BELIEF AND RITUAL IN THE

EDO TRADITIONAL RELIGION

by

MICHAEL ROBERT WELTON

B . A . , U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , 1964

A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE

REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF
MASTER OF ARTS

i n the Department
of
ANTHROPOLOGY AND SOCIOLOGY

We a c c e p t t h i s t h e s i s as conforming t o the
r e q u i r e d staiydard^

THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA

September, 1969

In p r e s e n t i n g
an a d v a n c e d
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of

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permission.

Department
The U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h
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shall

Columbia,

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r e f e r e n c e and
copying of

this

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or

for

that

Study.
thesis

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ABSTRACT

The p r i m a r y purpose o f t h i s study i s t o d e s c r i b e the Edo t r a d i t i o n a l

r e l i g i o u s system.
framework o f the
1.

Four assumptions u n d e r g i r d the g e n e r a l

theoretical

study.

That the d i v i n i t i e s are p e r s o n i f i e d b e i n g s c a p a b l e o f r e s p o n d i n g

to r i t u a l a c t i o n as w e l l as m a n i f e s t i n g themselves

2.

That the i n t e r a c t i o n between man and d i v i n i t y w i l l be

after

such r e l a t i o n s h i p s and o b l i g a t i o n s t h a t

social
3.

characterize

That i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h d i v i n i t y w i l l be r e l a t e d

to the

l e v e l s of s o c i a l s t r u c t u r a l

That the d i v i n i t y - t o - g r o u p c o o r d i n a t i o n w i l l
flicts

patterned

relations.

of g o a l s at d i f f e r e n t
4.

in culture.

and c o m p e t i t i o n w i t h i n the s o c i a l

attainment

reference.

reflect

the c o n -

structure.

I have f i r s t o f a l l sought t o determine what the Edo b e l i e f s

d i v i n i t y are,

i . e . what p e r s o n a l i z e d b e i n g s a r e b e l i e v e d to e x i s t i n the

'supernatural'

or

'extra-social' world.

c i t i n g o f statements from p r i e s t s
ties,

about

T h i s has been done through

and o t h e r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s

o f the

through an a n a l y s i s o f some myths and songs sung b e f o r e

o f 01okun and Ogun.

the

elidivini-

shrines

C l o s e l y r e l a t e d to the d i s c o v e r y o f how the Edo r e -

p r e s e n t t h e i r d i v i n i t i e s i s the q u e s t i o n o f how t h e s e d i v i n i t i e s are

b e l i e v e d to m a n i f e s t
b e l i e v e d t o be
p e r s o n a l i t y and

themselves

i n n a t u r e and c u l t u r e .

'personalized' entities,

For i f they

are

then they w i l l have i n t e l l i g e n c e ,

speech.

When the r e s e a r c h e r

studies

man and the d i v i n i t i e s , one o f h i s

the r i t u a l i n t e r a c t i o n a l p r o c e s s

between

i n t e r e s t s w i l l be to see how the man to

d i v i n i t y communication p r o c e s s p a r a l l e l s the p a t t e r n s o f i n t e r a c t i o n on
the s o c i a l l e v e l .

He w i l l a l s o be i n t e r e s t e d

i n what r e l a t i o n s h i p s

are between the g o a l s an i n d i v i d u a l i n the c u l t u r e pursues at the

l e v e l s of s o c i a l s t r u c t u r a l reference
the a t t a i n m e n t
is

of t h i s valued ends.

there

different

and the d i v i n i t i e s as i n s t r u m e n t s
F i n a l l y , we want to see whether

to

there

any r e l a t i o n s h i p between the r i t u a l i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h the d i v i n i t i e s and

the c o n f l i c t s and c o m p e t i t i o n w i t h i n the s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e .

a l i g n m e n t s i n the s o c i a l o r d e r are

If

structural

' m i r r o r e d ' i n man's r e l a t i o n s h i p to

d i v i n i t y i n A f r i c a n c u l t u r e s , then i t c o u l d be h y p o t h e s i z e d t h a t

changes

w i t h i n the s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e w i l l a l s o be r e f l e c t e d i n changed o r new r e l a t i o n s to o l d o r new d i v i n i t i e s .

The ' m u l t i p l e x ' meaning o f r i t u a l may be t a k e n f o r g r a n t e d .

Man's

' v e r t i c a l ' r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h d i v i n i t y cannot be i n t e r p r e t e d as a c u l t u r a l

isolate,

for b e l i e f

and r i t u a l i n t e r s e c t

the . s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l s t r u c t u r e

are r e l a t e d to the e c o l o g i c a l e n v i r o n m e n t .
as i t p e r t a i n s

to d i v i n i t y .

and

T h i s study i s l i m i t e d to r i t u a l

F o r example, I have not been a b l e to examine

r i t e s o f passage i n the Edo c u l t u r e .

I f I had I would have d i s c u s s e d

changes o f r o l e as i n v o l v i n g i n c o r p o r a t i o n i n t o new groups which u s u a l l y

have p e r s o n a l b e i n g s b e h i n d them who keep the group f l o u r i s h i n g o r weaken
it

i n response to breaches o f group norms.

T h e r e f o r e r i t e s o f passage

i n v o l v e r i t u a l i n o r d e r to b r i n g the new member under t h e i r c o n t r o l .

questions

I b r i n g t o the study o f r i t u a l are o f a d i f f e r e n t

The

order.

I have chosen t h r e e broad c a t e g o r i e s as o r g a n i z i n g d e v i c e s : the Edo

r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f D i v i n i t y ; The Edo m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f D i v i n i t y ; and the Edo
response to D i v i n i t y .
Edo,

A f t e r g i v i n g a b r i e f e t h n o g r a p h i c i n t r o d u c t i o n to

the

f o l l o w e d by an i n t r o d u c t i o n to the s t r u c t u r e o f the Edo cosmology, I

w i l l examine the main d i v i n i t i e s i n the Edo cosmology, and c o n c l u d e w i t h an

overview of the Edo religious system.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER

PAGE
Preface

vi

A Note on the Orthography

I

vii

INTRODUCTION TO AFRICAN TRADITIONAL BELIEF AND RITUAL

A General D e f i n i t i o n of R e l i g i o n

Themes i n A f r i c a n T r a d i t i o n a l B e l i e f ' a n d R i t u a l

Divinity in African Belief

R i t u a l i n A f r i c a n R e l i g i o u s Systems

27

I n t r o d u c t i o n to the Study o f the Edo T r a d i t i o n a l

R e l i g i o u s System
II

III

32

ETHNOGRAPHIC OUTLINE OF THE EDO

35

G e n e r a l I n t r o d u c t i o n to the Edo

36

M a i n F e a t u r e s o f the Economy

40

S o c i a l O r g a n i z a t i o n and P o l i t i c a l S t r u c t u r e

44

The L i f e C y c l e

58

THE STRUCTURE OF THE EDO COSMOLOGY

67

Introduction

67

C l a s s i f i c a t i o n and D e s c r i p t i o n o f the Edo D i v i n i t i e s

72

C l a s s i f i c a t i o n and D e s c r i p t i o n o f Some R e l i g i o u s and

Magical Practitioners
IV

93

OSANOBUA: THE SUPREME KING AND CREATOR OF ALL THINGS

The Edo R e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f Osanobua

97
97

Osanobua as He i s Represented

i n the Mythology

98

Osanobua as He i s Represented

i n the Osa-names

104

ii

CHAPTER

PAGE
The M a n i f e s t a t i o n o f Osanobua

107

P r e s e r v a t i o n o f the Edo V a l u e System

107

. Desperate C i r c u m s t a n c e s P a r t i c u l a r l y R e l a t e d to

the

B i r t h Process

109

H e a l t h and Harmony i n the Edo N a t i o n

The Edo response to Osanobua

113
.

The H o l y Aruosa as Response to Osanobua

V

115

OLOKUN: THE POWERFUL SON OF OSANOBUA

127

The Edo R e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f Olokun

128

01 okun as He i s Represented i n the Mythology

128

Olokun as He i s Represented by the ohenOlokun

129

Olokun as He i s Represented i n the Olokun Songs

130

The M a n i f e s t a t i o n o f Olokun

135

The Dream-Experience as a M a n i f e s t a t i o n o f Olokun

136

The

139

P o s s e s s i o n - E x p e r i e n c e as a M a n i f e s t a t i o n o f Olokun . .

D i v i n a t i o n as a M a n i f e s t a t i o n o f Olokun

142

The Event as a M a n i f e s t a t i o n o f Olokun

143

The Edo Response to Olokun

The

I n d i v i d u a l Approach to Olokun

The C u l t i c Approach to Olokun

VI

114

OGUN: THE ARBITER OF JUSTICE

The Edo R e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f Ogun

144
144
145
154
154

Ogun as He i s Represented i n the Mythology

154

Ogun as He i s Represented i n the Ogun songs

155

Ogun as He i s Represented by the OhenOgun

159

iii

CHAPTER

PAGE
The M a n i f e s t a t i o n o f Ogun
The Dream-Experience

163

as a M a n i f e s t a t i o n o f Ogun

The P o s s e s s i o n - E x p e r i e n c e

as a M a n i f e s t a t i o n o f Ogun . . . .

The Event as a M a n i f e s t a t i o n of Ogun

The Edo Response t o Ogun

VII

IX

164
170
170

S a c r i f i c e as Response to Ogun

172

Elements

178

i n the UgiOgun as Response to Ogun

ESU: THE DESTRUCTIVE ENEMY OF OSANOBUA AND MAN

The Edo R e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f Esu

VIII

163

180
180

Esu as He i s Represented i n the Mythology

180

Esu as He i s G e n e r a l l y Represented by the Edo

182

The M a n i f e s t a t i o n o f Esu

183

The Edo Response to Esu

184

THE ANCESTORS: SPIRITS OF THE DEPARTED

189

The E r h a

190

The Edo R e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f the Erha

190

The M a n i f e s t a t i o n 'of the Erha

191

The Eho F e s t i v a l as Response to the Erha

196

The Ed i o n

201

The Edo R e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f the Ed i o n

201

The M a n i f e s t a t i o n o f the Ed i o n

203

The Edo Response to the Ed i o n

203

THE. AZEN: BRIDGE BETWEEN AGBON AND ERIMWIN

The Edo R e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f the Azen
Characteristics

o f the Azen on the S o c i a l L e v e l

205
205
205

iv

CHAPTER

PAGE
Characteristics

o f the Azen as Erimwin Beings

207

The M a n i f e s t a t i o n o f the Azen

210

The Edo Response to the Azen

214

E H I : DESTINY IN THE EDO TRADITIONAL RELIGION

219

The Edo R e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f E h i

219

The M a n i f e s t a t i o n o f E h i

226

The Edo Response to E h i

XI

THE EDO RELIGION: AN OVERVIEW

226
230

D i v i n i t y i n the Edo R e l i g i o n

230

R i t u a l i n the Edo R e l i g i o n

232

BIBLIOGRAPHY

244

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Page
1.

The Edo Cosmology

69

2.

The Edo C y c l e o f Death

92

3.

Olokun S h r i n e

126

4.

Ogun S h r i n e and Ceremonial A r e a

164

5.

Incarnation of E h i

221

vi
PREFACE

I am g r a t e f u l to have been a b l e to conduct a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h

i n N i g e r i a w h i l e t e a c h i n g w i t h Canadian U n i v e r s i t y S e r v i c e O v e r s e a s .
weeks a f t e r

Two

I a r r i v e d i n the Mid-West S t a t e o f N i g e r i a i n September 1966,

r i o t s b r o k e out i n a number o f i m p o r t a n t n o r t h e r n c i t i e s i n c l u d i n g Kano,

Jos and Gusau.

These r i o t s were f o l l o w e d by a massive exodus o f

Igbos

back to the E a s t e r n Region and the i n e v i t a b l e a l i e n a t i o n o f the Igbo e l i t e .

The A b u r i t a l k s i n January 1967 d i d not a l l e v i a t e the Igbo l o s s e s and sense
of

injustice.

Four months l a t e r the E a s t e r n Region seceded from the

F e d e r a t i o n under the m i l i t a r y l e a d e r s h i p o f Odumegwu Ojukwu.

s u c c e s s f u l economic embargoes a g a i n s t B i a f r a ,

A f t e r un-

f i g h t i n g e r u p t e d on the

n o r t h e r n f r o n t near the u n i v e r s i t y town o f N s u k k a .

A l t h o u g h t h e r e was c o n s i d e r a b l e t e n s i o n i n the Mid-West I was a b l e
to c o n t i n u e my study o f the Edo t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o u s system w i t h o u t
ruption u n t i l Biafra

invaded the Mid-West i n August 1967 and o c c u p i e d the

c i t i e s o f B e n i n , Sapele and W a r r i .

I was evacuated by my o r g a n i z a t i o n

from B e n i n and p o s t e d to the f a r n o r t h at S o k o t o .

to r e t u r n to B e n i n i n A p r i l 1968 to f i l l
is

F o r t u n a t e l y I was a b l e

i n some gaps i n my r e s e a r c h .

i m p o r t a n t to keep i n mind t h a t t h i s study was not done on a f u l l

basis.

inter-

It

time

vii
A NOTE ON THE ORTHOGRAPHY

R. B r a d b u r y ' s orthography w i l l not be used i n t h i s w o r k .

i s no o f f i c i a l
is

There

agreement on an Edo orthography but I w i l l use one t h a t

g e n e r a l l y accepted by l i t e r a t e E d o .

Bradbury

Weiton

(Open e as i n g e t )

3 .

(Open o as i n g o t )

'v

( N a s a l i z a t i o n of vowel)

qh

gh

(Voiced v e l a r

X"

kh

(Unvoiced v e l a r

(Aspirated r)

(~h
\)

raw

fricative)
fricative)

(Bilabial fricative.

This

phoneme i s n a s a l i z e d when
p l a c e d n e x t to a n a s a l vowel)
The i n i t i a l 0 i n Oba i s an open o , but i t i s becoming q u i t e common to w r i t e
Oba w i t h o u t the d o t .

I have f o l l o w e d t h i s

procedure.

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION TO AFRICAN TRADITIONAL BELIEF AND RITUAL

A f r i c a n s t u d i e s have advanced to the stage where c e r t a i n t r u i s m s

r e g a r d i n g the r e l a t i o n s h i p between r e l i g i o n and the study o f c u l t u r e can
be made.

Among these we c o u l d i n c l u d e the f a c t t h a t myth and m y t h o l o -

g i c a l categories

d e f i n e a w o r l d - v i e w which i s r e f l e c t e d i n the

social

structure;

t h a t the most important r i t u a l s c e n t r e around b i r t h , puberty

and d e a t h .

The work o f the Oxford School ( E v a n s - P r i t c h a r d , L i e n h a r d t ,

M i d d l e t o n , H o r t o n , F o r t e s ) stands out from many o t h e r s

in their

willing-

ness to take p r i m i t i v e r e l i g i o u s systems at t h e i r face v a l u e : t h a t i s , as

s e r i o u s attempts to p r o v i d e a body o f t h e o r y w h i c h w i l l enable a man to
g a i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the w o r l d around him (Horton 1962: 2 1 5 ) .
G r i a u l e School o f F r e n c h a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s

The M a r c e l

( G r i a u l e 1954, 1965; D i e t e r l e n

1 9 6 5 ) , on the o t h e r hand, have been p r i m a r i l y o r i e n t e d to the r e c o r d i n g

of

i n f o r m a n t ' s statements to p o r t r a y the c o m p l e x i t y o f the symbolism and

i t s a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h every phase o f the l i f e and environment o f the

studied.

Both s c h o o l s take p r i m i t i v e r e l i g i o n s e r i o u s l y ; the

d i f f e r e n c e between these two s c h o o l s o f thought

s y m b o l i s t and l i t e r a l i s t a p p r o a c h e s .

peoples

fundamental

(Horton c a l l s them the

See H o r t o n 1962: 217ff)

i s that

the

' s y m b o l i s t s m a i n t a i n t h a t statements about gods and r i t e s devoted to them

are now r e a l l y what they seem to be: they r e a l l y r e f e r o b l i q u e l y to

events

i n the o b s e r v a b l e w o r l d o f those who use them, o r they " s y m b o l i z e " these

e v e n t s . . . F o r the l i t e r a l i s t s , t r e a t i n g the gods as mere symbols f o r

events

i n the everyday w o r l d denies what we know as a matter of o b s e r v a t i o n - - i . e .

- 2 -

t h a t f o r the people who b e l i e v e i n them, they are r e a l l y t h e r e .

"Literalists

1 1

The

see t h i s approach ( s y m b o l i s t ) as o b s c u r i n g some o f the most

important facts

about the g o d s .

T h u s , f o r t h e i r b e l i e v e r s , the gods

o f t e n f o r c e s from which they do t h i n k they can get a i d o f v a r i o u s

and f o r at l e a s t some people i n every s o c i e t y , they are v i t a l
partners

i n whom a g r e a t d e a l o f emotion c a p i t a l i s l o c k e d u p .

are

sorts;

social
Several

w e l l - k n o w n w r i t e r s have taken t h i s p o s i t i o n i n r e c e n t years.V/(Horton

1962:

217).

I.

A GENERAL DEFINITION OF RELIGION

A l t h o u g h t h e r e are numerous problems connected w i t h d e f i n i n g r e l i g i o n (See T i t i e v 1960, Goody 1961, S p i r o 1966, G e e r t z 1965 and H o r t o n
1 9 6 0 ) , every a n t h r o p o l o g i s t o p e r a t e s w i t h some c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n o f what
religion i s .

S i n c e my study o f the Edo r e l i g i o u s system has been h i g h l y

i n f l u e n c e d by the " l i t e r a l i s t " s c h o o l o f t h o u g h t ,

will

p a r t i c u l a r l y Horton, I

s e t out H o r t o n ' s approach to the problem o f d e f i n i t i o n

i n some d e t a i l .

H o r t o n (1960: 201-225) suggests t h a t t h e r e are t h r e e e s s e n t i a l

to the problem o f d e f i n i n g r e l i g i o n :
( i i ) r e l i g i o n refers

( i ) r e l i g i o n i s i m p o s s i b l e to d e f i n e ,

to a c l a s s o f m e t a p h o r i c a l statements o b l i q u e l y

d e n o t i n g s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s and c l a i m s to s o c i a l s t a t u s ,
g i o n i s the b e l i e f
first

approaches

in spirits.

( i i i ) and r e l i -

Nadel (1954: 7-8) i s an advocate o f the

approach which suggests t h a t because r e l i g i o n i s v e r y d i f f i c u l t

to

See, f o r example, E v a n s - P r i t c h a r d 1956; Goody 1961 and L i e n h a r d t

1956. L i e n h a r d t w r i t e s : ' T h i s , at l e a s t , i s not to deny to f o r e i g n gods
some s o r t o f r e a l e x i s t e n c e ; and t r i b a l peoples do indeed r e p r e s e n t t h e i r
gods to themselves as r e a l persons e x i s t i n g a p a r t from men, not as f i g ments o f human thought and f e e l i n g . '
(1956: 3 1 2 ) .

- 3 d e f i n e i t s h o u l d be l e f t u n d e f i n e d .

H o r t o n says t h a t i t i s n e c e s s a r y

to

s p e c i f y those v a r i a b l e s whose b e h a v i o u r we have to t r y to e x p l a i n ; i f n o t ,

it

i s p o s s i b l e to c a r r y on an e n d l e s s and e n t i r e l y b a r r e n argument

about

whether a g i v e n i t e m o f human b e h a v i o u r i s or i s not r e l i g i o u s (1960:

Leach r e p r e s e n t s the second t y p e .
belief

201).

H i s v i e w i s t h a t r i t u a l a c t i o n and

are a l i k e to be u n d e r s t o o d as forms o f s y m b o l i c statement about

social order.

Horton counters

t h i s argument by c i t i n g an example from the

K a l a h a r i c u l t u r e and the New Testament.

seen t o be u s i n g p r a y e r ,

the

He notes t h a t when ' a person

s a c r i f i c e , or p r o f e s s i o n o f b e l i e f

is

i n a god

merely to make a statement about s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s or about h i s own s t r u c t u r a l a l i g n m e n t , K a l a h a r i say t h a t the one concerned "does not r e a l l y
b e l i e v e " (1960: 2 0 3 ) .

And C h r i s t condemned the P h a r i s e e s

for using

g i o u s r i t u a l as a s t a t u s - s y m b o l and p o i n t e d to t h e i r a t t i t u d e
essence o f i r r e l i g i o n
the

(1960: 2 0 4 ) .

