to en
knew that it was important to ask provocative
questions
was
not
it
He
that
knew
of
natural
ways
courage
enough
learning.
to ask questions
of what has been
that call only for the reproduction
learned. He knew that thinking is a skill that is developed
through
to ask questions
that require the
and that it is important
practice
evaluate it, produce
learner to do something with what he learns?to
new ideas from it, and recombine
it in new ways. Plato knew that
in a country will be cultivated
there." He knew that
"what is honored
to be aware of the potentialities
it was important for educators
of
are
a dis
discovered
under
students and that potentialities
rarely
harsh and coercive. He said, "Do not train
cipline that is excessively
or harshness; but direct them to it
boys to learning by force
by what
so that you may be the better able to discover
amuses their minds,
with accuracy
the peculiar bent of the genius of each."
Some readers may wonder why I have chosen to place so much
on the identification
of creative potentiality
and the meas
emphasis
urement
I have called the creative
of what
Sci
thinking abilities.
entific studies of factors that affect creative growth require meas
and the rationale
of the test tasks, test task instructions,
urement,
of assessing or scoring test responses helps to elaborate
and methods
a wealth
and provides
of creativity
of clues concern
my definition
assess creative
that
More
the
factors
ing
important, how
growth.
a
must
is
conviction
that
teacher
the
creative
ever,
usually recognize
in a child or young person before he is
to
potentiality
permit
willing
or creative way. On one occasion,
him to learn in a non-habitual
I
asked a class of two hundred
students, including many experienced
some instance in which
or
teachers, to describe
they had permitted
a student to learn in a creative way and had then ob
encouraged
an
made
served that the experience
in the
important difference
of the student. Eighty-two
and behavior
achievement
per cent of
them were able to recall such an incident, and a content analysis of
showed that in eighty-six per cent of the incidents
their responses
675

E. PAUL TORRANCE
was crucial to the teacher's
the recognition
of a creative potentiality
or
to
such
encourage
permit
activity.
willingness
there are certainly many gaps in knowledge
concerning
Although
the factors that affect creative
there is a great variety of
growth,
research findings that give useful guidance.
It would
be impossible
I have collected
here even to list these findings.
about thirty related
Creative
studies conducted
and me in Rewarding
by my associates
in
Behavior:
Classroom
These
studies
Creativity.
Experiments
help
to delineate
the roles in creative growth of such factors as ways of
creative behavior
of
(for example, by being
respectful
rewarding
creative
and
of
unusual
and provocative
unusual
ideas),
questions
or attitudes
activities
and op
motivations
of the teacher, creative
differential
for practicing
skills in creative
thinking,
portunities
com
rewards for originality,
rewards for boys and girls, differential
creative
rather
than
critical
unevaluated
peer
practice,
petition,
about creative
discussions
evaluative
evaluated
produc
practice,
in homogeneous
and heterogeneous
tions, peer pressures
groups,
and
children and young people
evaluation,
helping
trouble-shooting
is also given to differences
in the
value their own ideas. Attention
as
characteristics
and
cultures
different
ways
encourage
discourage
creative
with
the
sociated
personality.
if these and other recent studies advance
I am asked frequently
us any further in the direction
of a more creative kind of education
even assert that
Education.
Some observers
than did Progressive
no
difference
between what I have called creative ways of
there is
Education.
Education
aroused
Progressive
learning and Progressive
reac
so much
and still engenders
such strong negative
controversy
is still used to condemn
Education
tions that the label of Progressive
innovations.
If one examines what we have
almost all educational
of the Progressive
learned during the ten years since the dissolution
in 1955, it should become
Association
evident
that it is
Education
for us to advance beyond the major precepts of Progressive
possible
the American
and to come closer to achieving
dream of
Education
a kind of education
that will give every child a chance to grow and
to achieve his potentialities.
but it may be said that Progressive
It is an oversimplification
six precepts:
rested its case on the following
Education
among children must be recognized.
learn best by doing and by having a vital interest in what
are
doing.
1. Individual
2. We
we
differences
676


of living experience
reconstruction
is a continuous
the four walls of the classroom.
that goes beyond
4. The classroom
should be a laboratory for democracy.
are important.
5. Social goals, as well as intellectual
goals,
6. A child must be taught to think critically rather than to accept
3. Education
blindly.23
On
the basis
the human mind
of what we have learned during recent years about

abilities and their de
and its functioning, mental
and ways
of
abilities
and the interaction
of mental
as
as
seem
far
valid
all
these
and
of
precepts
they
teaching,
learning
the
go, but they do not go far enough. Let us take, for example,
must
be
children
that
"individual
differences
recog
among
precept
cannot be of great help unless we know what
nized." This precept
are important
in individualizing
instruction
individual
differences
velopment,
in mental
individual
differences
functioning, motivation,
are
into
various
in
and personality
ways of learning.
brought
play
What we have learned during the past ten years has enabled us to
re
remove
some of the uncertainty
educational
experienced
by
searchers of the 1920's and 1930's.
in 1934
We need no longer be puzzled by McConnell's
finding
as measured
an
more
test
is
that mental
age
by
intelligence
highly
in second-grade
arithmetic when
related to achievement
taught by
than when
authoritative
identification
of
taught by the methods
and what
in
advocated
Educators. Hutchinson
by many Progressive
discovery
1963 in a study involving learning in junior-high-school
social studies
also found that, under traditional authoritarian
there is a
teaching,
correlation
mental
between
age and
statistically
significant positive
measures
achievement
but not between
of creative
thinking and
In experimental
conditions
achievement.
considerable
op
offering
in creative ways
for learning
the reverse was true. In
portunities
children using programed
another 1963 study involving fifth-grade
in language
and Massa
instruction
found significant
arts, Gotkin
measures
between
of
creative
relationships
negative
thinking and
A year earlier, Stolurow had found
cor
achievement.
higher positive
of originality
and achievement
relations between measures
than be
tween mental
with programed
materials
in
age and achievement
was
statistics.
The
mathematics
and
difference
that Gotkin
and
Massa
used programed
materials
and
little
gave
opportunity
leaps
Stolurow's
recting errors, while
that permitted
only tiny mental
for making,
and cor
identifying,
a
materials
programed
emphasized
677