' r e l i g i o u s ' always d e f i n e the

It

the

Thus H o r t o n i s making the p o i n t

that

' r e l i g i o u s ' i n terms o f e x p e r i e n c e w i t h

d i v i n i t y , and not s i m p l y i n terms o f what they do on s o c i a l l y

occasions.

as

reli-

important

i s not hard to see t h a t t h i s approach to r e l i g i o n

the D u r k h e i m i a n , f o r as H o r t o n s t a t e s :

' D e f i n i n g r e l i g i o u s as

structural

symbolism comes to much the same t h i n g as d e f i n i n g the substance

i n terms o f i t s o c c a s i o n a l use as a f l a g :

counters

"linen"

the s y m b o l i c f u n c t i o n i s as

i n c i d e n t a l to the n a t u r e o f the f i r s t as i t i s to t h a t o f the second '

(1960:

204).
Tylor is representative

o f the l a s t g r o u p .

d e f i n e d r e l i g i o n i n i n t e l l e c t u a l i s t terms as the
natural

As i s w e l l - k n o w n , he
'belief

i n the

super-

(For c r i t i q u e s o f T y l o r ' s d e f i n i t i o n o f r e l i g i o n see L i e n h a r d t

1956 and E v a n s - P r i t c h a r d 1 9 6 5 ) .

N o t i n g the p o t e n t i a l dangers i n h e r e n t

in

such a d e f i n i t i o n , i . e . t h a t the s p i r i t s w i l l be thought o f as a c l a s s o f

objects
fic

c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a s p e c i f i c mode o f e x i s t e n c e o r i n terms o f s p e c i -

c o n d i t i o n s o f knowledge r e l e v a n t to the making o f t r u e statements

about them (Horton c i t e s d a t a from E v a n s - P r i t c h a r d ' s d i s c u s s i o n o f kwoth

2
(1956: 315-6) and h i s own d a t a from the K a l a h a r i ) ,

Horton

nevertheless

suggests t h a t w i t h some m o d i f i c a t i o n T y l o r ' s d e f i n i t i o n has some v a l u a b l e

applications.

' F o r the purposes

o f d e f i n i t i o n put forward h e r e ,

it

will

be assumed t h a t i n every s i t u a t i o n commonly l a b e l l e d r e l i g i o u s we are

d e a l i n g w i t h a c t i o n d i r e c t e d towards o b j e c t s which are b e l i e v e d to respond
i n terms o f c e r t a i n c a t e g o r i e s - - i n our own c u l t u r e those o f

purpose,

i n t e l l i g e n c e , and e m o t i o n - - w h i c h are a l s o the d i s t i n c t i v e c a t e g o r i e s

the d e s c r i p t i o n o f human a c t i o n .
us to say t h a t such o b j e c t s

The a p p l i c a t i o n o f these c a t e g o r i e s

are " p e r s o n i f i e d . "

human b e i n g s and r e l i g i o u s o b j e c t s

The r e l a t i o n s h i p s

can be f u r t h e r

In s h o r t ,

e x t e n s i o n o f the f i e l d o f p e o p l e s '
o f p u r e l y human s o c i e t y '

(1960:

What i s the u s e f u l n e s s

leads

between

d e f i n e d as governed by

c e r t a i n ideas o f p a t t e r n i n g and o b l i g a t i o n such as c h a r a c t e r i z e

s h i p s among human b e i n g s .

for

relation-

r e l i g i o n can be l o o k e d upon as an

s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s beyond the

confines

211).

o f such a d e f i n i t i o n ?
3

t h a t . . . ' t h e r e i s no "something e x t r a "

After

demonstrating

which d i s t i n g u i s h e s a l l r e l i g i o u s

2
Many o f the gods o f p r i m i t i v e peoples c o u l d be c i t e d as r e s e m b l i n g
the K a l a h a r i W a t e r - P e o p l e i n t h e i r t h o r o u g h - g o i n g m a t e r i a l i t y (See H o r t o n
1960:
205-6).
3
T h i s "something e x t r a " has been c a l l e d v a r i o u s t h i n g s : awe b e f o r e
r e l i g i o u s l y charged o b j e c t s (Marret 1914); the numinous (Otto 1 9 2 3 ) . D .
Forde commenting on M a r r e t ' s v i e w s t a t e s : 'He d i d n o t a p p r e c i a t e t h a t t h e i r
( o b j e c t s ) e v o c a t i v e power depended on t h e i r s y m b o l i c c h a r a c t e r , and was not
l e d to e x p l o r e the c u l t u r a l and s o c i a l c o n t e x t s o f the i n t a n g i b l e e n t i t i e s '
(1958: 4 ) . See V . T u r n e r ' s work (1967) f o r such an a n a l y s i s o f symbolism
i n i t s s o c i a l and c u l t u r a l c o n t e x t .

- 5 r e l a t i o n s h i p s from a l l s e c u l a r r e l a t i o n s h i p s '
that...'variables

(1960: 2 1 2 ) , H o r t o n s t a t e s

found u s e f u l i n the a n a l y s i s o f man-to-man

w i l l a l s o be found u s e f u l i n the a n a l y s i s o f man-to-god

(1960: 2 1 2 ) .

relationships

relationships'

F i r s t , the two p o l e s o f r e l a t i o n s h i p i n the sphere o f

p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s : pure communion and pure m a n i p u l a t i o n w i l l

p a r a l l e l e d i n the man-god r e l a t i o n s h i p .

inter-

be

Secondly, a theory of god-to-

group c o o r d i n a t i o n C ) r e p l a c i n g those d e r i v e d from Durkheim can be

elaborated

from the d e f i n i t i o n as f o l l o w s .

There are t h r e e b a s i c assump-

tions .
Assumption I :

The i n d i v i d u a l member o f any s o c i e t y pursues a g i v e n

goal with several different

levels of s o c i a l - s t r u c t u r a l

reference.

A member o f a g i v e n A f r i c a n community may a c t i v e l y pursue the

o f h e a l t h , w e a l t h and i n c r e a s e f o r the v i l l a g e as a w h o l e , f o r
descent-group

o f which he i s a member and f o r h i m s e l f as an

goals
the

indivi-

dual .

Assumption I I :

The r e l i g i o u s r e l a t i o n s h i p s

i n w h i c h the members

o f a s o c i e t y are i n v o l v e d f u n c t i o n as i n s t r u m e n t s
ment o f t h e i r v a r i o u s

Assumption I I I :
of

to the a c h i e v e -

goals.

In a s o c i e t y where the r e l a t i o n s between segments

the t o t a l group are markedly c o m p e t i t i v e , the f a c t t h a t a god

and i t s c u l t are seen as c o n t r i b u t i n g t o the member's g o a l s at

t o t a l group l e v e l o f r e f e r e n c e

i p s o f a c t o i m p l i e s t h a t they

the

cannot

be seen as c o n t r i b u t i n g t o the same g o a l s a t the next lower l e v e l

of reference,

i . e . t h a t o f the segments.

C o n v e r s e l y , where

- 6 -

r e l a t i o n s between segments o f a group are not markedly c o m p e t i t i v e ,

r e l e v a n c e o f a god to a member's g o a l s a t t h e i r t o t a l group
of reference

does not debar

level

i t from r e l e v a n c e to the same g o a l s

the segment l e v e l o f r e f e r e n c e

at

(Horton 1960: 2 1 3 - 4 ) .

T h i s approach to r e l i g i o n s h i f t s
anthropological notions of r e l i g i o n .

the emphasis from t r a d i t i o n a l

For M a l i n o w s k i (1948) r e l i g i o n was

r i t u a l a c t i o n o r i e n t e d to n o n - e m p i r i c a l ends whereas magic had as i t s end

some e m p i r i c a l l y d i s c o v e r a b l e g o a l , e g . b e t t e r c r o p s , r a i n , e t c .
w e l l - k n o w n , Durkheim (1961) i n t e r p r e t e d
e x p r e s s i o n s o f the common sentiments
the s o c i e t y .

As i s

s u p e r n a t u r a l e n t i t i e s as s y m b o l i c

t h a t s u s t a i n e d the c o l l e c t i v e l i f e o f

Durkheim c o n t r a s t e d r e l i g i o n w i t h magic by l i m i t i n g magic to

i n d i v i d u a l and i s o l a t i v e acts."*
However, i f a l a r g e p a r t o f r e l i g i o u s a c t i v i t y i s an attempt t o
persuade or c o n t r o l t h e s e p e r s o n i f i e d b e i n g s i n s i m i l a r ways as one would
c o n s t r a i n o r persuade a'.human b e i n g , then e i t h e r an i n d i v i d u a l or
t i v i t y c o u l d i n t e r a c t w i t h d i v i n i t y to a t t a i n p a r t i c u l a r e n d s .

collec-

It

is also

w o r t h n o t i n g t h a t e i t h e r r e l i g i o u s o r s e c u l a r means might be used to

any end i n any s o c i a l c o n t e x t .
magic i s d i f f e r e n t i a t e d

W i t h i n the framework o f t h i s s t u d y ,

from r e l i g i o n not i n terms o f an

attain
then,

individualistic

a c t h a v i n g an e m p i r i c a l l y d e f i n a b l e end as opposed to a c o l l e c t i v e a c t
h a v i n g a n o n - e m p i r i c a l l y d e f i n a b l e end but by the c r i t e r i o n t h a t

the

The K a l a h a r i , f o r example, are a c o m p e t i t i v e - t y p e s o c i e t y where

d i f f e r e n t segments o f the s o c i e t y have c u l t s d i s t i n c t from a l l o t h e r l e v e l s
i n the s y s t e m . The gods become human p a r t n e r s i n the c o m p e t i t i o n ; o r i f
what they want to do i n v o l v e s l i t t l e c o m p e t i t i o n , t h e i r w o r l d o f the gods
i s l i k e l y to be more concerned w i t h the c o l l e c t i v e w e l f a r e and harmony o f
a l l (Horton 1960: 2 1 5 ) .
~*See Ames 1963: 503-4 f o r a b r i e f
standing of r e l i g i o n .

a n a l y s i s o f Durkheim's under-

-7 m a g i c i a n does not conduct t r a n s a c t i o n s

w i t h p e r s o n i f i e d b e i n g s , but uses

' t h i n g s ' b e l i e v e d to have some i n n a t e

'power' to a c h i e v e e i t h e r e m p i r i c a l

or n o n - e m p i r i c a l ends.
stitute

T h i s i s not to say t h a t r e l i g i o n and magic c o n -

two c o n c e p t u a l s y s t e m s .

Most c u l t u r e s have u n i t a r y magico-

r e l i g i o u s systems r a t h e r than d i s t i n c t l y s e p a r a b l e

systems o f magic and

religion.

II.

THEMES I N AFRICAN TRADITIONAL BELIEF AND RITUAL

A.

DIVINITY IN AFRICAN BELIEF

1.

The One and the Many: The Problem S t a t e d

The fundamental

' p r o b l e m ' w i t h A f r i c a n cosmologies i s to

understand

how the one (God) and the many ( m y s t i c a l f o r c e s , g h o s t s ,

ancestors,

d i v i n i t i e s and f r e e d i v i n i t i e s ) can e x i s t f o r the a c t o r s

i n a non-contra-

dictory

clan

system.
I t has o f t e n been s a i d t h a t the H i g h God i n A f r i c a n r e l i g i o n s i s

an a b s t r a c t sky god who has been pushed back i n t o the f a r t h e s t

recesses

o f the u n i v e r s e and has l i t t l e to do w i t h man s i n c e h i s e s s e n t i a l

f u n c t i o n has been f u l f i l l e d .

T h i s n o t i o n t h a t A f r i c a n s do not w o r s h i p the

h i g h god i s a common theme i n the w r i t i n g s o f e a r l i e r e x p l o r e r s .

w r i t i n g i n The V o i c e o f A f r i c a

creative

(1912) s a i d :

Frobenius

'God i s n e i t h e r worshipped nor

c o n s i d e r e d i n any way but l e a d s an e n t i r e l y p l a t o n i c and m y t h o l o g i c a l

existence.'

Even G. P a r r i n d e r , w r i t i n g as r e c e n t l y as 1949 s a y s :

'The

Yoruba c a l l God O l o r u n . . . n o c u l t i s o f f e r e d H i m ' . . . a n d he goes on to

- 8d e s c r i b e Him a s . . . ' H i s Supreme but unworshipped God' ( P a r r i n d e r 1949: 2 6 ) .

S b e l t o n (1964) w r i t e s t h a t Europeans have o v e r e s t i m a t e d the e x t e n t o f t h i s
withdrawal.

He p o i n t s out t h a t God ^Ls worshipped r i t u a l i s t i c a l l y ;

He _is immanent i n l e s s e r d i v i n i t i e s ; t h a t He i s i n v o l v e d i n the

process o f emanating a l l t h i n g s which have a v i t a l
u l t i m a t e l y come from God ( S h e l t o n 1964: 5 3 ) .

force, for

continuous

forces

Countering O'Connell

S h e l t o n argues t h a t God, i n s o f a r as he i s s e p a r a t e d

that

(1962),

from the a f f a i r s o f

men, i s s e p a r a t e d not because he i s so pure but because he i s v a s t and

powerful--in fact,

i n c o m p r e h e n s i b l e (1964: 5 4 ) .

Yoruba o f Western N i g e r i a ,
God.

With reference

to

the

Idowu d i s p e l s the i d e a o f the w i t h d r a w n h i g h

A f t e r n o t i n g t h a t the o r i s h a ( l e s s e r gods) do seem to be predominant

i n Yoruba r e l i g i o n , he says t h a t the Yoruba do not e r e c t temples f o r

h i g h God: Olodumare.
o f such a t t r i b u t e s

the

'The Yoruba cannot c o n c e i v e i n what form the D e i t y

c o u l d be r e p r e s e n t e d

Idowu a l s o demonstrates

i n images'

(Idowu 1962: 1 4 1 ) .

t h a t the Yoruba do w o r s h i p Olodumare, not i n

temples but i n the open.

The w o r s h i p p e r makes a c i r c l e o f ashes o r w h i t e c h a l k ; w i t h i n the
c i r c l e , w h i c h i s a symbol o f e t e r n i t y , he pours a l i b a t i o n o f c o l d
w a t e r , and i n the c e n t r e he p l a c e s a k o l a - n u t on c o t t o n w o o l . He
then takes the k o l a - n u t , s p l i t s i t , and h o l d i n g the v a l v e s f i r m l y
between the h o l l o w o f h i s p a l m s , he s t r e t c h e s them up and prays to
Olodumare, o f f e r i n g the k o l a - n u t ; then he c a s t s the v a l v e s w i t h i n
the c i r c l e (Idowu 1962: 1 4 2 ) .
Idowu concludes by s t a t i n g t h a t Olodumare i s
one w i t h o u t whom n o t h i n g r e m a i n s '
c o n f i r m s Idowu's d a t a .
shows t h a t the
villagers

' v e r y r e a l to the Y o r u b a , as

(1962: 1 4 3 ) .

With reference

' H i g h God i s p r e s e n t

Shelton's material

(1965)

to the Igbo o f E a s t e r n N i g e r i a , he

i n the l i v e s o f NorthTTsukka Igbo

i n s o f a r as the v i l l a g e r s c o n s i s t e n t l y m a i n t a i n t h a t Chukwu

c r e a t e s and r e c a l l s the i n d i v i d u a l , the i n d i v i d u a l must possess

c h i to

- 9be a person and to be a l i v e (and c h i i s Chukwu w i t h i n the p e r s o n ) ,

and

t h a t the v i l l a g e r s c o n s i s t e n t l y p r a c t i s e d i r e c t w o r s h i p o f and s a c r i f i c e
to Chukwu.

Such w o r s h i p takes the s e v e r a l forms o f d a i l y p r a y e r s

c e d i n g the Arua ceremony, d a i l y p r a y e r s

at a household a l t a r ,

f e s t i v a l w o r s h i p , and i r r e g u l a r a l t h o u g h frequent
s a c r i f i c e to the H i g h God' (1965:

some p e o p l e s ,

'deus i n c e r t u s . '

18).

He i s worshipped r i t u a l l y , at

and has not withdrawn from the a f f a i r s

r u l e s and i n t e r v e n e s

l e a s t by

o f men, even i f he

the Nuer and the D i n k a , p r o v i d e e x c e l l e n t

e t h n o g r a p h i c m a t e r i a l f o r the e x p l o r a t i o n o f the r e l a t i o n s h i p

between

The D i n k a b e l i e v e i n a supreme b e i n g - - N h i a l i c ,

the C r e a t o r , who i s s u b s t a n t i a l l y
Moslem A l l a h .

'd'eus

through l e s s e r d i v i n i t i e s .

Two Sudanic c u l t u r e s ,

the one and the many.

annual

s u p p l i c a t i o n and

R e s e a r c h , t h e n , has shown t h a t the h i g h god i s n e i t h e r

o t i o s u s ' nor

pre-

i d e n t i c a l to the C h r i s t i a n God and

the

N h i a l i c i s one, y e t t h e r e are c l a n and f r e e d i v i n i t i e s ,

w i t h whom the D i n k a are concerned i n t h e i r p r a c t i c a l l i f e

the D i n k a may say ee N h i a l i c ,

' i t is divinity'

These d i v i n i t i e s and a n c e s t r a l
t h e i r whims d i c t a t e .

and o f whom

( L i e n h a r d t 1961: 5 6 ) .

s p i r i t s may p r o t e c t

or i n j u r e p e o p l e ,

as

D r . L i e n h a r d t e x p r e s s e s the p e c u l i a r u n i t y o f

N h i a l i c i n the f o l l o w i n g

terms:

D i v i n i t y i s m a n i f o l d as human e x p e r i e n c e i s m a n i f o l d and o f a
m a n i f o l d w o r l d . D i v i n i t y i s one as the s e l f ' s m a n i f o l d e x p e r i e n c e
i s u n i t e d and brought i n t o r e l a t i o n s h i p i n the e x p e r i e n c i n g s e l f .
The Powers are d i s t i n c t from each o t h e r , and from D i v i n i t y , as the
e x p e r i e n c e s they image are d i s t i n c t from each o t h e r and from the
t o t a l e x p e r i e n c e o f the w o r l d and the s e l f .

In h i s paper on 'The W i t h d r a w a l o f the H i g h God i n West A f r i c a n

R e l i g i o n : an Essay i n I n t e r p r e t a t i o n ' , O ' C o n n e l l argues t h a t p o l y t h e i s m
i s not a l a t e c o r r u p t i o n o f monotheism. He says t h a t t h i s v i e w tends to
c o n f i r m the m i s a p p r e h e n s i o n t h a t the gods were once at f o r e f r o n t i n an
e a r l i e r p e r i o d o f time (1962: 6 9 ) .

- 10 D i v i n i t y , t h e n , corresponds to e x p e r i e n c e common to a l l men,

and t o the D i n k a s ' r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t a s i n g l e human n a t u r e and
c o n d i t i o n embraces a l l . D i v i n i t y i s thus everywhere, and e v e r y where the same. The d i f f e r e n t names by w h i c h d i f f e r e n t peoples
know i t are m a t t e r s o n l y o f d i f f e r e n t l a n g u a g e s . . . D i v i n i t y
t h e r e f o r e t r a n s c e n d s the i n d i v i d u a l and s o c i a l d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n s
the D i n k a know, as they r e c o g n i z e them in.some ways to be t r a n s cended i n a fundamental u n i t y o f human n a t u r e (1961: 1 5 6 - 7 ) .
Noting that
ficulty
hardt

' t h i s u n i t y and m u l t i p l i c i t y o f D i v i n i t y causes no d i f -

i n the c o n t e x t o f D i n k a language and l i f e '

(1961: 5 6 ) ,

s t a t e s t h a t N h i a l i c u n i f i e s the d i v e r s i t i e s o f e x p e r i e n c e

p l a c e w i t h i n the D i n k a s e l f

in culture.

opposing or w a r r i n g p r i n c i p l e s for

though

The d i f f e r e n c e between M a r c a r d i t

and D i v i n i t y i s not i n t r i n s i c a l l y i n them but i n the human

they image.

taking

D i v i n i t y and M a c a r d i t are not

'Marcardit is also D i v i n i t y ,

D i v i n i t y i s not M a r c a r d i t ' (1961: 1 5 9 ) .

Lien-

experiences

Thus the f r e e - d i v i n i t i e s Deng, Abuk, and Garang c o r r e s p o n d

to f i e l d s o f e x p e r i e n c e w h i c h are s p e c i a l a s p e c t s o f the t o t a l to which

D i v i n i t y corresponds

(1961: 1 5 9 ) .

The Nuer i d e a o f god i s v e r y s i m i l a r t o the D i n k a ' s .

D i n k a , the p o l i t i c a l system i s amorphous and s e g m e n t a l .
D i n k a , the Nuer b e l i e v e i n one S p i r i t
multiple series of s p i r i t
and i s the w i l l f u l

their different

'refractions.'

'It

the

And l i k e

the

(Kwoth) as w e l l as a c o r r e s p o n d i n g
Kwoth i s l i k e n e d to the wind

c r e a t o r and mover o f a l l t h i n g s .

(1953: 201) notes t h a t :

Like

Evans-Pritchard

i s e v i d e n t t h a t Nuer d i s t i n g u i s h between

s p i r i t s . . . N u e r s a c r i f i c e t o one or o t h e r p a r t i c u l a r

a c c o r d i n g to the c i r c u m s t a n c e s . '

He goes on to say t h a t

' i t is equally

c l e a r t h a t we are d e a l i n g w i t h a s i n g l e c o n c e p t i o n , f o r a l l the
are,

as Kwoth, b e i n g s o f the same n a t u r e or e s s e n c e .

spirit

spirits

T h i s problem o f

u n i t y i n d i v e r s i t y c o n f r o n t s not o n l y the s t u d e n t o f Nuer r e l i g i o n ,

a l s o s t u d e n t s o f many o t h e r p r i m i t i v e r e l i g i o n s , and a l s o those o f

but

- 11 -

A n c i e n t E g y p t , the e a r l y S e m i t e s , A n c i e n t C h i n a , and the Greeks and

Latins'

(1953:

201).

E v a n s - P r i t c h a r d e x p l a i n s the apparent c o n t r a d i c t i o n i n Nuer b e l i e f

t h a t any p a r t i c u l a r s p i r i t i s Kwoth but Kwoth i s not any p a r t i c u l a r
He s u g g e s t s , l i k e L i e n h a r d t , t h a t the Nuer a r e n ' t c o n f u s e d ,

spirit.

and t h a t ' i f

we t h i n k o f the p a r t i c u l a r s p i r i t s as f i g u r e s or r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s or
fractions
persons,

o f God, o r S p i r i t , i n r e l a t i o n to p a r t i c u l a r a c t i v i t i e s ,
and g r o u p s . . . t h i s

i s what "they a r e " among the N u e r '

E v a n s - P r i t c h a r d a t t r i b u t e s the
t a r y n a t u r e o f the Nuer s o c i a l o r d e r . ^
h i s paper

'refractions'

reevents,

(1953:

o f S p i r i t to

segmen-

In an i l l u m i n a t i n g paragraph

'The Nuer C o n c e p t i o n o f S p i r i t i n i t s R e l a t i o n to the

O r d e r , ' E v a n s - P r i t c h a r d sums up the s t r u c t u r a l

202).

in

Social

d i m e n s i o n o f Kwoth.

At one end S p i r i t i s thought o f i n r e l a t i o n t o man and the w o r l d

i n g e n e r a l , as omnipresent God. Then i t i s thought o f i n r e l a t i o n
t o a v a r i e t y o f s o c i a l groups and a c t i v i t i e s and t o p e r s o n s : to
p o l i t i c a l movements connected w i t h p r o p h e t s , and i n a s p e c i a l r e l a t i o n to w a r f a r e , as s p i r i t s o f the a i r ; to d e s c e n t groups as c o l w i c
and t o t e m i c and t o t e m i c - l i k e s p i r i t s . A t the o t h e r end i t i s conc e i v e d o f more o r l e s s i n r e l a t i o n to i n d i v i d u a l s i n a p r i v a t e
c a p a c i t y as n a t u r e s p r i t e s and f e t i s h e s .
God f i g u r e d as the common
f a t h e r and the c r e a t o r i s p a t r o n o f a l l men; f i g u r e d i n s p i r i t s o f
the a i r he i s p a t r o n o f p o l i t i c a l l e a d e r s ; f i g u r e d i n c o l w i c and
t o t e m i c s p i r i t s he i s p a t r o n o f l i n e a g e s and f a m i l i e s ; and f i g u r e d
i n n a t u r e s p r i t e s and f e t i s h e s he i s p a t r o n o f i n d i v i d u a l s (1953:
211).
Summing u p , every l e v e l o f Nuer t h e o r y f e a t u r e s the concept o f S p i r i t .
A t lower l e v e l s the concept

is

'refracted'

by v a r i o u s a s p e c t s o f

o b s e r v a b l e w o r l d , and thereby a c q u i r e s a v a r i e t y o f s u b s i d i a r y

the

attributes

I t i s n o t suggested t h a t the Nuer see t h e i r r e l i g i o n i n t h i s s o r t

o f way. N e v e r t h e l e s s , though they do not r e l a t e what we c a l l the concept i o n o f s p i r i t to what we c a l l the s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e , the s t r u c t u r a l conf i g u r a t i o n we a b s t r a c t by t h i s p r o c e s s i s o f the same d e s i g n as the symb o l i c c o n f i g u r a t i o n s i n w h i c h they t h i n k o f t h e i r v a r i o u s k u t h ' (1953:
212).

- 12 w h i c h the a n t h r o p o l o g i s t can i n t e r p r e t by r e f e r e n c e
social structure,

e c o l o g y , and so o n .

to f e a t u r e s

A t the h i g h e s t

o f Nuer

level--'unrefracted'

S p i r i t t h e concept emerges untrammelled by t h i s pure c o n c e p t .

p r o g r e s s i v e d e m a t e r i a l i z a t i o n towards Pure S p i r i t o c c u r s because

This
successive

l e v e l s o f Nuer t h e o r y are committed to e x p l a i n i n g more and more i n terms

o f l e s s and l e s s

(See H o r t o n 1962: 2 1 6 ) .

When we s h i f t our focus to the West A f r i c a n r e l i g i o u s scene,

concept o f the

'one and the many' does not appear to be as

the

unified

as

t h a t o f the Nuer and D i n k a , i . e . the c o n c e p t i o n o f S p i r i t i s not s i m p l y

b r o k e n up by the r e f r a c t i n g s u r f a c e s o f n a t u r e ,
of h i s t o r i c a l e x p e r i e n c e .

o f s o c i e t y o f c u l t u r e , and

When S p i r i t i n Nuer and Dinka b e l i e f

i n t o the c u l t u r a l p r i s m , i t i s r e f r a c t e d

i n t o i t s component p a r t s w h i l e

r e t a i n i n g i t s e s s e n t i a l u n i t y o f oneness.
i t i s as i f we were l o o k i n g at the

In many West A f r i c a n r e l i g i o n s ,

' l i g h t ' after

i t had passed through the

p r i s m and then making a statement about i t s n a t u r e .

' o n e ' , we see o n l y the

'many.'

passes

Rather than s e e i n g

As I see i t , West A f r i c a n r e l i g i o u s systems

( p a r t i c u l a r l y the systems o f the F o r e s t Kingdoms) make a c o n c e p t u a l d i s t i n c t i o n between God and d i v i n i t y : God i s , n o t any p a r t i c u l a r s p i r i t , even
though d i v i n i t y may r e c e i v e i t s v i t a l i t y from the h i g h god and f u r t h e r ,
c o o r d i n a t e d t o segments o f the s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e .

be

For example, the Edo o f

southwest N i g e r i a would not say t h a t Ogun=0sanobua, a l t h o u g h they would

say t h a t Osanobua and Ogun are members o f the same pantheon
the Dinka i d e n t i f y M a c a r d i t w i t h D i v i n i t y ) .
n a t u r e o f the

( C f . the way

L e t me t r y to i l l u s t r a t e

'one and the many' i n t h r e e West A f r i c a n r e l i g i o u s systems

t h a t are not s e g m e n t a l , amorphous, n o n - h i e r a r c h i c a l l y s t r u c t u r e d

cally .

the

politi-

- 13 The A s h a n t i o f Ghana are w e l l - k n o w n through the w r i t i n g s o f

R a t t r a y and E . Smith and i n r e c e n t y e a r s , K . B u s i a .
that

' t h e r e i s the Great S p i r i t ,

The A s h a n t i b e l i e v e

the Supreme B e i n g , who c r e a t e d

all

t h i n g s , and who m a n i f e s t s h i s power through a pantheon o f gods; below

t h e s e are l e s s e r

s p i r i t s which animate t r e e s , a n i m a l s , o r charms; and

then t h e r e are the e v e r - p r e s e n t

s p i r i t s o f the a n c e s t o r s

(nsamanafo)

whose c o n t a c t w i t h the l i f e o f man on the e a r t h b r i n g s the w o r l d o f

s p i r i t s so c l o s e to the l a n d o f the l i v i n g '

( B u s i a 1954: 1 9 1 ) .

the

The

A s h a n t i b e l i e v e t h a t every l i n e a g e i s p r o t e c t e d by i t s own a n c e s t o r s ,
a l t h o u g h i t i s the dead r u l e r s , the a n c e s t o r s
guard and p r o t e c t
Ashanti chief

o f the r o y a l l i n e a g e ,

the whole t r i b e or c h i e f d o m .

that

As i s w e l l - k n o w n , the

i s the symbol o f the i d e n t i t y and c o n t i n u i t y o f the

tribe,

the s t o o l b e i n g the symbol o f h i s power (See B u s i a 1954: 2 0 0 - 2 0 5 ) .

The l e s s e r d i v i n i t i e s do not seem t o be

'refractions',

although

they do d e r i v e t h e i r power from the Supreme B e i n g who was b e l i e v e d to be

o r i g i n a l l y near.
servant

' A god i s but the mouthpiece o f the Supreme B e i n g , a

a c t i n g as i n t e r m e d i a r y between C r e a t o r and c r e a t u r e '

(1954:

I n A s h a n t i the most important d i v i n i t i e s are those t h a t are the

o f the r i v e r .

personality

(1954: 1 9 3 - 4 ) .

w i l l be examined

the

sometimes by d i s p l a c i n g h i s

The importance o f the a n c e s t o r s

i n Ashanti

later.

The Fon c o n c e p t i o n o f D i v i n i t y does not l e n d i t s e l f

simplication.

spirits

The gods a l s o r e q u i r e temporary abode and a p r i e s t ,

god sometimes s p e a k i n g through the p r i e s t ,

193).

e a s i l y to

In the Fon cosmology, the androgynous d i v i n i t y , Nana

B u l u k u , i s b e l i e v e d t o be the o r i g i n a t o r o f

'creative stuff.'

The d u a l

c r e a t o r , Mawu-Lisa i s the one who o r d e r e d the n a t u r a l w o r l d and the w o r l d

- 14 of man.

Mawu-Lisa are at the head o f the group o f sky-gods who are

offspring,

as are a l s o the o t h e r gods, o f e a r t h ,

and e t c .

(1954:

their

218).

The a c t u a l p r e s e r v a t i o n o f the w o r l d i s secured by the vodun, the o f f s p r i n g

o f Mawu-Lisa (1954: 2 2 2 ) .

The vodun each r u l e a p a r t i c u l a r domain.

example, Sakpata r u l e d the e a r t h ;

Sogbo the atmosphere.

d i v i s i o n w i t h i n each o f the domains o f the vodun (1954:

For

There was sub222).

I have a l r e a d y a l l u d e d to D r . Idowu's study o f Olodumare, God i n

Yoruba B e l i e f .

The Y o r u b a , as has been s t a t e d above, b e l i e v e i n the

e x i s t e n c e o f Olodumare who i s f i r s t above a l l d i v i n i t i e s (1962: 5 0 ) .

He

i s the D i s p o s e r Supreme to whom belongs the u l t i m a t e s a n c t i o n o f a n y t h i n g

p r o p o s e d , the acceptance o f any a c t o f w o r s h i p , the b l e s s i n g o f any e n t e r p r i s e , and the c r e d i t f o r the success o f any p r i e s t ' s m e d i a t i o n or p e r formance

(1962: 5 2 ) .

Y e t the c u l t s or w o r s h i p o f the o r i s h a ( l e s s e r

dominate i n the Yoruba r e l i g i o n .

of

gods)

Each o f these o r i s h a has i t s own sphere

i n f l u e n c e (Ogun, O r u n m i l a , Shango, e t c ) and a l l acknowledge Olodumare

as the u l t i m a t e

authority.

The Nuer and D i n k a r e l i g i o u s systems bear the

structure'

' i m p r e s s o f the

social

( E v a n s - P r i t c h a r d 1953: 2 1 1 ) , t h a t i s , t h e r e i s a r e l a t i o n s h i p

between the s t r u c t u r a l c o n f i g u r a t i o n o f d i v i n i t y and the s t r u c t u r a l conf i g u r a t i o n o f the s o c i a l o r d e r .

Students

o f the Fon c u l t u r e o f Dahomey

have shown t h a t the i d e n t i t y o f the d i v i n e and human p a t t e r n s o f o r g a n i z a t i o n i s seen a g a i n i n t h e i r h i e r a r c h i c a l and s p e c i a l i z e d

H e r s k o v i t s has o b s e r v e d :

character.

'Dahomean c u l t u r e s are based on c o n t r o l by an

o f f i c i a l d o m , w h i c h , under the monarch was o f an e s s e n t i a l l y h i e r a r c h i c a l

character

s i m i l a r to t h a t a s c r i b e d t o the g o d s ' and ' j u s t

as each p r i n c i p a l

c h i e f who governed a r e g i o n had minor c h i e f s under h i s d i r e c t i o n who were

-Irr e s p o n s i b l e to h i m , so each pantheon-head

has minor d e i t i e s under

c o n t r o l who are r e s p o n s i b l e to h i m ' (1938: 2 9 4 ) .

In a paper

his

in African

W o r l d s : S t u d i e s i n the C o s m o l o g i c a l Ideas and S o c i a l V a l u e s o f A f r i c a n

Peoples M e r c i e r has w r i t t e n :
There i s a remarkable correspondence between the government o f the
u n i v e r s e and t h a t o f human s o c i e t y , between the s t r u c t u r e o f the
w o r l d o f the gods and t h a t o f the w o r l d o f men. These two e s s e n t i a l
a s p e c t s o f the cosmogony are complementary and comparable: the k i n g ,
who s u s t a i n s s o c i e t y , i s n a t u r a l l y compared to the d i v i n i t i e s who
s u s t a i n the w o r l d (1954: 2 3 3 ) .
A l t h o u g h Idowu i s not a s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t he does show how the Yoruba
concept o f Olodumare p a r a l l e l s the s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e .

D r . Idowu says

the Yoruba by not g o i n g to Olodumare d i r e c t l y are r e f l e c t i n g t h e i r

that

social

pattern.
I n Yoruba e t i q u e t t e i t i s c o n s i d e r e d a t h i n g "not done", f o r a young
person to approach an e l d e r d i r e c t l y when he wants a s p e c i a l f a v o u r .
Even a son may not go d i r e c t l y to h i s f a t h e r to beg f o r a g r e a t f a v o u r ,
o r to a p o l o g i z e f o r an o f f e n c e . . . I t i s an o b s e r v a b l e f a c t t h a t i t i s
not the custom o f the Yoruba to t r e a t f a m i l i a r l y w i t h t h e i r k i n g . . .
For example, the O n i o f I l e - I f e i n consequence o f h i s s t a t u s , used
to be h e l d i n so much r e v e r e n c e , t h a t i t was u t t e r l y i m p o s s i b l e f o r
any except the v e r y few who were h i g h l y p r i v i l e g e d to b e h o l d h i s
face or the gates o f h i s p a l a c e . . . h i s v o i c e came to them through a
g r a d a t i o n o f c i v i c o f f i c e r s w i t h whom they were i n c l o s e touch through
t h e i r own ward o r f a m i l y heads (1962: 1 4 1 ) .
In sum, we have seen t h a t the c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n o f the
many' v a r i e s a c c o r d i n g to the n a t u r e o f the s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l

'one and the

structure.

A l t h o u g h t h i s does not enable us to s t a t e p r e c i s e l y what the n a t u r e o f

Spirit

i s , we do see how the i d e a o f S p i r i t takes v a r i o u s forms

ponding to departments o f s o c i a l l i f e

corres-

(See E v a n s - P r i t c h a r d 1953: 2 1 4 ) .

Nor f o r t h a t matter can the h i g h g o d ' s w i t h d r a w a l be e x p l a i n e d s o l e l y by

r e f e r r i n g to the s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e

as Idowu d o e s .

The Igbo o f s o u t h e a s t

N i g e r i a , f o r example, do not have a h i e r a r c h i c a l l y s t r u c t u r e d

political

system (See Uchendu 1965: 3 9 f f ) , y e t the h i g h god i s as remote from

- 16 their affairs

as the Yoruba o r A s h a n t i h i g h g o d .

However, Uchendu does

say t h a t :
The o r g a n i z a t i o n and power s t r u c t u r e o f these n a t u r e gods m i r r o r
Igbo s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e .
L i k e the l a t t e r , the n a t i v e gods are not
c o n c e i v e d o f as forming a h i e r a r c h i c a l pantheon.
There i s no
s e n i o r i t y o r a u t h o r i t y i m p l i e d i n the c o n c e p t i o n o f these minor
d e i t i e s (1965: 9 5 ) .
The Fon and Yoruba gods are d e f i n i t e l y p l a c e d i n a pantheon h a v i n g h i g h e r
and lower members.
In a t t e m p t i n g t o answer the q u e s t i o n o f why t h e r e i s a c o r r e s pondence between D i v i n i t y and the s o c i a l o r d e r ,
at l e a s t

t h r e e answers.

F i r s t , i n some c u l t u r e s

g o r i e s p r o v i d e a model f o r o r d e r i n g
the s t r u c t u r e
if

I think that there

are

the m y t h o l o g i c a l c a t e -

' r e a l i t y ' on the s o c i a l l e v e l .

g

o f the cosmology m i r r o r s t h a t o f the s o c i a l o r d e r .

L i e n h a r d t i s r i g h t when he s t a t e s t h a t

Thus
Secondly,

' t h e Powers may be understood

as images c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o complex and v a r i o u s c o m b i n a t i o n s o f Dinka

e x p e r i e n c e w h i c h are c o n t i n g e n t upon t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r s o c i a l and p h y s i c a l
environment'

(1961: 1 7 0 ) , then man's e x p e r i e n c e i n a h i e r a r c h i c a l l y s t r u c -

t u r e d s o c i a l o r d e r w i l l be m i r r o r e d (imaged) i n the D i v i n i t y - r e a l m .

This

might h e l p us e x p l a i n the d i f f e r e n c e between the N u e r / D i n k a and F o n / Y o r u b a /

Ashanti conceptualizations of D i v i n i t y .
D i v i n i t y i n i t s diverse manifestations
the s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e

And t h i r d l y , f o l l o w i n g H o r t o n ,
may be c o o r d i n a t e d to u n i t s

within

because r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h the e x t r a - s o c i a l w o r l d o f

D i v i n i t y p r o v i d e the o p p o r t u n i t y to a t t a i n p a r t i c u l a r g r o u p - o r i e n t e d ends
t h a t might be u n a t t a i n a b l e

through o t h e r

means.

See M . G r i a u l e 1954: 8 3 f f f o r a study o f the i n t r i c a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p between myth and s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n .

- 17 2.

C o s m o l o g i c a l Ideas Viewed as an E x p l a n a t o r y System

Recent s t u d i e s o f cosmologies ( M i d d l e t o n .
Lienhardt.

D i v i n i t y and E x p e r i e n c e ; F o r t e s .

Lugbara R e l i g i o n ;

Oedipus and Job i n West

A f r i c a n R e l i g i o n and H o r t o n . 'The ( K a l a h a r i W o r l d - V i e w : an O u t l i n e and

Interpretation')

show t h a t the gods o f a g i v e n c u l t u r e do form a scheme

which i n t e r p r e t s

the v a s t d i v e r s i t y o f everyday e x p e r i e n c e i n terms o f a

r e l a t i v e l y few k i n d s o f f o r c e s .

In M i d d l e t o n ' s work (See 1960: 230-70)

'we f i n d a t h e o r e t i c a l model i n w h i c h the a n c e s t o r s ,

o f the e s t a b l i s h e d o r d e r ,

embodying the

are i n b a l a n c e d o p p o s i t i o n to the adro

w h i c h embody the f o r c e s o f the e x t r a - s o c i a l '

forces

spirits

(Horton 1962: 2 1 5 - 6 ) .

Commenting on L i e n h a r d t ' s work on the D i n k a , H o r t o n suggests t h a t

the

Dinka w o r l d - v i e w . . . ' i s a system o f t h e o r y which attempts to p r o v i d e a

basis

f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g a v a s t number o f o b s e r v a t i o n s ,

between d i f f e r e n t

about

a s p e c t s o f s o c i e t y , r e l a t i o n s between the

relations
established

o r d e r and what i s e x t e r n a l to i t , r e l a t i o n s between the i n d i v i d u a l and

the group and so o n .

L i e n h a r d t l a y s p a r t i c u l a r emphasis on the way the

Dinka gods serve t o demonstrate the u n i t y which l i e s behind the

d i v e r s i t y o f the observed w o r l d .
model w h i c h enables

apparent

He shows how they form a t h e o r e t i c a l

the Dinka to see the v a r i o u s e v e n t u a l i t i e s o f the w o r l d

around them as due to the o p e r a t i o n o f a s m a l l number o f u n d e r l y i n g p r i n c i p l e s :in a f a i r l y

s i m p l e way' (Horton 1962: 2 1 5 ) .