E. PAUL TORRANCE
or
that builds specific but
trouble-shooting
hypothesizing
approach
to a stimulus.
associations
multiple
In 1964 MacDonald
and Raths found that
creative chil
highly
dren are more productive
on
are less creative
tasks
than
frustrating
children. Furthermore,
than their less
they enjoy such tasks more
are less
creative peers do. The least creative
children
productive
in open tasks, and the most
ones react less
to
creative
favorably
closed
tasks. Thus, pupils
of varying
levels of creative
thinking
to different kinds of curriculum
tasks and
ability react differently
are
possibly best taught by varying procedures.
come from our
To me, by far the most
exciting
insight that has
research
is that different kinds of children
learn best when
given
to learn in ways best suited to their motivations
and
opportunities
abilities. Whenever
teachers change their ways of teaching in signifi
a different
cant ways,
the stars or high
group of learners become
achievers. This advance has
for educating
implications
far-reaching
a
a
a
to
number
of
for
level
and
larger
people
higher
achieving
our
in
level
and
health
of
mental
higher
dignity
society.
the second precept
that "we learn best by doing and
Regarding
we
now
a vital interest in what we are
recognize
by having
doing,"
no
matter how in
that people do not learn automatically
by doing
terested they are. This type of learning requires sensitive and alert
Children must be taught the skills of in
and direction.
guidance
the con
and
research?the
spirit and skills of historiography,
quiry
research. Curiosity
and experimental
cepts and skills of descriptive
and creative needs are strong enough and universal
enough to make
creative ways of learning useful for all individuals, but creative ways
of learning should not be an exclusive way of learning for all chil
dren nor for any single child, even though he may prefer learning
in creative ways and learn little when we insist that he learn ex
clusively by authority.
the third precept
I see no real quarrel with
reconstruction
of living experience
continuous
From an
of the classroom."
the four walls
is a
that "education
and goes beyond
of the
understanding
to
that one thing must be permitted
creative process, we recognize
a
of
deal
lead to another. To accept such a precept
requires
great
courage on the part of the teacher. Both teachers and pupils have
of this "continuous
to learn to think in terms of possible consequences
the four walls
of the
beyond
living experiences
same threats to security arise when
schools accept
that the classroom
should be a labora
and fifth precepts
of
reconstruction
classroom."
the fourth
The
678


tory for democracy
are
and that social goals,
as well
as intellectual
goals,
important.
it seems
of many
From the accumulated
teachers,
experiences
becomes
clear that when these precepts are accepted,
alive,
learning
much creative behavior occurs, and there is cooperation with parents
of these
and action by them. It is also clear that the acceptance
can
and
to
the
teacher
the
of
be
very threatening
precepts
security
creative
calls not only for courage but for skills in group dynamics,
for coping with change and stress.
and strategies
problem-solving,
now
about these areas to
We have
accumulated
enough knowledge
more
than they were in the heyday
make these precepts
meaningful
of Progressive
Education.
are also
to understand
the inadequacies
of the
We
beginning
rather
sixth precept
that "a child must be taught to think critically
to be
than to accept blindly." We know now that it is not enough
able
to criticize
able
to
that students be
the ideas of others. It is necessary
to be critical of their own ideas,
their
ideas
of
own,
produce
and to use tests that keep them from deceiving
themselves. Further
of ideas it is some
more, we have learned that in the production
to suspend
times necessary
to avoid undue
temporarily
judgment
our
in
it is
After
ideas
have
accumulated,
interruptions
thinking.
to formulate
then necessary
criteria
for judging these ideas and
is to be used
in solv
If knowledge
decisions.
making
constructively
a constructive,
must
learner
the
have
ing problems
creatively,
though
not
toward information. He must be
attitude
uncritical,
altogether
to entertain and test the possibility
that the information may
willing
In two different
be true and useful.
I found that
experiments,24
students who assumed a constructive
rather than a critical attitude
toward available
information were able to produce a
larger number
creative
of
solutions and more original ones.
in educational
to make
We have made enough advances
thinking
a more
creative
kind of education
The major questions
possible.
us now are: "Will we choose to use these advances
in knowl
facing
we choose in time?" I believe we have
and
will
and
edge
thinking
reached a stage in history when we must make such a choice. In the
we have been able to survive with static
past,
goals and concepts.
we cannot survive ifwe insist on
so
that
is
occurring
rapidly
Change
in static terms. We must
the creative
accept
thinking and living
challenge.
679

E. PAUL TORRANCE
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York, 1963).
2. W.
H.
The Psychology
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Burnham,
Verbal Learning
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in the
Differences
(New
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3.
for
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17,
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Yamamoto,
A.
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Thinking:
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Doctoral
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681


Scientific Views of Creativity and Factors Affecting Its Growth

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Scientific Views of Creativity and Factors Affecting Its Growth

Author(s): E. Paul Torrance

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and Factors Affecting

and its growth are to be viewed scientifically,

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