The importance o f t h i s argument

are seen as r e f l e c t i n g the A f r i c a n ' s

i s t h a t A f r i c a n c o s m o l o g i c a l ideas

quest f o r meaning: he b u i l d s models

t h a t become maps f o r e x p e r i e n c e i n a p a r t i c u l a r e c o l o g i c a l and s o c i a l

environment.

- 18 To say o f the t r a d i t i o n a l A f r i c a n t h i n k e r t h a t he i s i n t e r e s t e d i n
s u p e r n a t u r a l r a t h e r than n a t u r a l causes makes l i t t l e more s e n s e ,
t h e r e f o r e , than t o say o f the p h y s i c i s t t h a t he i s i n t e r e s t e d i n
n u c l e a r r a t h e r than n a t u r a l c a u s e s .
In f a c t , b o t h are making the
same use o f t h e o r y to t r a n s c e n d the l i m i t e d v i s i o n o f n a t u r a l causes
p r o v i d e d by common sense (Horton 1967: 5 4 ) .
Thus the d i v i n i t i e s are not merely c a p r i c i o u s b e i n g s - - t h e y have t h e i r
a p p o i n t e d f u n c t i o n i n the o r d e r o f o b s e r v a b l e t h i n g s .

The r e l i g i o u s

e x p e r t can know what s p i r i t u a l e n t i t i e s are b e h i n d observed

(Horton 1967: 5 2 ) .

And s i n c e t h e o r y p l a c e s t h i n g s i n a c a u s a l c o n t e x t

w i d e r than t h a t p r o v i d e d by common s e n s e ,
d i v i n e r s becomes e x p l i c a b l e .
and a l s o r e l a t e s

the f a c t t h a t A f r i c a n s go to

For the d i v i n e r r e f e r s

the p a t i e n t ' s

i n the s o c i a l f i e l d .
d i s e a s e to causes

events

to an unseen

c o n d i t i o n to a whole s e r i e s o f

disturbances

The d i v i n e r uses ideas about t h i s agency t o

i n the w o r l d o f v i s i b l e ,

t h i s the c o n v e r g i n g - s e q u e n c e t h e o r y

t a n g i b l e events

entity

link

[ Horton c a l l s

(1967: 170) ] .

To the q u e s t i o n o f why A f r i c a n s draw a n a l o g i e s between p u z z l i n g

phenomena and the f a m i l i a r , H o r t o n argues t h a t , i n c o n t r a s t

to Western

s o c i e t y where o r d e r , p r e d i c t a b i l i t y and s i m p l i c i t y are i n t h i n g s , i n

t r a d i t i o n a l societies of Africa,

we f i n d the s i t u a t i o n r e v e r s e d .

The

human scene i s the l o c u s par e x c e l l e n c e o f o r d e r , p r e d i c t a b i l i t y , r e g u larity.

In the w o r l d o f the i n a n i m a t e , these q u a l i t i e s are f a r

evident...And here,

the mind i n quest o f e x p l a n a t o r y a n a l o g i e s

n a t u r a l l y to people and t h e i r r e l a t i o n s
then,

that A f r i c a n t r a d i t i o n a l b e l i e f

(Horton 1967: 6 4 - 5 ) .

less
turns

He i s a r g u i n g ,

draws on persons as e x p l a n a t o r y

d e v i c e s , i . e . gods, and i n d o i n g so omits c e r t a i n q u a l i t i e s o f human

b e i n g s i n the m o d e l .

With r e f e r e n c e

to the K a l a b a r i , H o r t o n suggests

t h a t the a n c e s t o r s , heroes and w a t e r - s p i r i t s are a t r i a n g l e o f

The a n c e s t o r s u n d e r p i n the l i f e

forces.

and s t r e n g t h o f the l i n e a g e s , b r i n g i n g

- 19 m i s f o r t u n e to those who b e t r a y l i n e a g e v a l u e s and f o r t u n e to those who

promote them.

The heroes are those f o r c e s u n d e r p i n n i n g the l i f e

s t r e n g t h o f the community and i t s v a r i o u s i n s t i t u t i o n s .

and

And the w a t e r -

s p i r i t s are the owners o f the creeks and swamps, the g u a r d i a n s o f the

harvest,

the f o r c e s o f n a t u r e .

On the o t h e r h a n d , they are the

forces

u n d e r p i n n i n g a l l t h a t l i e s beyond the c o n f i n e s o f the e s t a b l i s h e d

(1967: 6 7 ) .

order

Thus the K a l a h a r i are a b l e t o e x p l a i n d i v e r s i t y o f e x p e r i e n c e

as w e l l as c o n f l i c t

and c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h r e f e r e n c e

M i d d l e t o n a l s o shows t h a t the c o n t r a s t
ancestors

fish

to t h e s e t h r e e

forces.

and o p p o s i t i o n between adro and the

p r o v i d e s the Lugbara w i t h a t h e o r e t i c a l scheme e n a b l i n g them to

comprehend a whole s e r i e s o f o p p o s i t i o n s and c o n f l i c t s m a n i f e s t

i n the

w o r l d o f t h e i r everyday e x p e r i e n c e .
In P a r t I I o f h i s paper
Science, ' Horton contrasts

' A f r i c a n T r a d i t i o n a l Thought and Western

t r a d i t i o n a l thought w i t h Western by s u g g e s t i n g

t h a t the t r a d i t i o n a l A f r i c a n thought
mentality.

There i s a l a c k o f awareness

s a c r e d w i t h the subsequent
1967: 1 5 6 ) .

i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a c l o s e d system
are

a n x i e t y over any t h r e a t s to the system (Horton

Some o f the d i f f e r e n c e s

of a v i s i o n of a l t e r n a t i v e s

of a l t e r n a t i v e s , b e l i e f s

connected w i t h the presence or

are i n the m a g i c a l a t t i t u d e

to w o r d s ;

ideas-

bound- t o - o c c a s i o n s v e r s u s i d e a s - b o u n d - t o - i d e a s ; u n r e f l e c t i v e v e r s u s
f l e c t i v e t h i n k i n g ; p r o t e c t i v e versus d e s t r u c t i v e a t t i t u d e

towards

absence

re-

estab-

l i s h e d t h e o r y ; d i v i n a t i o n v e r s u s d i a g n o s i s ; absence v e r s u s presence o f
e x p e r i m e n t a l method; the c o n f e s s i o n o f i g n o r a n c e and b e l i e f s about
c i d e n c e , chance and p r o b a b i l i t y ; p r o t e c t i v e v e r s u s d e s t r u c t i v e

coin-

attitude

to the c a t e g o r y - s y s t e m and concepts o f time (Horton 1967: 1 5 8 - 1 7 7 ) .

H o r t o n c o n c l u d e s h i s essay by n o t i n g t h a t

' t h e concept o f the " c l o s e d "

- 20 predicament not o n l y p r o v i d e s a key to u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f each one o f the

above s a l i e n t t r a i t s o f t r a d i t i o n a l t h o u g h t ;
these eleven t r a i t s

i t a l s o h e l p s us to see why

f l o u r i s h and p e r i s h t o g e t h e r .

c r a c k s when p r e s e n t e d w i t h a l t e r n a t i v e s ' ( 1 9 6 7 :

The c l o s e d system

180).

We have now added another d i m e n s i o n to our u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f D i v i n i t y

in African belief.

R e l i g i o u s c a t e g o r i e s have a p h i l o s o p h i c a l and e p i s t e m o -

l o g i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e , p r o v i d i n g the t r a d i t i o n a l A f r i c a n w i t h models to
interpret

3.

the

' r e a l i t y ' that confronts him i n c u l t u r e .

The S i g n i f i c a n c e o f the A n c e s t o r s i n A f r i c a n R e l i g i o u s

Systems

The remarks t h a t f o l l o w are p r i m a r i l y based on M . F o r t e s

'Some r e f l e c t i o n s on A n c e s t o r Worship i n A f r i c a '
a n a l y t i c a l purposes

(1965: 1 2 2 - 1 4 1 ) .

I have chosen to examine the r o l e o f the

in African traditional belief

paper
For

ancestors

a p a r t from D i v i n i t y , a l t h o u g h i n my study

o f the Edo I do not make any c o n c e p t u a l d i s t i n c t i o n .

I t has l o n g been r e c o g n i z e d t h a t a n c e s t o r

i s a conspicuous

o f A f r i c a n r e l i g i o u s systems h a v i n g a r e m a r k a b l y u n i f o r m s t r u c t u r a l
work.

An a n c e s t o r

frame-

i s a named, dead f o r b e a r who has l i v i n g descendants

a designated genealogical c l a s s representing h i s continued

relevance.

feature

of

structural

A n c e s t o r w o r s h i p i s r o o t e d i n d o m e s t i c , k i n s h i p and

descent

r e l a t i o n s and i n s t i t u t i o n s .
F o r t e s s t a t e s t h a t t h e r e i s much more to a n c e s t o r w o r s h i p than
u t i l i t y as a means o f mapping out and p r o v i d i n g a c h a r t e r
c a l l y ordered s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e
1956: 1 6 2 ) .

its

for a genealogi-

(See Bohannan 1953 and E v a n s - P r i t c h a r d

Fortes d i f f e r e n t i a t e s

between a n c e s t o r w o r s h i p and customary

- 21 -

b e l i e f s and p r a c t i c e s
afterlife.
Ritual'

concerning death,

R . B r a d b u r y ' s paper

the s o u l , g h o s t ,

s p i r i t s and the

' F a t h e r and S e n i o r Son i n Edo M o r t u a r y

(1965) has shown t h a t death alone i s not s u f f i c i e n t c o n d i t i o n

f o r becoming an a n c e s t o r .

C i t i n g m a t e r i a l from the Tsonga (Junod 1927:

3 4 7 f f ) , F o r t e s n o t e s t h a t they d i s t i n g u i s h between g h o s t l y dead w i t h o u t

o f f s p r i n g and a n c e s t o r s who have o f f s p r i n g .
A v e r y important p a r t o f F o r t e s ' summary o f a n c e s t o r
the i d e a t h a t a n c e s t o r w o r s h i p i s a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n

or e x t e n s i o n o f

a u t h o r i t y i n the j u r a l r e l a t i o n s o f s u c c e s s i v e g e n e r a t i o n s ;
duplication,

i n a supernatural

c e n t r e s around

i t i s not a

i d i o m , o f the t o t a l complex o f

e d u c a t i v e , and s u p p o r t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p m a n i f e s t e d

the

affective,

i n c h i l d - r e a r i n g or i n

m a r r i a g e , or i n any o t h e r forms o f a s s o c i a t i o n , however l o n g l a s t i n g and

i n t i m a t e , between k i n s m e n , neighbours or f r i e n d s .

He i l l u s t r a t e s

this

p r o p o s i t i o n by c i t i n g m a t e r i a l from the A s h a n t i where even though

the

f a t h e r - s o n r e l a t i o n s h i p i s o f h i g h a f f e c t i v i t y , o n l y the m o t h e r ' s

brother

has a s t o o l d e d i c a t e d to h i m becoming the a n c e s t o r

f o r purposes o f w o r s h i p .

In a m a t r i l i n e a l s o c i e t y i t i s o n l y those members o f a l i n e a g e who have

been i n v e s t e d w i t h a u t h o r i t y , t h a t i s , j u r i s d i c t i o n i n the l i n e a g e ,

as

l i n e a g e heads or as h o l d e r s o f o f f i c e i n the e x t e r n a l p o l i t i c o - j u r a l domain,

who become permanently e n s h r i n e d i n s t o o l s o f w o r s h i p .
The a n c e s t o r s
prayer.

are approached r i t u a l l y by s a c r i f i c e , l i b a t i o n and

In T a l l e n s i c u l t u r e o n l y a son can o f f e r s a c r i f i c e s to

and he can do so o n l y i f h i s r e l e v a n t p a r e n t i s d e a d .

ancestors,

Thus i t i s u s u a l l y

the s u r v i v i n g s e n i o r son who i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r r i t u a l tendance and s e r v i c e

o f the a n c e s t o r s .

H i s i s the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r i n i t i a t i n g , s u p e r v i s i n g

and t a k i n g the l e a d i n g p a r t i n the mortuary and f u n e r a l f o r h i s p a r e n t s .

To r e f u s e

the a n c e s t o r s

i s to i n v i t e d i s a s t e r .

A c c o r d i n g to F o r t e s

the

- 22 behaviour of ancestors

i s standardized regardless

behaviour: a l l ancestors

of t h e i r

lifetime

e x a c t r i t u a l s e r v i c e and p r o p i t i a t i o n i n

accordance w i t h the same r u l e s o f u n p r e d i c t a b l e and more commonly p e r s e c u t o r y r a t h e r than b e n e f i c i e n t

i n t e r v e n t i o n (See K r i g e 1943: 2 3 2 ) .

When the p e r s e c u t i n g a n c e s t o r

intervenes

they are b e l i e v e d t o have

r i g h t f u l l y and not w a n t o n l y .

Thus the a n c e s t o r s

acted

are thought o f as an

u l t i m a t e judge and mentor whose v i g i l a n c e i s d i r e c t e d towards

restoring

o r d e r and d i s c i p l i n e i n compliance w i t h the norms o f r i g h t and d u t y ,

amity and p i e t y .
The a n c e s t o r s

are r e l a t e d to the s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e .

E . Colson

w r i t i n g on ' A n c e s t r a l S p i r i t s among the P l a t e a u Tonga' shows how the

Mizumu

' r e f l e c t the i d e a l o r g a n i z a t i o n o f Tonga s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e '

1960: 3 7 2 ) .

A l t h o u g h F o r t e s does n o t r e g a r d a n c e s t o r w o r s h i p as

t i b l y s p e c i f i a b l e as a p u r e l y j u r a l i n s t i t u t i o n (See f o o t n o t e
1 3 7 ) , he does c o r r e l a t e

r i g h t , and i t s r e c i p r o c a l , d e s i g n a t e d

exhaus-

6, 1965:

i t w i t h r u l e s o f conduct which s e r v e to

the p r i n c i p l e o f j u r a l a u t h o r i t y t o g e t h e r w i t h i t s c o r r o l a r y ,

(Colson

entrench

legitimate

a c c o u n t a b i l i t y , as an i n d i s p u t a b l e

and s a c r o s a n c t v a l u e - p r i n c i p l e o f the s o c i a l s y s t e m .
i z e the c o n t i n u i t y o f the s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e ,

The a n c e s t o r s

symbol-

and the proper a l l o c a t i o n , a t

any g i v e n t i m e , o f the a u t h o r i t y and r i g h t they h e l d and

transmitted.

F o r t e s notes t h a t the A s h a n t i h e l d to the n o t i o n t h a t the S t o o l was

s a c r e d v e h i c l e o f the presence o f the a n c e s t o r s

the

and b o t h the source and

symbol o f p o l i t i c o - r i t u a l o f f i c e (See B u s i a 1 9 5 4 ) , from the k i n g s h i p down

to the h e a d s h i p o f a l o c a l l i n e a g e .
dependence

It

i s the e x p e r i e n c e o f

filial

as r e c o g n i z e d and i n t e r p r e t e d by the c u l t u r e w h i c h p r o v i d e s

the m a t e r i a l f o r the code o f symbolism and r i t u a l by means o f w h i c h

- 23 r e v e r e n c e f o r a u t h o r i t y can be r e g u l a r l y a f f i r m e d and e n a c t e d .
i s i n t h i s e x p e r i e n c e t h a t the b e l i e f s and sentiments
and w o r s h i p are i n c u l c a t e d .

of respect,

piety'

(1959: 2 9 ) .

reverence

F o r t e s has argued a l o n g s i m i l a r l i n e s i n an

e a r l i e r essay Oedipus and Job i n West A f r i c a n R e l i g i o n .

' t h e w o r s h i p o f the a n c e s t o r s

For i t

He s t a t e s

i s i n essence the r i t u a l i z a t i o n o f

The g e n e s i s o f the T a l l e n s i b e l i e f , t h e n ,

is

that
filial

' i n the

r e l a t i o n s h i p between p a r e n t s and c h i l d r e n i n s o c i e t i e s w i t h a s o c i a l
o r g a n i z a t i o n based on k i n s h i p and d e s c e n t

4.

W i t c h c r a f t and S o r c e r y i n A f r i c a n

(1959: 7 8 ) .

Belief

The f u l l e s t study o f w i t c h c r a f t i n A f r i c a

i s E v a n s - P r i t c h a r d ' s epochal

work W i t c h c r a f t , O r a c l e s and Magic among the A z a n d e .

L i e n h a r d t as w e l l

as

o t h e r s have noted t h a t Europeans have had numerous problems u n d e r s t a n d i n g

t h i s phenomenon p a r t i c u l a r l y because
thought

( L i e n h a r d t 1954: 9 9 ) .

to u n d e r s t a n d

i t seems remote from our own modes o f

E v a n s - P r i t c h a r d demonstrated

that i n order

t h i s b e l i e f - s y s t e m we must b e g i n by making some assumptions

w h i c h the Azande make ( E v a n s - P r i t c h a r d 1962: 9 8 - 1 0 2 ) .

We have to

assume

t h a t a man's death or m i s f o r t u n e demands s p e c i f i c e x p l a n a t i o n ; t h a t human

b e i n g s w i t h o u t any p h y s i c a l a c t can i n j u r e each o t h e r ;

t h a t a p o s s i b l e way

o f a c c o u n t i n g f o r death or s u f f e r i n g i s to say t h a t someone, some human

witch,

i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r the d e a t h ; t h a t i t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t o r a c l e s can

r e v e a l t r u t h when o t h e r means

fail.

Most a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s today accept E v a n s - P r i t c h a r d ' s c l a s s i c d i s t i n c t i o n between magic and s o r c e r y .

He d e f i n e d a w i t c h as one who has

b e l i e v e d to be a b l e to harm o t h e r s m y s t i c a l l y and i l l e g i t i m a t e l y by means

- 24 o f p s y c h i c emanations

from an i n h e r e n t p h y s i o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n t h a t was

transmitted b i o l o g i c a l l y .

A s o r c e r e r , on the o t h e r hand, was b e l i e v e d

to harm o t h e r s m y s t i c a l l y and i l l e g i t i m a t e l y by p r a c t i c i n g d e s t r u c t i v e
m a g i c , t h a t i s , by p e r f o r m i n g r i t e s , u s i n g m e d i c i n e s and making these
e f f e c t i v e o r p o s s i b l y s e l e c t i v e by u s i n g more or l e s s f o r m a l s p e l l s or
addresses.

The w i t c h seems to be more d e l i b e r a t e and v e n g e f u l i n h i s

i n t e n t i o n s whereas a w i t c h i s d r i v e n by an u n c o n t r o l l a b l e urge which may

even o p e r a t e a g a i n s t h i s b e t t e r

nature.

In r e c e n t y e a r s t h e r e have been a number o f i m p o r t a n t works t h a t

have g i v e n more a t t e n t i o n t o the s t r u c t u r a l and n o r m a t i v e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f
beliefs

i n s o r c e r y and w i t c h c r a f t i n c o n t r a s t to E v a n s - P r i t c h a r d ' s study

o f the l o g i c a l

i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f b e l i e f s i n m a g i c , w i t c h c r a f t and

s o r c e r y among the A z a n d e .

In a paper

' W i t c h c r a f t i n four A f r i c a n

societies,'

Nadel argues t h a t w i t c h c r a f t b e l i e f s and p r a c t i c e s are r e l a t e d to s p e c i f i c

a n x i e t i e s and s t r e s s e s i n s o c i a l l i f e ,

even the p r e c i s e n a t u r e o f

s o c i a l causes o f w h i c h they are symptoms.

of w i t c h c r a f t .

the

He i d e n t i f i e s two b a s i c

types

The Nupe o f c e n t r a l N i g e r i a i d e n t i f y t h e i r w i t c h e s as

openly and s u c c e s s f u l l y s e t t i n g a s i d e the s o c i a l v a l u e s and thus denying

the s t a t e o f s o c i e t y d e s i r e d and thought gopd.

On the o t h e r h a n d ,

M e s a k i n i d e n t i f y a w i t c h as a p e r s o n who cannot l i v e up to the

the

social

v a l u e s y e t cannot o p e n l y r e b e l a g a i n s t them; the a t t a c k s upon w i t c h e s

a t t a c k s upon the v i c t i m s o f the i d e a l s o c i e t y (Nadel 1952: 2 9 ) .
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n leans h e a v i l y on the
Kluckhohn (1962) and W h i t i n g ( 1 9 5 0 ) .

'scape-goat'

are

Nadel's

t h e o r y a l s o u t i l i z e d by

He concludes h i s paper by s u g g e s t i n g

t h a t w i t c h c r a f t b e l i e f s are c a u s a l l y as w e l l as c o n s p i c u o u s l y r e l a t e d

to

s p e c i f i c a n x i e t i e s and s t r e s s e s a r i s i n g i n the m a r r i a g e r e l a t i o n s i n Nupe,

- 25 and the r e l a t i o n s h i p between m o t h e r ' s b r o t h e r and s i s t e r ' s

I t s h o u l d be noted h e r e t h a t w i t c h c r a f t cannot be

son i n M e s a k i n .

' e x p l a i n e d ' s i m p l y by

saying that i t i s a kind of p r e l o g i c a l m e n t a l i t y , that i s , that w i t c h c r a f t

i s because t h e r e are i n e x p l i c a b l e t h i n g s i n c u l t u r e .
One o f the most important works on w i t c h c r a f t and s o r c e r y i s

the

c o l l e c t i o n o f essays e d i t e d by M i d d l e t o n and W i n t e r , W i t c h c r a f t and S o r c e r y

i n East A f r i c a .

The e d i t o r s h y p o t h e s i z e t h a t between s o c i e t i e s t h a t

utilize

e i t h e r w i t c h c r a f t or s o r c e r y b e l i e f s i n making a c c u s a t i o n s but not b o t h ,

t h e r e are c e r t a i n s i g n i f i c a n t s t r u c t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s .
' w i t c h c r a f t b e l i e f s are thus u t i l i z e d

in societies

They s t a t e t h a t

i n which u n i l i n e a r

k i n s h i p p r i n c i p l e s are employed i n the f o r m a t i o n o f l o c a l

residential

g r o u p s , l a r g e r t h a n the domestic h o u s e h o l d , w h i l e s o r c e r y b e l i e f s tend

to

be s i m i l a r l y u t i l i z e d when u n i l i n e a l p r i n c i p l e s are not so u s e d ' ( M i d d l e t o n

1962: 1 2 ) .
V . Turner i n h i s paper
Dynamics'

(1967) o f f e r s

he advocates

' W i t c h c r a f t and S o r c e r y : Taxonomy v e r s u s

a number o f sharp c r i t i c i s m s o f t h i s w o r k .

First,

an extended case method a p p r o a c h , n o t i n g t h a t o n l y 49 pages

o f 299 are t a k e n up w i t h case m a t e r i a l .

For Turner i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o

any g i v e n a c c u s a t i o n i n t o the w i d e s t p o s s i b l e c o n t e x t .
i n g the s t r u c t u r e

set

T h i s i n c l u d e s know-

o f groups and subgroups t o which the a c c u s e r and accused

b e l o n g and t h e i r e x t a n t d i v i s i o n i n t o t r a n s i e n t
the b a s i s o f immediate i n t e r e s t s ,

a l l i a n c e s and f a c t i o n s on

ambitions, moral a s p i r a t i o n s .

I t "would

a l s o i n c l u d e as much o f the h i s t o r y o f these groups as would be c o n s i d e r e d

relevant
the f i e l d

to the u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the a c c u s a t i o n by l e a d i n g a c t o r s
situation.

And i t would a l s o i n c l u d e demographic d a t a

subgroup and f a c t i o n a l f l u c t u a t i o n s over the r e l e v a n t

within
about

time p e r i o d , t o g e t h e r

- 26 w i t h i n f o r m a t i o n about the b i o l o g i c a l and s o c i o l o g i c a l f a c t o r s

on these such as e p i d e m i c s , r i s e and f a l l
l a b o u r m i g r a t i o n s , wars and feuds

bearing

i n the death and b i r t h r a t e s ,

(Turner 1967: 1 1 5 ) .

The f a c t t h a t A

accused B would then be seen as the product o f a complex i n t e r p l a y o f

p r o c e s s e s and f o r c e s ,

among w h i c h the norms g o v e r n i n g b e h a v i o u r

members o f a s i n g l e k i n s h i p c a t e g o r y c o n s t i t u t e
minor c l a s s

(1967:

o n l y a s i n g l e and p o s s i b l y

115-6).

However, the c r u x o f T u r n e r ' s c r i t i q u e i s t h a t

'witch beliefs

no l o n g e r - - i f they ever c o u l d - - b e u s e f u l l y grouped i n t o two

categories,

between

witchcraft

( i n i t s narrow sense) and s o r c e r y '

can

contrasting

(1967:

118).

A c c o r d i n g to T u r n e r , when E v a n s - P r i t c h a r d made h i s c l a s s i c ? d i s t i n c t i o n he
' c l e a r l y i n t e n d e d t o c o n f i n e i t t o Zande c u l t u r e ' [See E v a n s - P r i t c h a r d 1927:
21] (1967:

118).

W i t c h c r a f t , i n s h o r t , may be u n c o n s c i o u s and i n v o l u n t a r y , though i t

i s o f t e n i n t e n t i o n a l , i n h e r i t e d , and i n h e r e n t .
S o r c e r y i s always
c o n s c i o u s and v o l u n t a r y , and i s taught and o f t e n b o u g h t .
Witchcraft
o p e r a t e s d i r e c t l y and s o r c e r y i n d i r e c t l y through s p e l l s , r i t e s , and
m e d i c i n e s . T h i s d i c h o t o m y , v e r b a l i z e d and e x p l i c i t among the Azande,
i s not made i n many s o c i e t i e s .
R a t h e r , these possess a wide range o f
b e l i e f s about the types o f persons who seek to harm t h e i r f e l l o w s by
n o n - e m p i r i c a l means (1967: 1 1 9 ) .
B a r r i e R e y n o l d s ' well-documented m a t e r i a l from the c o u r t s o f B a r o t s e l a n d ,
Zambia shows t h a t the s i n g l e term m u l o i was used f o r a l l e v i l
(1963: 1 4 - 4 7 ) .

Turner says t h a t t h i s d a t a r a i s e s

what i s meant by " i n h e r i t a n c e . "

s t a t e s t h a t the
craft

practioners

the whole q u e s t i o n o f

C i t i n g m a t e r i a l from the Lunda, Turner

'Lunda or L u v a l a w i t c h i s not b o r n a w i t c h but has w i t c h -

" t h r u s t upon h e r , " u s u a l l y l a t e

in l i f e '

(1967:

120).

T u r n i n g t o the m a t e r i a l i n W i t c h c r a f t and S o r c e r y i n E a s t

Africa,

he f u r t h e r

demonstrates how d i f f i c u l t

i t i s t o use E v a n s - P r i t c h a r d ' s

dis-

tinction.

C o n t r a r y to W i n t e r ' s argument (1962: 292) t h a t the b e h a v i o u r o f

- 27 w i t c h e s i t the " e x a c t r e v e r s e " o f t h a t o f o t h e r p e o p l e , Turner s t a t e s t h a t

' i t c e r t a i n l y has some " i n v e r t e d " f e a t u r e s ,
catures

o f normal b e h a v i o u r .

but o t h e r s are r a t h e r

cari-

The w o r l d o f w i t c h c r a f t , as i t appears i n

t r i b a l b e l i e f s , i s not the " s t r u c t u r a l " w o r l d u p s i d e down i n i n m i r r o r

image.

I t i s the w o r l d i n d e c a y , where a l l t h a t i s n o r m a l , h e a l t h y , and

o r d e r e d i s reduced to chaos and " p r i m o r d i a l s l i m e . "

It

is

"anti-struc-

9
ture"--not

inverted structure'

(1967:,125).

H i s major c r i t i c i s m , t h e n ,
o f these t e r m s '

(1967: 1 2 5 ) .

i s that

' t h e r e i s y e t no s t a n d a r d usage

He s u g g e s t s ,

for further researchers,

that

a ' h o l i s t i c l a b e l l i n g approach to the d e f i n i t i o n a l problems d i s c u s s e d i n

t h i s a r t i c l e i s l i k e l y to s i d e t r a c k i n v e s t i g a t i o n from the study o f a c t u a l
b e h a v i o u r i n the s o c i a l f i e l d c o n t e x t to an o b s e s s i o n w i t h the
p i g e o n h o l i n g o f b e l i e f s and p r a c t i c e s as e i t h e r

proper

" w i t c h c r a f t " or

"sorcery."

I n sum, the a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l a n a l y s i s o f w i t c h c r a f t and s o r c e r y has been

a b l e , u s i n g E v a n s - P r i t c h a r d ' s m o d e l , to l e a d us t o the p o i n t where we see
the d e c l i n i n g adequacy o f p r e s e n t

t h e o r e t i c a l frames'

(1967: 1 1 2 ) .

Un-

f o r t u n a t e l y I have been u n a b l e to e x p l o r e or t e s t T u r n e r ' s ideas i n my

f i e l d work among the E d o .
B.

RITUAL IN AFRICAN RELIGIOUS SYSTEMS

R i t u a l can be viewed at many l e v e l s .

One o f the most

influential

works on the s o c i o l o g i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f r i t u a l i s t h a t o f Van Gennep's

R i t e s de P a s s a g e .

H i s problem was t h a t i n t r i b a l s o c i e t y t h e r e seemed t o

My i n i t i a l r e a c t i o n to Edo w i t c h c r a f t was t h a t i t was a n t i - v a l u e

and not a n t i - or i n v e r t e d s t r u c t u r e .

- 28 be on the whole g r e a t e r r i t u a l i z a t i o n o f t r a n s i t i o n s
greater r i t u a l i z a t i o n of s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s
i n modern s o c i e t y

(See Gluckman 1962: 2 ) .

changes i n s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s

i n s o c i a l s t a t u s , and

in general,

than t h e r e was

Van Gennep c o r r e c t l y noted

i n v o l v i n g movements between g r o u p s ,

or

altera-

t i o n s of s t a t u s , i n s e m i - c i v i l i z e d s o c i e t i e s w i t h t h e i r conceptions
m a g i c o - r e l i g i o u s bases f o r g r o u p s , d i s t u r b e d b o t h the l i f e o f the
and the l i f e o f the i n d i v i d u a l , and the f u n c t i o n o f r i t e s
to reduce the harmful e f f e c t s
Radcliffe-Brown

o f these d i s t u r b a n c e s

that

of
society

o f passage was

(See Gluckman 1962:

3).

(1952: 136-9) employed the term r i t u a l to cover magico-

r e l i g i o u s phenomena

in general.

T h i s gets us to the c r u x o f the

f o r r i t u a l i s u s u a l l y g i v e n a w i d e r s i g n i f i c a n c e than t h a t o f
i t w i t h the m a g i c o - r e l i g i o u s .

problem

identifying

Nadel (1954: 99) uses the c a t e g o r y

ritual

i n c l u s i v e l y and r e l a t e s i t to any type o f e x c e s s i v e l y f o r m a l a c t i o n , w h i l e

r e l i g i o u s r i t u a l covers a c t s where the means-end r e l a t i o n s h i p
inadequate by e m p i r i c a l s t a n d a r d s .
be d i s t i n g u i s h e d from c e r e m o n i a l .
action...directed

A r i t u a l is a 'primarily religious

t o s e c u r i n g the b l e s s i n g o f some m y s t i c a l p o w e r . . . S y m b o l s

And c e r e m o n i a l i s

to p r a c t i c a l e n d s '

'an e l a b o r a t e c o n v e n t i o n a l form f o r the

s i o n o f f e e l i n g , not c o n f i n e d t o r e l i g i o u s o c c a s i o n s '
would a p p l y

(1957: 9 ) .

' r e l i g i o u s ' would cover a c t i v i t i e s addressed to

m y s t i c a l power'

(Goody 1961: 1 5 9 - 6 0 ) .

i s d i s t i n g u i s h e d by the f a c t

n o t i o n s , ' w h i c h are

expres-

Goody

' r i t u a l ' to a l l categories of a c t i o n which Wilson c a l l s

v e n t i o n a l ' , and

'ritual'

deemed

A c c o r d i n g to M o n i c a W i l s o n r i t u a l can

and concepts are employed i n r i t u a l s but are s u b o r d i n a t e d

(1957: 9 ) .

is

'con-

'some

Evans-Pritchard also s a i d that

t h a t i t r e f e r s to some ' m y s t i c a l

' p a t t e r n s o f thought t h a t a t t r i b u t e to phenomena

supra-

s e n s i b l e q u a l i t i e s w h i c h , o r p a r t o f w h i c h , are not d e r i v e d from o b s e r v a t i o n

- 29 -

or cannot be l o g i c a l l y i n f e r r e d from i t , and w h i c h they do not

possess'

( E v a n s - P r i t c h a r d 1937: 1 2 ) .
Gluckman i n h i s paper

'Les R i t e s de P a s s a g e ' admits t h a t

'ritual,

t h a t i s to s a y , i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h n o t i o n s t h a t i t s performance i n some
m y s t e r i o u s way, by p r o c e s s e s out o f sensory c o n t r o l , a f f e c t s
b e i n g o f the p a r t i c i p a n t s : i t i s b e l i e v e d to p r o t e c t
ways a c h i e v e t h e i r w e l l - b e i n g
He i s p r i m a r i l y i n t e r e s t e d

the w e l l -

them or i n o t h e r

(1962: 3 0 ) , but h i s i n t e r e s t

lies

elsewhere.

i n how ' t r i b a l s o c i e t i e s h a v e . . . w o r k e d t h e i r

r o l e s and r e l a t i o n s h i p s i n t o t h e i r r i t u a l s . '

Gluckman's purpose i s

d i s c o v e r why t r i b a l s o c i e t i e s w i t h a l l t h e i r u n c e r t a i n t i e s

to

about growth

become ' i n e x t r i c a b l y i n v o l v e d i n s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s t h e m s e l v e s ; and i t

i s t h i s r i t u a l i z a t i o n o f s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s w h i c h i s my problem h e r e
33).

His thesis

i s that

'the greater

the l e s s the r i t u a l ; and the g r e a t e r

(1962:

the s e c u l a r d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n o f r o l e ,
the s e c u l a r d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n , the

m y s t i c a l i s the c e r e m o n i a l o f e t i q u e t t e ;

the g r e a t e r

less

the m u l t i p l i c i t y o f

u n d i f f e r e n t i a t e d and o v e r l a p p i n g r o l e s , the more r i t u a l to s e p a r a t e them'

(1962: 3 4 ) .

Although t h i s t h e s i s

is i l l u m i n a t i n g ,

1 0

w i t h Forde ( 1 9 5 8 ) ,

e x p r e s s a c e r t a i n d i s q u i e t u d e at the tendency o f some a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s

to

interpret

Forde

r i t u a l s i n s o c i a l s t r u c t u r a l o r p y s c h o l o g i c a l terms a l o n e .

argues t h a t b e l i e f s and r i t e s
. . . a r e by no means always evoked by c o n c e r n f o r a p a r t i c u l a r s o c i a l
p a t t e r n , but may be s t i m u l a t e d by o t h e r c o n d i t i o n s o f the human
environment through the v a l u e s and hazards a t t a c h e d t o m a t e r i a l
r e s o u r c e s and t e c h n i q u e s , the i n c i d e n c e o f d i s e a s e and o t h e r r i s k s
to h e a l t h and l i f e . . . W h i l e b e l i e f s and c u l t s focus on m a t e r i a l needs
and p h y s i c a l w e l l - b e i n g may be a s s o c i a t e d w i t h or l e a d to t h e . f u r t h e r
development o f p a t t e r n s o f s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , such as p r i e s t h o o d s

H o r t o n says t h a t ' t h o s e who f o l l o w Gluckman are u n a b l e to see

such b e l i e f s as h a v i n g n o t h i n g more than a s o r t o f a l l - p u r p o s e s o c i a l
g l u e ' (1964: 8 7 ) .

- 30 o r i n s t i t u t i o n s d e r i v i n g from the p r e s t i g e o f a s a c r e d c h i e f s h i p ,
i t i s i m p o r t a n t to r e c o g n i z e t h a t i t i s the e c o l o g i c a l f a c t o r s ,
stemming from b i o l o g i c a l and p h y s i c a l c o n d i t i o n s , and the c h a r a c t e r
o f p a r t i c u l a r t e c h n i q u e s , t h a t have c a l l e d them i n t o b e i n g and sust a i n t h e i r s i g n i f i c a n c e (1958: 7 - 8 ) .
R i t u a l , as Gluckman has s a i d , has a ' m u l t i p l e x ' meaning, and i n t h i s ,s;tudy
o f the Edo I am concerned w i t h r i t u a l i n t e r a c t i o n between man and d i v i n i t y .
One q u e s t i o n I t r y to answer i s why i t s h o u l d be t h a t e n t i t i e s w i t h
characteristic properties

o f the m y s t i c a l are invoked as a l i n k

the

between

f l u c t u a t i o n s o f the s o c i a l o r d e r and f l u c t u a t i o n s o f n a t u r e (See H o r t o n

1964: 8 7 ) .
units

We have a l r e a d y noted the A f r i c a n tendency to

in religious

'define'

social

terms.

P . Bohannan has a c o n v e n i e n t summary o f the two fundamental

of A f r i c a n r i t u a l .
event

He suggests t h a t A f r i c a n r e l i g i o n has two

aspects

fundamental

sequences.

One i s the sequence o f r i t u a l t h a t f o l l o w s the seasons and has d e f i n i t e

a s s o c i a t i o n s w i t h the economic l i f e o f p e o p l e , and i n many cases w i t h
the p o l i t i c a l l i f e as w e l l ; t h e r e i s u s u a l l y an accompanying sequence
of r i t u a l t h a t f o l l o w s the l i f e c y c l e o f m a t u r i n g human b e i n g s . The
second system c e n t r e s i n a sequence o f r i t u a l t h a t i s t r i g g e r e d o f f
when m i s f o r t u n e appears i n the community, e i t h e r i n the form o f i l l ness and death o r o f drought or e p i d e m i c . The two events may be
c l o s e l y i n t e r l i n k e d , because the appearance o f m i s f o r t u n e may be
a t t r i b u t e d to f a i l u r e to c a r r y out p r o p e r l y the r i t u a l f o r k e e p i n g
the f o r c e s o f the firmament i n good w o r k i n g o r d e r (1963: 3 3 7 ) .
The f i r s t c y c l e would f a l l

i n t o the c a t e g o r y o f r i t e s

of passage;

second i n t o what Turner has a p t l y c a l l e d ' r i t u a l s o f a f f l i c t i o n '

9-11).

the
(1967:

He s t a t e s t h a t m i s f o r t u n e , women's r e p r o d u c t i v e d i s o r d e r s and

v a r i o u s forms o f i l l n e s s are a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the a c t i o n o f s p i r i t s .

r i t u a l s are d e v i s e d to p r o p i t i a t e and to get r i d o f the s p i r i t t h a t
thought

to be c a u s i n g the t r o u b l e .

of a f f l i c t i o n

I mention o n l y i n p a s s i n g t h a t

are c e n t r a l i n the E d o / r i t u a l

life.

These
is
rituals

- 31 -

Sacrifice

is c e n t r a l i n A f r i c a n r i t u a l s of a f f l i c t i o n .

In the

r e c e n t works o f E v a n s - P r i t c h a r d ( 1 9 5 6 ) , M i d d l e t o n (1960) and L i e n h a r d t

(1961) s a c r i f i c e and i t s r e l a t i o n s h i p to concepts o f d i v i n i t y and human
p e r s o n a l i t y , i t s s y m b o l i c f o r c e and i t s s o c i o l o g i c a l n a t u r e have been
demonstrated.

In D i v i n i t y and E x p e r i e n c e (See c h a p t e r 6 ) , L i e n h a r d t shows

t h a t s a c r i f i c e i n c l u d e s a r e c r e a t i o n o f the b a s i s o f the l o c a l
life.

He emphasizes t h a t s a c r i f i c i a l

i n o r d e r to a c h i e v e some s p e c i f i c e n d .

corporate

r i t e s do not a u t o m a t i c a l l y o p e r a t e
For L i e n h a r d t s a c r i f i c e and p r a y e r

a r e r e l a t e d to the measure o f c o n t r o l t h a t man can a s s e r t over e x p e r i e n c e .

And the s y m b o l i c a l m a n i p u l a t i o n o f s a c r i f i c i a l r i t e s demands the
o f those who share the common v a l u e s which g i v e them meaning, e g .
clan-divinities.

In an essay

presence
the

' B e l i e f and Knowledge' he s t a t e s :

In D i n k a s a c r i f i c e s I have s e e n , two s e p a r a t e v i c t i m s may be o f f e r e d ,

one to the t o t e m i c s p i r i t s o f the c l a n p r o v i d i n g the s a c r i f i c e , and
one to the god i n the sky who watches over a l l the human c r e a t i o n .
I t i s as though the a c t o f s a c r i f i c e i t s e l f , t u r n i n g man's a t t e n t i o n
to a k i n d o f b e i n g d i f f e r e n t from and s u p e r i o r to t h e i r own, a l s o
s u g g e s t s , b e s i d e s l o c a l t i e s and l o y a l t i e s , a w i d e n i n g c i r c l e o f
common human concerns (1964: 4 5 2 ) .
From t h i s p o i n t o f v i e w s a c r i f i c e to a common god i s a s i g n and a
s t r e n g t h e n i n g o f the common l i f e .
From o t h e r p o i n t s o f v i e w i t has
o t h e r meanings (1964: 4 5 2 ) .
E v a n s - P r i t c h a r d makes a d i s t i n c t i o n between c o l l e c t i v e and p e r s o n a l
sacrifices.

'The p r i m a r y purpose o f a c o l l e c t i v e s a c r i f i c e i s to

to e s t a b l i s h , or to add s t r e n g t h to a change i n s o c i a l s t a t u s . . . '

199).

confirm,
(1956:

The a c t o f s a c r i f i c e does not a u t o m a t i c a l l y e x p i a t e a f a u l t .

L i e n h a r d t s t a t e s t h a t : 'Many d i f f e r e n t k i n d s o f s a c r i f i c e have
been d i s t i n g u i s h e d - - s a c r i f i c e as a g i f t to the gods; as a s i g n o f communion
w i t h them and a way o f g a i n i n g s t r e n g t h from them; s a c r i f i c e as atonement,
as s e l f - a b n e g a t i o n , as i m m o l a t i o n or d e s t r u c t i o n f o r the d i v i n i t y , and so
forth'(1964: 451).

- 32 'Kwoth or. a s p i r i t , i s not c o n s t r a i n e d by the s a c r i f i c e to g r a n t

favour asked f o r .

An a n i m a l s a c r i f i c e d to Kwoth i s h i s a n i m a l anyhow and

what he g i v e s the s u p p l i a n t i n r e t u r n i s a f r e e g i f t .
Nuer f e e l t h a t the r e c i p i e n t o f a s a c r i f i c e i s at f a u l t
fulfil

the

i t s p a r t o f the b a r g a i n '

(1956:

Nevertheless

the

i f he does not

222).

To sum u p , we can say t h a t the a c t o f s a c r i f i c e , whether

private

o r p u b l i c , i s b e l i e v e d to have e f f i c a c y as p a r t o f an exchange between man

and d i v i n i t y .

That i s one meaning; the o t h e r

the common l i f e ,

III.

i s that s a c r i f i c e strengthens

a f f i r m i n g l i n e a g e , c l a n and c u l t i c l o y a l t i e s .

INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF THE EDO TRADITIONAL:'"

RELIGIOUS SYSTEM

Due to the c i r c u m s t a n c e s under which my r e s e a r c h was conducted

cannot o f f e r a complete and comprehensive a n a l y s i s o f the Edo t r a d i t i o n a l

r e l i g i o u s system.

My c o l l e c t i o n o f myths, f o r example, i s i n no way c o m p l e t e .

The complex o f r i t u a l s c e n t r i n g i n the Oba and h e r e d i t a r y n o b l e s are

the scope o f t h i s s t u d y , a l t h o u g h I do touch on the Igwe
as V . Turner r a i s e s

i n h i s paper

outside

Q u e s t i o n s such

' W i t c h c r a f t and S o r c e r y : Taxonomy v e r s u s

Dynamics' are c r u c i a l , but I was u n a b l e to get the k i n d o f i n f o r m a t i o n

needed f o r a ' p r o c e s s

theory' analysis.

So, f o l l o w i n g H o r t o n ' s

approach

t o the study o f A f r i c a n r e l i g i o n s , I have chosen to l o o k at r e l i g i o n from

a l i t e r a l i s t perspective.
1.

T h i s i n v o l v e s the f o l l o w i n g

assumptions.

That the d i v i n i t i e s are p e r s o n i f i e d b e i n g s c a p a b l e o f r e s p o n d i n g

to r i t u a l a c t i o n as w e l l as m a n i f e s t i n g themselves

2.

in culture.

That the i n t e r a c t i o n between man and d i v i n i t y w i l l be

patterned

- 33 after

such r e l a t i o n s h i p s and o b l i g a t i o n s t h a t

characterize

social relations.
3.

That i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h d i v i n i t y w i l l be r e l a t e d to the
ment o f g o a l s at d i f f e r e n t

4.

attain-

levels of s o c i a l s t r u c t u r a l

reference.

That the d i v i n i t y - t o - g r o u p c o o r d i n a t i o n w i l l r e f l e c t the c o n flicts

and c o m p e t i t i o n w i t h i n the s o c i a l

structure.

I have f i r s t o f a l l sought to determine what the Edo b e l i e f s about

are,
or

i . e . what p e r s o n a l i z e d b e i n g s are b e l i e v e d to e x i s t i n the

'extra-social' world.

o f the d i v i n i t i e s ,

through an a n a l y -

o f some myths and songs sung b e f o r e the s h r i n e s o f Olokun and Ogun.

C l o s e l y r e l a t e d to the d i s c o v e r y o f how the Edo r e p r e s e n t

is

'supernatural'

T h i s has been done through e l i c i t i n g o f statements

from p r i e s t s and o t h e r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s
sis

divinity

their

divinities

the q u e s t i o n o f how t h e s e d i v i n i t i e s a r e b e l i e v e d to m a n i f e s t

i n n a t u r e and c u l t u r e .
entities,

themselves

F o r i f they are b e l i e v e d to be ' p e r s o n a l i z e d '

then they w i l l have i n t e l l i g e n c e , p e r s o n a l i t y and s p e e c h .

When the r e s e a r c h e r

s t u d i e s the r i t u a l i n t e r a c t i o n a l p r o c e s s between

man and the d i v i n i t i e s , one o f h i s i n t e r e s t s w i l l be to see how the man to

d i v i n i t y communication p r o c e s s p a r a l l e l s the p a t t e r n s o f i n t e r a c t i o n on
the s o c i a l l e v e l .

He w i l l a l s o be i n t e r e s t e d

i n what r e l a t i o n s h i p s t h e r e

are between the g o a l s an i n d i v i d u a l i n the c u l t u r e pursues at the

levels of s o c i a l s t r u c t u r a l reference

and the d i v i n i t i e s as

t o the a t t a i n m e n t o f these v a l u e d e n d s .

instruments

F i n a l l y , we want to see whether

t h e r e i s any r e l a t i o n s h i p between the r i t u a l i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h the

and

the c o n f l i c t s and c o m p e t i t i o n > w i t h i n the s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e ,

seen t h a t i n some c u l t u r e s such as the K a l a b a r i , the d i v i n i t i e s

segments

different

( e g . l i n e a g e o r c l a n ) o f the s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e .

divinities

f o r we have
assist

If structural

- 34 alignments
divinity
changes

in

in

the

new r e l a t i o n s
The

are

for

study

of

divinity.

in

the

behind

Edo

For

order

bring

study
I

have

of

Edo

response

and

the

If

Edo

to

the

could

also

ritual

have

had

new member

of

cosmology,
an

This

three

hypothesized

reflected

in

taken

cannot

be

interpreted

the

of

would

have

discussed

to

that

changed

of

or
of

their

control.

giving
the
the

main
Edo

as

or

have
in

cultural

out

in

and
his

as

it

pertains

rites

of

passage

of

role

as

personal

beings

response

to

involve
The

Man's

structure

ritual

it

passage

pointed

changes

weaken

rites

Edo

granted.

examine

which usually

ritual

questions

in
bring

order.

categories
The

to

to

able

a different

examine

has

been

under

After

Forde

limited

flourishing

broad

overview

as
is

for

socio-political

not

new g r o u p s

Divinity;

be

relationship

be

study

Therefore

are

be

man's

may

intersect

group

Divinity.

conclude with

will

divinity

into

norms.

chosen

representation

of

ritual

example,

ritual

Edo

to

with

religion.

keep

the

it

in

divinities.

meaning

incorporation

group

then

structure

new

and

culture.

of

the

or

'mirrored'

e c o l o g i c a l environment,

Yako

breaches

to

the

t h e m who

to

old

belief
to

to

involving

to

are

cultures,

social

relationship

related

1958

the

'multiplex'

'vertical'

order

some A f r i c a n

within

isolate,

social

as

organizing

manifestation
a brief

of

devices:

The

Divinity;

and

ethnographic

divinities
religious

in

the

system.

Edo

The

introduction
cosmology,

CHAPTER I I

ETHNOGRAPHIC OUTLINE OF THE EDO

The Edo proper

w i t h the p r e s e n t - d a y

( B i n i ) o f the B e n i n Kingdom are b r o a d l y coterminous

Benin D i v i s i o n .

The Edo language and d i a l e c t s b e l o n g

to the Kwa group o f Western Budanic Languages.

The p r e s e n t day B e n i n D i v i s i o n covers 4,000 square m i l e s and has a
p o p u l a t i o n o f j u s t under 300,000 Edo and n o n - E d o .

The B e n i n Kingdom

c o n s i s t s o f the c a p i t a l , B e n i n C i t y , and s e v e r a l hundred v i l l a g e s which

may e i t h e r form s e p a r a t e u n i t s v i s - a - v i s the c e n t r a l a u t h o r i t y or be c o ordinated i n v i l l a g e - g r o u p s of sub-chiefdoms.

V i l l a g e s everywhere break

down i n t o w a r d s , o f w h i c h t h e r e may be s e v e r a l t i e r s , and these i n t u r n

are made up o f one o f more extended f a m i l i e s w i t h p a t r i l i n e a l n u c l e i .

The

degree to w h i c h l o c a l groups l a r g e r than the extended f a m i l y are a s s o c i a t e d w i t h l i n e a g e s appears to v a r y c o n s i d e r a b l y .

A second c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f e a t u r e o f Edo s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n i s

the

s t r a t i f i c a t i o n o f the male p o p u l a t i o n i n t o age-grades o r g a n i z e d on a v i l l a g e

wide b a s i s .

In most areas a u t h o r i t y i s v e s t e d v e r y l a r g e l y i n the

age-grade ( u s u a l l y c a l l e d e d i o n ) and, s u b j e c t
the o l d e s t man i s the v i l l a g e headman.

senior

to c e r t a i n q u a l i f i c a t i o n s ,

T h i s p a t t e r n o f a u t h o r i t y may be

upset by the presence o f t i t l e - a s s o c i a t i o n s or o f i n d i v i d u a l t i t l e d o f f i c e s .

Another c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f the E d o - s p e a k i n g peoples i s t h e i r marked

The f o l l o w i n g m a t e r i a l i s taken from R . B r a d b u r y . The B e n i n K i n g dom and the E d o - s p e a k i n g Peoples o f S.W. N i g e r i a , p p . 1 8 - 6 0 . London:
I n t e r n a t i o n a l A f r i c a n I n s t i t u t e , 1957.

- 36 p a t r i l i n e a l b i a s i n t h e i r k i n s h i p and l i n e a g e o r g a n i z a t i o n w i t h a s t r o n g
emphasis on p r i m o g e n i t u r e .

The s e n i o r s u r v i v i n g son o f a dead man i s

regarded as the c h i e f h e i r to h i s p r o p e r t y and the s u c e s s o r to whatever

offices,

p r i v i l e g e s , and d u t i e s he may have h a d .

The B e n i n Kingdom i s comparable to the Yoruba and Dahomey kingdoms

to t h e west w h i l e the remainder o f the E d o - s p e a k i n g peoples a r e ,

in their

p o l i t i c a l and s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , more a k i n to the Igbo and Ijaw peoples

to the e a s t and to the s o u t h .

In terms o f s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i -

z a t i o n , as w e l l as g e o g r a p h i c a l l y , the E d o - s p e a k i n g peoples stand i n an

i n t e r m e d i a t e p o s i t i o n between the s m a l l e r s c a l e s o c i e t i e s o f

eastern

N i g e r i a and the more h i g h l y o r g a n i z e d p o l i t i c a l groups i n the w e s t .

I.

A.

GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO THE EDO

LOCATION AND NOMENCLATURE .

The B e n i n Kingdom i s regarded as b e i n g coterminous w i t h the

present-

day B e n i n D i v i s i o n .

The a u t h o r i t y o f the Oba ( k i n g ) was r e c o g n i z e d i n

t h i s u n i t i n 1914.

The t o t a l a r e a o f the B e n i n D i v i s i o n i s abou(t; 4,000

square m i l e s and the p o p u l a t i o n a c c o r d i n g to the 1952 census was 2 9 2 , 0 0 0 .

Bradbury s t a t e s t h a t t h e r e i s no s a t i s f a c t o r y v e r n a c u l a r term to
the B e n i n kingdom or i t s p e o p l e .
t a n t s and i n c e r t a i n c o n t e x t s
w i l l refer
"0ba).

designate

B e n i n C i t y i s c a l l e d Edo by i t s i n h a b i -

i n d i v i d u a l s from a l l p a r t s o f the kingdom

to themselves as o v i e d o ( c h i l d o f Edo o f oviOba ( c h i l d o f

But the same i n d i v i d u a l may speak o f h i m s e l f as

'child o f

the

his

v i l l a g e o r v i l l a g e - g r o u p o r o f the r e g i o n o f the kingdom i n which he

lives.

- 37 The major r e g i o n s are d e f i n e d i n terms o f the main r i v e r s ; f o r example,

i y e k - O v i a , i y e k - O r h i o m o and i y e k - O g b a r e f e r to the groups on the

farther

s i d e o f ( i y e k e - - ' a t the back o f ' ) these r i v e r s from B e n i n C i t y .

The word

'Benin'

the

i s o f d o u b t f u l o r i g i n , but i s p o p u l a r l y used to d e s c r i b e

capital city,

the kingdom.

The term ' B i n i '

the people o f the B e n i n kingdom.

Edo,

i s commonly used to

However, I w i l l r e f e r

to the B i n i

but w i l l use B e n i n C i t y to d e s c r i b e the c a p i t a l c i t y , as t h i s

w i d e l y accepted by N i g e r i a n s and i s used i n o f f i c i a l

B.

describe
as
is

publications.

PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT

The B e n i n c o u n t r y i s a l o w - l y i n g p l a i n covered w i t h porous B e n i n

sand.
is

The c o u n t r y r i s e s t o the n o r t h around the Ishan p l a t e a u .

The a r e a

d r a i n e d by a s e r i e s o f d e e p l y - e n t r e n c h e d r i v e r s and s m a l l streams

i n a general north-south d i r e c t i o n .

flowing

G e n e r a l l y the Edo v i l l a g e s a v o i d c l o s e

p r o x i m i t y t o these streams though the U r h o b o - I s o k o and Kwale b u i l d on t h e i r

banks.

The n a t u r a l v e g e t a t i o n o f the a r e a i s t r o p i c a l r a i n f o r e s t ,

a good d e a l o f swamp v e g e t a t i o n i n the south and w e s t .

There i s an abun-

dance o f good timber i n the area and t h e r e i s a t h r i v i n g m i l l at

Rubber p l a n t a t i o n s have a l s o been p l a n t e d i n the

C.

with

Sepele.

area.

DEMOGRAPHY

A p a r t from the c a p i t a l , B e n i n C i t y , which today has a p o p u l a t i o n o f

a p p r o x i m a t e l y 7 5 , 0 0 0 , the people o f the B e n i n kingdom l i v e i n s e v e r a l hundred compact v i l l a g e s e t t l e m e n t s r a n g i n g i n s i z e from 20-30 to more t h a n

- 38 5,000 i n h a b i t a n t s .

A p p r o x i m a t e l y one f i f t h

o f the people are

concentrated

i n Benin C i t y .

D.

TRADITIONS OF ORIGIN AND HISTORY

A c c o r d i n g to Edo m y t h o l o g y , the B e n i n kingdom was founded by the

youngest o f the c h i l d r e n o f Osanobua (the h i g h g o d ) .

With h i s senior

b r o t h e r s , who i n c l u d e d the f i r s t k i n g s o f I f e and o t h e r Yoruba kingdoms and

the f i r s t k i n g o f the Europeans, they were sent to l i v e i n the agbon
world).

Each was a l l o w e d to take something w i t h h i m .

(the

Some chose w e a l t h ,

m a t e r i a l and m a g i c a l s k i l l s or Implements b u t , on the i n s t r u c t i o n s o f a

b i r d , the youngest chose a s n a i l s h e l l .
they found i t covered w i t h w a t e r .

When they a r r i v e d i n the w o r l d

The youngest son was t o l d by the b i r d

t o u p t u r n the s n a i l s h e l l and when he d i d so sand f e l l

out t o form the l a n d .
l a n d and h i s s e n i o r

from i t and spread

So the f i r s t Oba o f B e n i n became the owner o f the

' b r o t h e r s ' had t o come to him and b a r t e r

s i o n s i n r e t u r n f o r a p l a c e to s e t t l e .

their

posses-

Hence, though he was the youngest

s o n , he became the w e a l t h i e s t and most p o w e r f u l r u l e r .

The s e m i - m y t h i c a l r u l e r s o f the f i r s t dynasty are known as o g i s o
(ogieruler/king; iso--sky).

The names o f a number o f them, some o f them

women, are remembered, as are some o f the t i t l e s o f c h i e f s o f t h e i r

court,

the o r i g i n a l s i t e o f which i s s t i l l p o i n t e d out w i t h i n the w a l l s o f the

present town.
The p r e s e n t Oba, Akenzua I I , i s a c c o r d i n g t o t r a d i t i o n , the 35th
o f the dynasty whose b e g i n n i n g i s v a r i o u s l y dated from the l a t e t w e l f t h
c e n t u r y to the b e g i n n i n g o f the f o u r t e e n t h c e n t u r y .
;

The 15th Oba i n the

- 39 g e n e r a l l y accepted l i s t

i s s a i d to have been r e i g n i n g when the P o r t u 2

guese f i r s t v i s i t e d B e n i n i n 1485.
The

f i f t e e n t h and s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s were a p p a r e n t l y the p e r i o d

of g r e a t e s t e x p a n s i o n and i t was d u r i n g t h i s time t h a t the g r e a t w a r r i o r

k i n g s , Ewuare, O z o l u a , E s i g i e , Orhoghua, and Ehegbuda r e i g n e d .

Catholic

m i s s i o n s were e s t a b l i s h e d by the Portuguese e a r l y i n the s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y .

F i r e a r m s were i n t r o d u c e d about the same time and seem to have l e d to an
i n c r e a s e i n w a r f a r e whose purpose was the c a p t u r e o f s l a v e s f o r e x p o r t .
E s i g i e , i n about 1515, was accompanied by Portuguese m i s s i o n a r i e s i n a
campaign w h i c h drove the marauders from Idah to the n o r t h back a c r o s s
Niger.

Churches were b u i l t by the Portuguese i n B e n i n C i t y .

This

the

raises

the q u e s t i o n o f C h r i s t i a n i n f l u e n c e s on the Edo c o n c e p t i o n o f Osanobua and

the o t h e r d i v i n i t i e s .

The Portuguese remained the most i n f l u e n t i a l power

i n the a r e a u n t i l the second h a l f o f the seventeenth c e n t u r y though E n g l i s h

and

Dutch t r a d e r s had begun t o v i s i t Ughoton and B e n i n C i t y l o n g b e f o r e

this.

There were m i s s i o n a r i e s i n B e n i n about 1688, but they were a p p a r e n t l y

based at W a r r i .
B e n i n was ravaged by a c i v i l war i n 1702 and from t h i s time forward
w r i t t e n accounts o f B e n i n d e s c r i b e p e r i o d s o f f l u c t u a t i n g power and p r o s p e r i t y d i s t u r b e d by c i v i l wars which appear to have been caused by d i s p u t e s
over the s u c c e s s i o n o f the k i n g s h i p .

Between p e r i o d s o f d i s s e n s i o n the

kingdom seems to have shown remarkable powers o f r e c o v e r y and i n the

late

e i g h t e e n t h and n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s t h e r e was renewed e x p a n s i o n w h i c h l e d

' A c c o r d i n g to t r a d i t i o n , i t was i n the r e i g n o f the f i f t e e n t h Oba

O z o l u a , t h a t European v i s i t o r s had f i r s t s e t f o o t i n B e n i n C i t y . As t h i s
event p r o p a b l y took p l a c e i n 1485, i t i s u n l i k e l y , t h a t the dynasty was
founded l a t e r than the e a r l y f o u r t e e n t h c e n t u r y ' (Bradbury 1967: 1 ) .

- 40 -

t o the reconquest o f the Yoruba town Akure and E k i t i c o u n t r y .

of B e n i n , then,

The h i s t o r y

i s one o f a l t e r n a t i n g p e r i o d s o f t e r r i t o r i a l e x p a n s i o n and

c o n t r a c t i o n i n accordance w i t h the degree o f a u t h o r i t y at the

The key date i n the h i s t o r y o f B e n i n i s 1897.
the name ' C i t y o f B l o o d

to B e n i n .

centre.

T h i s date has

given

Oba Ovoramwen feared the i n c r e a s i n g

i n f l u e n c e o f the Europeans i n the D e l t a and thus forbade a l l e x t e r n a l

trade.

A p p a r e n t l y he d i d s i g n a t r e a t y a l l o w i n g the Europeans to

send m i s s i o n a r i e s and to accept B r i t i s h p r o t e c t i o n .

adhere to t h i s t r e a t y and a f t e r

trade,

He d i d n o t , however,

the massacre o f members o f a B r i t i s h

m i s s i o n i n 1897 B r i t i s h t r o o p s a t t a c k e d and c a p t u r e d B e n i n C i t y .

trade

Ovoramwen

was deported to C a l a b a r where he remained u n t i l h i s death i n 1914.

His

son was then i n s t a l l e d as Eweka I I and he i n t u r n was succeeded i n 1933

by h i s s o n , Akenzua I I , the p r e s e n t Oba.

The Oba's o f f i c i a l

sphere o f

a u t h o r i t y was l i m i t e d i n 1914 t o what had then become the B e n i n D i v i s i o n .

II.

A.

MAIN FEATURES OF THE ECONOMY

AGRICULTURE

The b a s i s o f the s u b s i s t e n c e economy on which the v i l l a g e s depend

and the a c t i v i t i e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i t s c u l t i v a t i o n determine the
o f the a g r i c u l t u r a l y e a r .

pattern

The Edo p r a c t i c e s h i f t i n g a g r i c u l t u r e , and l a n d

i s r a r e l y brought back i n t o c u l t i v a t i o n u n t i l i t has been f a l l o w f o r at

l e a s t seven o r e i g h t y e a r s and the p e r i o d may be as l o n g as 15-20 y e a r s .
C l e a r i n g o f the p l o t s b e g i n s i n F e b r u a r y o r e a r l y M a r c h .

The c l e a r i n g i s

u s u a l l y completed by the end o f March and i s f o l l o w e d by the t i l l i n g o f

- 41 -

the ground.

P l a n t i n g begins

i n A p r i l a f t e r the seed-yams have been brought

out of s t o r a g e and o f t e n c o n t i n u e s
yams are pressed
removed and

i n t o the e a r l y p a r t o f May.

the l o o s e s o i l

i s pushed back over

f o l l o w i n g the p l a n t i n g i s r e l a t i v e l y

of May

i t i s necessary

T h i s corresponds
Edo

seed

i n t o the s i d e s o f the h o l e s from which the e a r t h has

period

The

The

the top o f them.

The

i n a c t i v e but towards the

to i n s e r t p o l e s to support

w i t h the b e g i n n i n g of the

been

end

the growing v i n e s .

rains.

r e c o g n i z e t h r e e types o f yam:

white,

red and water which

mature i n t h a t o r d e r over a p e r i o d s t r e t c h i n g from mid-September to November.

Yam

farming

i s e s s e n t i a l l y men's work though the women u s u a l l y a s s i s t

i n weeding and p l a n t i n g and

harvest.
peppers,
left

The

Edo

the whole labour supply

i n t e r c r o p p l a n t i n g c o r n , cocoyam, o c r a , r i c e ,

groudnuts,

melons, gourds, beans and o t h e r v e g e t a b l e s round the t r e e stumps

i n the farm, along the boundaries

are g e n e r a l l y owned and

though some men
When the yam
c o r n and

i s m o b i l i z e d f o r the

and

i n other spaces.

always p l a n t e d , tended

and h a r v e s t e d by the women,

g i v e t h e i r wives seeds to p l a n t f o r t h e i r own

h a r v e s t has been reaped

cassava.

the farm

These crops

profit.

i s usually replanted with

These and other c r o p s , such as p l a i n t a i n , which

s t i l l be growing on the o l d farm, are gathered

may

as they become r i p e

and

the p l o t g r a d u a l l y r e v e r t s to f a l l o w .

B.

TREE CROPS

The k o l a and
K o l a and
and

coconut

the o i l and

coconut

are p l a n t e d , owned and

palms are the most important

i n h e r i t e d by

individuals.

trees.

A l l men

some women have k o l a t r e e s which are p l a c e d along the main p a t h s .

The

- 42 kola is ubiquitous

i n a l l southern N i g e r i a n c u l t u r e s ,

a symbol o f h o s p i t a l i t y and an I n d i s p e n s a b l e

being essential

i t e m i n every r i t u a l

as

offering.

O i l palms are h e l d c o l l e c t i v e l y by the v i l l a g e community and any member o f

the v i l l a g e may reap t h e i r f r u i t or tap them f o r w i n e .

C.

CASH CROPS

The main sources o f monetary

income f o r the v i l l a g e Edo are

and c o c o a , w h i c h are grown on s m a l l - h o l d i n g s as w e l l as i n

palm p r o d u c t s

from p l a n t a t i o n s

few hundred rubber

and t i m b e r .

plantations,

Most Edo h o u s e h o l d e r s

duals

own a

t r e e s w h i c h are tapped each morning by a d o l e s c e n t

and young men and even by women when the market p r i c e i s h i g h .

plantations

rubber

of rubber,

c o c o a , coconuts

Extensive

and o i l - p a l m s are owned by

:

indivi-

(mainly w e a l t h y and t i t l e d men i n B e n i n C i t y ) who employ p a i d

a c o n s i d e r a b l e p r o p o r t i o n o f whom are Igbo m i g r a n t w o r k e r s .

boys

labour:

The commercial

e x t r a c t i o n o f t i m b e r i s j m a i n l y i n the hands o f European f i r m s , a l t h o u g h a

few l o c a l i n d i v i d u a l and f a m i l y concerns

D.

can be

found.

HUNTING, GATHERING AND FISHING

Most men have dane guns and hunt the b u s h - p i g , and v a r i o u s k i n d s

o f buck such as the d y k a .

The c o l l e c t i o n o f w i l d bush p r o d u c t s

s n a i l s and t o r t o i s e s w h i c h form an i m p o r t a n t
i n the hands o f the women.

p a r t o f the p r o t e i n d i e t

The Edo depend on the Urhobo,. I j a w ,

I t s e k i r i f o r the e x p l o i t a t i o n o f the

rivers.

and o f

and

the
is

- 43 E.

LIVESTOCK

Goats, sheep, dogs, and fowls are ubiquitous and are a l l important
as sacrificial offerings as well as for meat.
killed except for sacrificial purposes.

However, they are rarely

Cows are killed only as sacri-

f i c i a l items, particularly during the Igwe Festival held around mid-December .

F.

MARKETS AND TRADE

Most villages have markets which belong exclusively to them or are

shared with one or more neighbouring villages.
days; the women handling a l l kinds of foodstuffs

Markets are held every four

and other native products

while both sexes engage in the modern trade in imported goods.

G.

CRAFTS AND INDUSTRIES

Most of the important indigenous crafts of the Benin kingdom were

in the hands of special ward-guilds in Benin City.

There were guilds of

blacksmiths and brass-smiths, wood and ivory carvers (one group), leather
workers, weavers of special embroidered cloths, drum-makers, locksmiths.
Some of these s t i l l function.
Edo brass casting.

Much has been written about the origin of

Formerly the whole production of the brass-smiths was

at the command of the palace, consisting very largely of ritual and ceremonial objects.

Today a number of brass workers, under the guidance of

the tutelary spirit Ogun work on Igun St. in Igun ward producing

44 -

i m i t a t i o n works m a i n l y f o r European w o r k e r s , v i s i t o r s and

teachers.

Wood-carving i s a t h r i v i n g i n d u s t r y i n B e n i n C i t y .
carved staves

Traditionally

( u k h u r h e ) , which are symbols o f the d i v i n i t i e s worshipped

by v i l l a g e communities were the most important o b j e c t s .

Important

title

h o l d e r s i n the c a p i t a l and h e r e d i t a r y v i l l a g e c h i e f s c o u l d o b t a i n ukhurhe

and wooden heads as a l t e r d e c o r a t i o n s and o t h e r r i t u a l and c e r e m o n i a l
objects.

The Oba had c o n t r o l over a l l i v o r y i n the kingdom and n e a r l y a l l

i v o r y c a r v i n g s appear to have been f o r h i s p e r s o n a l u s e .

Today, however,

a number o f men w o r k i n g i n t h e i r own shops w i t h a p p r e n t i c e s o r i n l a r g e r

c o o p e r a t i v e s produce
Carpenters
beams, drumparts

'airport art'

f o r the t o u r i s t

market.

(onwina) who produced m o r t a r s , d o o r - f r a m e s ,

roofing

f o r the Oba's c o u r t formed a s p e c i a l group l o c a t e d i n a

number o f s c a t t e r e d v i l l a g e s o u t s i d e B e n i n C i t y .

Pottery for both cere-

m o n i a l and u t i l i t a r i a n purposes was f o r m e r l y produced by o n l y two v i l l a g e s ,

Use to the west o f B e n i n C i t y and Utekon to the n o r t h .

III.

A.

SOCIAL ORGANIZATION AND POLITICAL STRUCTURE

DOMESTIC AND FAMILY GROUPS

3
Households i n B e n i n C i t y and the v i l l a g e s

v a r y i n s i z e from a s i n g l e

( u s u a l l y impotent) man to a j o i n t f a m i l y o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y t w e n t y .

The

f o l l o w i n g types o f f a m i l y can be r e c o g n i z e d :
P r e s e n t day f a m i l y groupings i n B e n i n C i t y do not d i f f e r markedly
from those i n the v i l l a g e s , a l t h o u g h i n the p a s t the households o f import a n t t i t l e - h o l d e r s were c o n s i d e r a b l y l a r g e r .

- 45 -

1.

The n u c l e a r o r compound f a m i l y c o n s i s t i n g o f a man and h i s

w i f e or wives and t h e i r c h i l d r e n , who may occupy a house o r be
l o c a t e d i n rooms o f the man's f a t h e r or s e n i o r b r o t h e r .

2.

The j o i n t f a m i l y c o n s i s t i n g o f an e l d e r l y man w i t h h i s wives

and u n m a r r i e d c h i l d r e n , t o g e t h e r w i t h one or more u n m a r r i e d
sons w i t h t h e i r w i v e s and c h i l d r e n and, i n some c a s e s , younger
married b r o t h e r s .

Most m a r r i e d men p r e f e r to move out o f t h e i r

f a t h e r ' s house b e f o r e or soon a f t e r

the l a t t e r ' s

death.

Recently

m a r r i e d sons may s t a y u n t i l they have some c h i l d r e n .

3.

The extended f a m i l y , o c c u p y i n g s e v e r a l , u s u a l l y n e i g h b o u r i n g
h o u s e s , made up o f a man and h i s m a r r i e d b r o t h e r s and sons w i t h
t h e i r w i v e s and c h i l d r e n , and, p o s s i b l y , the sons and u n m a r r i e d
daughters o f h i s deceased e l d e r b r o t h e r ( s ) w i t h the

latters

w i v e s and c h i l d r e n .
Residence a f t e r m a r r i a g e i s v i r i l o c a l .

A man w i l l b r i n g h i s

first

w i f e t o l i v e i n h i s f a t h e r ' s house who w i l l remain t h e r e u n t i l the b i r t h

of one or more c h i l d r e n .
until

An o n l y s o n , however, may r e m a i n w i t h h i s

father

death.
None o f the types o f f a m i l y l i s t e d above n e c e s s a r i l y corresponds t o

an economic u n i t , f o r e i t h e r p r o d u c t i o n or c o n s u m p t i o n .

The most common

farming u n i t c o n s i s t s o f a man and h i s w i f e o r wives and any c h i l d r e n who

are o l d enough to

assist.

Each o f the types o f f a m i l y l i s t e d above i s a q u a s i - p o l i t i c a l u n i t

i n t h a t i t s members are under the immediate c o n t r o l , f o r c e r t a i n p u r p o s e s ,
of

the o l d e s t male who can a p p l y s a n c t i o n s a g a i n s t .them.

The t h r e e k i n d s

of

f a m i l y form a h i e r a r c h y i n so f a r as the head o f the n u c l e a r or compound

- 46 f a m i l y may be under the a u t h o r i t y o f the head o f a j o i n t f a m i l y o r compound f a m i l y may be under the a u t h o r i t y o f the head o f a j o i n t f a m i l y who
may i n t u r n be s u b j e c t t o the head o f h i s extended f a m i l y .

The headmen

o f the v a r i o u s k i n d s o f f a m i l i e s s e t t l e d i s p u t e s between t h e i r
and p u n i s h them f o r misdemeanours.
families,

dependents

The headmen o f j o i n t and extended

as members o f the s e n i o r age-grade w i t h an e f f e c t i v e v o i c e i n

the v i l l a g e c o u n c i l r e p r e s e n t

t h e i r dependents v i s - a - v i s the v i l l a g e

community and can be h e l d r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e i r b e h a v i o u r .

The main support f o r the a u t h o r i t y o f the f a m i l y head l i e s i n the
r e l a t i o n between the l i v i n g and the deceased p a t r i l i n e a l a n c e s t o r s o f the
f a m i l y head (See the d e s c r i p t i o n o f the Eho F e s t i v a l i n Chapter V I I I ) .
The w e l f a r e o f the s e n i o r son and h i s s i b l i n g s and the w i v e s o f the a g n a t i c
descendants o f h i m s e l f and h i s b r o t h e r s i s b e l i e v e d t o depend upon the
g o o d w i l l o f the deceased f a t h e r and h i s l i n e a l a n c e s t o r s who p u n i s h wrongd o i n g w i t h s i c k n e s s , death and o t h e r c a t a s t r o p h e s .

As the i n t e r m e d i a r y

w i t h these a n c e s t o r s the s e n i o r son thus has access t o p o w e r f u l

natural

super-

sanctions.
The r i g h t s and o b l i g a t i o n s consequent upon common membership o f

domestic and f a m i l y g r o u p i n g s are c o n c e i v e d i n terms o f a m a s t e r - s e r v a n t

relationship.
dependents

In r e l a t i o n t o the f a m i l y head or the household a l l h i s

are s e r v a n t s .

C h i l d r e n are thought o f as the s e r v a n t s o f

t h e i r f a t h e r , w i v e s o f t h e i r husbands, j u n i o r b r o t h e r s o f t h e i r s e n i o r s ,
and younger o f o l d e r women.

Thus i n each h o u s e h o l d or f a m i l y t h e r e i s a

s e r i e s o f h i e r a r c h i e s w h i c h determines the moral r i g h t s and o b l i g a t i o n s

o f the members towards each o t h e r .

- 47 -

B.

AGNATES AND OTHER K I N

The r u l e o f descent i s p a t r i l i n e a l .
the l i n e a g e o f the

'pater'

C h i l d r e n are a f f i l i a t e d

to

from whom they i n h e r i t and t o whose t i t l e ,

any, the e l d e s t s u r v i v i n g son s u c c e e d s .

if

The w i d e s t e f f e c t i v e p a t r i l i n e a g e

i s u s u a l l y t h a t which corresponds t o the extended f a m i l y and i s t h u s ,

w i l l be seen from above, o n l y t h r e e g e n e r a t i o n s i n d e p t h .

as

Bradbury sug-

g e s t s t h a t the poor development o f the l i n e a g e system appears to be c o r r e l a t e d w i t h a number o f economic and p o l i t i c a l

1.

factors.

A system o f l a n d tenure i n w h i c h k i n groups do not l a y c l a i m t o

t r a c t s of l a n d .

Each a d u l t male i s dependent upon the v i l l a g e

community as a w h o l e , r a t h e r than upon h i s own k i n group f o r

l a n d on which t o farm o r b u i l d .
2.

The u n i t a r y c h a r a c t e r o f the v i l l a g e community i n g e n e r a l w h i c h

i s e x p r e s s e d i n the t h r e e - t i e r age-grade system t h a t

cuts

a c r o s s k i n groups and makes age, r a t h e r t h a n l i n e a g e

affiliation,

the c r i t e r i o n o f a u t h o r i t y .

The u n i t y o f the v i l l a g e i s

illus-

t r a t e d by the f a c t t h a t a man who w i s h e s to b u i l d a house

calls

upon the v i l l a g e as a whole r a t h e r than h i s own kinsmen t o

assist him.
3.

Low-marriage payments.

In o r d e r to o b t a i n h i s f i r s t w i f e a man

i s dependent o n l y upon h i s f a t h e r and p o s s i b l y h i s p a t e r n a l

g r a n d f a t h e r , w h i l e the a c q u i r i n g o f subsequent wives i s h i s own
responsibility.
4.

The r u l e o f p r i m o g e n i t u r e by w h i c h a s e n i o r son i n h e r i t s h i s
f a t h e r ' s house and most o f h i s p r o p e r t y a n d , where a p p l i c a b l e ,

- 48 his

t i t l e ; thus the b e n e f i t s

w i t h i n the narrowest

limits.

s e n i o r son who d o e s n ' t

l o o k e d down u p o n .

o f i n h e r i t a n c e are

restricted

The Edo v a l u e g e n e r o s i t y and a

d i s t r i b u t e some o f h i s

'wealth'

is

In accordance w i t h t h i s p r i n c i p l e , the

system o f a n c e s t o r w o r s h i p i s such t h a t t h e r e i s a tendency

for

a new s e t o f s h r i n e s t o be s e t up i n each g e n e r a t i o n

that there i s a constant h i v i n g - o f f

units,

so

of ancestor-worshipping

i y e . o f r i t u a l l y and p o l i t i c a l l y e f f e c t i v e

corporate

lineages.
5.

A t i t l e - s y s t e m i n w h i c h t i t l e s are e i t h e r h e r e d i t a r y by p r i m o g e n i t u r e o r are not h e r e d i t a r y

i n any s e n s e .

T h i s i s marked

c o n t r a s t w i t h the Yoruba where most t i t l e s are a s s o c i a t e d w i t h

l i n e a g e s and may be o b t a i n e d by any male member.
A g n a t i o n , t h e n , determines

the l i n e o f i n h e r i t a n c e and s u c c e s s i o n ,

membership o f w i d e r d o m e s t i c and f a m i l y groupings o f a v i l l a g e community.

In B e n i n C i t y ,

and a few v i l l a g e s o u t s i d e ,

i t determines^membership

of

the

d i s p e r s e d c l a n s o r q u a s i - c l a n s to one o f w h i c h every Edo b e l o n g s .

S t r o n g t i e s o f a f f e c t i o n e x i s t between a person and the
kin.

W i t h i n the compound f a m i l y s t r o n g e r

t i e s u s u a l l y e x i s t between

s i b l i n g s t h a n between those who have d i f f e r e n t

C.

maternal
full

mothers.

VILLAGE SOCIAL ORGANIZATION

The v i l l a g e i s the b a s i c p o l i t i c a l u n i t i n the B e n i n kingdom.

G e n e r a l l y s p e a k i n g i t i s the w i d e s t u n i t f o r age-grade o r g a n i z a t i o n ,

the

m i n i m a l l a n d - h o l d i n g u n i t , the s m a l l e s t group w h i c h can have a h e r e d i t a r y

- 49 chief,

the s m a l l e s t t r i b u t e u n i t , and a l s o the c o o p e r a t i v e u n i t f o r house-

building.
Each v i l l a g e i s a compact s e t t l e m e n t
wards

(idunmwun) w h i c h may be s e p a r a t e d

of bush.

though most are d i v i d e d

from each o t h e r by s m a l l

into

patches

Each ward c o n s i s t s o f one or more extended f a m i l i e s l i v i n g i n

c l o s e p r o x i m i t y and r e c o g n i z i n g the a u t h o r i t y o f the o l d e s t man, o r ,

exceptional cases, of a hereditary c h i e f .
extended f a m i l y are

in

Wards c o n s i s t i n g o f a s i n g l e

typical.

In the B e n i n v i l l a g e s the male p o p u l a t i o n at any g i v e n time i s

h o r i z o n t a l l y s t r a t i f i e d i n t o three age-grades.

The i r o g h a e i s

entered

by boys i n t h e i r e a r l y teens and they perform v a r i o u s communal t a s k s

as c l e a r i n g paths to the s t r e a m s .
modern v i l l a g e s ,

such

The i g h e l e , which i s d i s a p p e a r i n g i n

i s the grade o f a d u l t men who perform the h e a v i e r and

more s k i l l e d communal t a s k s .

They were f o r m e r l y the e x e c u t i v e arm o f

p o l i t i c a l and j u d i c i a l a u t h o r i t y w i t h i n the v i l l a g e and the p o t e n t i a l

fighting force.

The e d i o n are the e l d e r s who are exempt from communal

l a b o u r and who form the v i l l a g e c o u n c i l f o r p o l i t i c a l and j u d i c i a l

poses.

In o t h e r c o n t e x t s the e d i o n r e f e r

v i l l a g e or o t h e r c o r p o r a t e

D.

pur-

to the c o l l e c t i v e dead o f a

group.

AUTHORITY IN THE VILLAGE

; <
ditary.

There are two k i n d s o f v i l l a g e headman, h e r e d i t a r y and non-hereThe n o n - h e r e d i t a r y headman (odionwere) i s found i n a l l v i l l a g e s

and age i s the p r i n c i p l e f a c t o r i n h i s a p p o i n t m e n t .

Not a l l v i l l a g e s have

an h e r e d i t a r y headman (onogie) and, on the o t h e r hand, the h o l d e r o f such

- 50 an o f f i c e may r u l e over a number o f v i l l a g e s which thus c o n s t i t u t e

dom; c o n v e r s e l y a ward w i t h i n a v i l l a g e may have i t s own o n i g i e .
office
offices

i d e a l l y passes from e l d e s t

son to e l d e s t

a chiefThe

son l i k e a l l h e r e d i t a r y

i n the B e n i n kingdom.
I n v i l l a g e s w i t h o u t enig^ie ( p i . o n i g i e ) meetings o f the v i l l a g e

c o u n c i l t a k e p l a c e e i t h e r at the house o f the odionwere o r i n a s p e c i a l

meeting-house,

ogwedion, w h i c h c o n t a i n s the s h r i n e o f the c o l l e c t i v e dead

( e d i o n ) o f the v i l l a g e .

Every v i l l a g e has an ogwedion l o c a t e d i n a c l e a r e d

space at the e n t r a n c e to or i n the m i d d l e o f the v i l l a g e .

c o u n c i l i s made o f the onogie (where p r e s e n t ) ,
b e r s o f the e d i o n a g e - g r a d e .
discusses

The v i l l a g e

the odionwere and the mem-

A p a r t from i t s j u d i c i a l f u n c t i o n s

such t o p i c s as the c o l l e c t i o n o f t r i b u t e

the

( f o r m e r l y ) , o r , nowa-

d a y s , o f t a x ; the o r g a n i z a t i o n o f c o l l e c t i v e t a s k s and o f c u l t

festivals;

the performance o f s a c r i f i c e s f o r the good o f the community and the

gation of representatives

dele-

to c o n s u l t d i v i n e r s on b e h a l f o f the community

o r i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h i n i t ; r e l a t i o n s w i t h and i n s t r u c t i o n s from the

a u t h o r i t y ; c o n t r i b u t i o n s to funds b o t h f o r p u b l i c purposes
members o f the v i l l a g e who are i n d i f f i c u l t i e s ;
the b u i l d i n g and upkeep o f s c h o o l s , and

E.

council

and to

central
assist

and, a t the p r e s e n t d a y ,

dispensaries.

CHIEFDOMS AND VILLAGE-GROUPS

P e t t y chiefdoms c o n s i s t i n g o f two or more v i l l a g e s owing a l l e g i a n c e

to a h e r e d i t a r y

c h i e f are found i n most p a r t s o f the kingdom but are most

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of i t s eastern r e g i o n .

In the c e n t r e ,

t h e r e i s a tendency f o r v i l l a g e s to be independent

n o r t h , and west

o f each o t h e r and t o

- 51 -

d e a l as s e p a r a t e u n i t s w i t h the c e n t r a l a u t h o r i t y i n B e n i n C i t y .

A t the

p r e s e n t day t h e r e i s a tendency f o r h e r e d i t a r y c h i e f s to l o s e t h e i r
a u t h o r i t y i n v i l l a g e s w h i c h are t r i b u t a r y to them, and f o r each v i l l a g e
t o become an autonomous u n i t w i t h i n the kingdom.

F.

THE POLITICAL STRUCTURE OF BENIN CITY

Though the i n t e r n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n o f B e n i n C i t y and the c e n t r a l

state

o r g a n i z a t i o n i s v e r y complex, a b r i e f o u t l i n e w i t h be s u f f i c i e n t f o r our
purpose.

Benin i t s e l f

i s d i v i d e d i n t o two h a l v e s .

In one h a l f

(Ogbe)

l i v e the Oba and h i s c o u r t and the p a l a c e c h i e f s and i n the o t h e r

okhwa) the town c h i e f s .
f o r t y wards.

The two h a l v e s are f u r t h e r

(Oren'

d i v i d e d i n t o more than

Each o f the members has s p e c i a l d u t i e s to perform to the Oba.

L e a d e r s h i p i n the ward i s a s c r i b e d on a v a r i e t y o f p r i n c i p l e s .
odionwere who are chosen i n the same way as those i n the

Some have

villages,

o t h e r s are headed by h e r e d i t a r y o r n o n - h e r e d i t a r y t i t l e - h o l d e r s o r by
leaders

( i k a o ) a p p o i n t e d by o r w i t h the a p p r o v a l o f the Oba.

A.

There are t h r e e o r d e r s o f c h i e f s who stand out from the r e s t i n

terms o f rank and degree o f a u t h o r i t y .

1.

They a r e :

The Uzama n ' l h i r o n t h e seven Uzamawhose t i t l e s ,

r a n k , are O l i h a , Edbhen, Ezomo, E r o , Eholo n ' I r e ,
Edaiken.

A l l seven t i t l e s are h e r e d i t a r y ;

on the death o f the h o l d e r to h i s e l d e s t

i n order of
O l o t o n , and

the f i r s t s i x descend

s u r v i v i n g son who must,

however, be c e r e m o n i a l l y i n s t a l l e d at the Oba's p a l a c e .

The

c h i e f duty o f the Uzama as a body i s the i n s t a l l a t i o n o f the new

Oba.

- 52 -

2.

The Eghaevo n ' O r e are the town c h i e f s as d i s t i n c t from the

palace c h i e f s .

3.

There are n i n e t e e n Eghaevo n ' O r e

titles.

The Eghaevo n'Ogbe or p a l a c e c h i e f s are the s e n i o r

o f the Oba's h o u s e h o l d .
is

officials

There are 29 o f these t i t l e s and none

hereditary.

There are t h r e e p a l a c e a s s o c i a t i o n s

(otu-eguae).

Each has s p e c i a l

d u t i e s which i t s members perform i n the r o y a l h o u s e h o l d .

F o r example,

the members o f Iwebo are i n charge o f the Oba's wardrobe and the

state

r e g a l i a , and make r e p a i r o f the c o r a l bead garments and ornaments which v ~ ,

are the mark o f h i g h r a n k .

B.

The P a l a c e as a P o l i t i c a l and Ceremonial Centre

The Oba's p a l a c e

(eguae Oba) was the c e n t r e of the p o l i t i c a l

c e r e m o n i a l l i f e o f the B e n i n p e o p l e .

Its

and

i n t e r n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n was com-

p l e x and i t s p o p u l a t i o n l a r g e , c o n s i s t i n g as i t d i d o f the Oba and h i s

many a t t e n d a n t s and h i s numerous w i v e s and c h i l d r e n .

C.

The Oba

The most i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t o f the Edo p o l i t i c a l s t r u c t u r e was

divine kingship.

The m y s t i c a l a s p e c t o f the d i v i n e k i n g s h i p p r o v i d e d the

i d e o l o g i c a l k e y s t o n e o f the p o l i t i c a l s y s t e m .
o f the p o l i t y depended upon two t h i n g s .
sectors

o f the p o p u l a t i o n to the b e l i e f

The c o n t i n u i t y and i n t e g r i t y

F i r s t , the commitment o f a l l
t h a t t h e i r w e l l - b e i n g depended on

the p r o p e r deployment o f the Oba's o w n . ' d i v i n e e n e r g y ' ,

a u t h o r i t y as the i n t e r m e d i a r y w i t h h i s p r e d e c e s s o r s ;
acceptance

the

and o f h i s r i t u a l

and secondly; upon t h e i r

o f the need f o r the k i n g , c h i e f s , and people to cooperate

in

- 53 e n s u r i n g t h a t t h e s e f u n c t i o n s were f r u i t f u l l y

deployed.

i t s r i t u a l r o l e s and the h i g h e r a c h i e f ' s r a n k , the more

h i s r i t u a l functions

(Bradbury 1968: 2 0 0 ) .

Every t i t l e had
indispensable

The Oba had to m a i n t a i n a

b a l a n c e between the competing groups and i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h i n the

political

elite.
P o l i t i c a l r o l e s i n the B e n i n Kingdom have never been c o n c e i v e d o f
i n terms o f the r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s

o f descent

groups

(1968: 1 9 5 ) .

c o n s t i t u t e d the e n d u r i n g framework o f government was

What

'an e l a b o r a t e

f i g u r a t i o n o f u n i t a r y and segmented o r d e r s , graded a s s o c i a t i o n s ,

con-

and

t i e r e d and opposed h i e r a r c h i e s , w i t h the p o l i t i c o - d i v i n e k i n g s h i p at

centre

(1968: 1 9 7 ) .

was p l a y e d .
ized.

T h i s , t h e n , was the arena i n w h i c h the p o l i t i c a l

its
game

T h i s o p p o s i t i o n w i t h i n the Edo p o l i t i c a l s t r u c t u r e was r i t u a l -

For example, the Uzama or h e r e d i t a r y n o b l e s had t h e i r r o l e

sanctioned

i n t h a t they had to w o r s h i p b e f o r e the s h r i n e o f the edion-uzama,

the

c o l l e c t i v e predecessors.

for

Bradbury s t a t e s t h a t t h i s was e s s e n t i a l

n a t i o n ' s w e l l - b e i n g (1967: 1 3 ) .

the

Even the o p p o s i t i o n between the Oba and

the Uzama was g i v e n r i t u a l e x p r e s s i o n i n the i r o n r i t e w h i c h formed p a r t

o f the f e s t i v a l o f the Oba's f a t h e r
form o f a pantomimic b a t t l e

(Ugie-Erha-Oba).

i n w h i c h the Uzama, a f t e r

T h i s r i t e takes

the

c h a l l e n g i n g the Oba

by showing h i m h i s a r c h a i c crowns, i s defeated by the Oba's l o y a l w a r r i o r s

(1967:

15).
The Oba's r e l a t i o n s h i p to the town c h i e f s was a l s o p l a y e d out i n

ritual.
For example, when the Town C h i e f s , swords i n hand, danced homage to
the k i n g they were shadowed by h i s p a l a c e r e t a i n e r s , swords u p r a i s e d
as i f to s t r i k e them down s h o u l d they a t t a c k h i m . U n l i k e the Uzama,
who were the h e r e d i t a r y n o b l e s , the Town C h i e f s were commoners who,
by t h e i r e n t e r p r i s e and the Oba's f a v o u r , had r i s e n to p o s i t i o n s o f
power. The Town C h i e f s a l s o had to perform a r i t e known as zematon,

- 54 -

w h i c h was an act o f p u r i f i c a t i o n and a renewal and r e l e a s e o f the

Oba's m y s t i c a l power. That i t had to be performed by the four
Eghaevbo i s one m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f a c o n s t a n t m o t i f i n B e n i n r i t u a l ,
namely t h a t the Oba and the Edo are i n a r e l a t i o n s h i p o f m y s t i c a l
interdependence.
In many c o n t e x t s , t h i s mutual dependence i s e x p r e s sed through a c t s o f r i t u a l communion between the Oba and h i s p r e d e c e s s o r s , on the one h a n d , the and people and t h e i r dead, on the
o t h e r ; but the n o t i o n u n d e r l y i n g the zematon i s t h a t the m y s t i c a l
power o f the l i v i n g k i n g has i t s complement i n the l i v i n g community
(1968: 2 5 - 6 ) .
Thus even though t h e r e was a sense i n w h i c h the Oba was opposed t o

the

Uzama and E d i o n - E d o to E d i o n - O b a . the d i v i n e k i n g u n i t e d these opposing

forces

in himself.

The b e s t i n t e r e s t s

o f a l l l a y i n the maintenance o f

a b a l a n c e o f power between the Town C h i e f s and the P a l a c e (1967: 2 7 ) .

The d i v i n e k i n g s h i p , t h e r e f o r e ,

played a s i g n i f i c a n t r o l e i n u n i f y i n g

o n l y the f a c t i o n s and o p p o s i t i o n s w i t h i n the p o l i t i c a l s t r u c t u r e ,

bound the d i v e r s i t y o f d i v i n i t i e s and c u l t s i n t o one s y s t e m .
w o r s h i p o f past k i n g s was i n t e r w o v e n i n c o n t r a p u n t a l
worship of various categories
system.

but

also

For the

fashion with

o f the dead, at a l l l e v e l s c b f the

not

the

social

And the l o c a l c u l t s o f n a t u r e and f r e e d i v i n i t i e s were i n c o r -

p o r a t e d by o r g a n i z a t i o n a l and m y t h o l o g i c a l t e c h n i q u e s

into a state

pantheon

i n w h i c h the Oba as " k i n g of dry l a n d " was i d e n t i f i e d w i t h Olokun as

o f the w a t e r s "

"king

(1967: 3 2 ) .

To sum u p , mutual r i t u a l o b l i g a t i o n s , s a n c t i o n e d by the

w o r l d - v i e w , served to c o u n t e r d i s r u p t i v e t e n d e n c i e s
flicting political

interests.

general

i n the p u r s u i t o f c o n -

Every p o l i t i c a l r o l e i m p l i e d r i t u a l r o l e s .

The d i s t r i b u t i o n o f r i g h t s , and p r i v i l e g e s among the complex h i e r a r c h i e s

of o f f i c i a l d o m received constant
rituals.

e x p r e s s i o n i n an e n d l e s s

s e r i e s of palace

The c o n t i n u i t y o f the s t a t e and the s a n c t i t y o f i t s

were r e i t e r a t e d

institutions

i n r i t u a l by l i n k i n g each s i g n i f i c a n t o f f i c e and i n s t i t u t i o n

w i t h the k i n g who had c r e a t e d

i t o r shown i t s p e c i a l f a v o u r , and by g i v i n g

- 55 i t a p a r t to p l a y i n the r i t e s

addressed

In the modern p o l i t i c a l e r a ,

to h i m .

the Oba and h i s p a l a c e do not p l a y as

s i g n i f i c a n t a p a r t i n p o l i t i c s as they used t o .
'After

As Bradbury has

1951 the p o l i t i c a l s t r u g g l e l a y between named, e n d u r i n g

parties

a f f i l i a t e d to n a t i o n a l i s t p a r t i e s

r e g i o n a l and f e d e r a l l e v e l s '

local

c o n t e s t i n g f o r power at

(1968: 2 5 0 ) .

In the modern e r a ,

Edo p o l i t i c a l system has s h i f t e d to a p a r t y - b a s e d

a f t e r Western m o d e l s .

the

then,

the

system where power i s

determined l a r g e l y by knowledge o f modern p o l i t i c a l t e c h n i q u e s

patterned

said:

and

skills

F o r m e r l y most o f the Oba's time was

taken

up i n s t a t e r i t u a l s , o f w h i c h the most important were the annual s a c r i fices

to h i s a n c e s t o r s

and t o h i s own h e a d .

H i s head i s equated w i t h h i s

good o r bad f o r t u n e and w i t h the w e l l - b e i n g o f the kingdom, and the s a c r i f i c e s to i t are f o l l o w e d by the t r e a t m e n t o f a l l p a r t s o f h i s body w i t h
m e d i c i n e s d e s i g n e d to s t r e n g t h e n him the coming y e a r .

The most

important

s t a t e r i t u a l takes p l a c e around mid-December at the Oba's p a l a c e

Festival).

A p a r t from the s t a t e r i t u a l s

(Igwe

i n B e n i n C i t y the Oba m a i n t a i n s

c o n t r o l o v e r the c u l t s o f h e r o - d i v i n i t i e s .

These c u l t s are d i r e c t e d

to

the s p i r i t s o f former heroes i n the s t a t e and i n a few cases t o p a r t i c u l a r

aspects of past k i n g s .

The dates o f annual f e s t i v a l s

i n t h e i r honour must

be approved by the Oba, who f r e q u e n t l y p r o v i d e s r e g a l i a and

offerings

and i n the case o f the more i m p o r t a n t ones sends someone

represent him.
rites

sacrificial

He f i x e s , t o o , the dates f o r the performance o f the

to
annual

i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h domestic c u l t s at a l l o f w h i c h the f i n a l p r a y e r

f o r the Oba h i m s e l f .
S u c c e s s i o n to the k i n g s h i p i s by p r i m o g e n i t u r e , the s e n i o r son
v a l i d a t i n g h i s c l a i m by p e r f o r m i n g h i s f a t h e r ' s

mortuary r i t e s

and h a v i n g

is

- 56 -

himself

i n s t a l l e d by the Uzama at the s i t e o f the p a l a c e o f Eweka I .

The Oba's c o u r t was f o r m e r l y most e l a b o r a t e ,

l i v i n g i n the p a l a c e .

w i t h hundreds

of

retainers

Economic support f o r the p a l a c e o r g a n i z a t i o n and

s t a t e r i t u a l s came from a v a r i e t y o f s o u r c e s .

Regular t r i b u t e o f food-

s t u f f s was l e v i e d t w i c e y e a r l y on a l l v i l l a g e s i n the kingdom and i n

t r i b u t a r y areas and the Oba c o u l d c a l l upon any v i l l a g e to p r o v i d e l a b o u r
for such t a s k s as b u i l d i n g and r e p a i r i n g the

palace.

In the l a s t a n a l y s i s the b a s i s o f the Oba's power appears to l i e i n

the t r a d i t i o n a l m y s t i c a l v a l u e s a t t a c h i n g to the s a c r e d i n s t i t u t i o n o f
k i n g s h i p and to the e g u a e : ( p a l a c e ) .

I n d i v i d u a l s a l l over the kingdom c l a i m

to b e l o n g to one or o t h e r o f the p a l a c e a s s o c i a t i o n s and the

highest

p o s i t i o n to w h i c h anyone can a s p i r e i s t o be ' n e x t to the Oba.

D.

A d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f the Oba's T e r r i t o r i e s

The whole t e r r i t o r y r u l e d by the Oba b o t h i n s i d e and o u t s i d e

B e n i n kingdom was f o r m e r l y d i v i d e d i n t o a l a r g e number o f t r i b u t e

the

units.

A c h i e f d o m , v i l l a g e - g r o u p , v i l l a g e , w a r d , and any c o m b i n a t i o n o f these and

even c o l l e c t i o n s o f i n d i v i d u a l s d i s p e r s e d between the d i f f e r e n t wards o f
a v i l l a g e might c o n s t i t u t e
system i s now d e f u n c t ,

The t r a d i t i o n a l

administrative

though i n the few cases where t r i b u t e u n i t s were

associated with hereditary

E.

a single u n i t .

titles

some t i e s o f l o y a l t y r e m a i n .

The S t a t e C o u n c i l

In the p a s t most o f the d a y - t o - d a y a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f the kingdom

appears to have been conducted by p r i v a t e c o n s u l t a t i o n and n e g o t i a t i o n
between the Oba and the s e n i o r t i t l e - h o l d e r s .

For more important m a t t e r s ,

- 57 such as the p r o m u l g a t i o n o f new l a w s , the d e c i s i o n to conduct w a r s ,

the

f i x i n g o f important f e s t i v a l d a t e s , the c r e a t i o n o f new t i t l e s ,

the

r a i s i n g o f s p e c i a l l e v i e s , and the t a k i n g o f r i t u a l measures to

prevent

epidemics, e t c .

a full

c o u n c i l was c a l l e d .

Today B e n i n i s

administered

by a number o f M i n i s t r i e s : F i n a n c e , L o c a l Government, Community Development, e t c .

The Oba and h i s c o u r t now f u n c t i o n more as g u a r d i a n s

s p i r i t u a l o r d e r and s p i r i t u a l w e l l - b e i n g o f B e n i n , than as
o f the economic and p o l i t i c a l a f f a i r s

of

the

administrators

o f the kingdom.

F.

Land Tenure

All

the l a n d o f the B e n i n kingdom i s s a i d , by the Edo, to b e l o n g

to the Oba.

But such statements r e f e r

p r i m a r i l y to h i s p o s i t i o n as

the

p o l i t i c a l r u l e r o f the t e r r i t o r y r a t h e r than to h i s a c t u a l c o n t r o l over

the use o f the l a n d .

The l a n d i s v e s t e d

p e o p l e and h i s ownership o f i t i n t h i s
l a t i o n o f each new Oba when a f t e r
Ogiamwen put o i l i n t o h i s p a l m .
A u t h o r i t y , he e x e r c i s e s
resources

i n him as t r u s t e e f o r the whole

sense i s s y m b o l i z e d at the

instal-

a mock b a t t l e to c a p t u r e the c i t y C h i e f
Today as the p r e s i d e n t

o f the N a t i v e

c o n t r o l over the o c c u p a t i o n and use o f l a n d and

i n B e n i n D i v i s i o n by s t r a n g e r s .

O u t s i d e B e n i n C i t y the v i l l a g e i s the t y p i c a l l a n d - h o l d i n g u n i t ,
though i n many cases no b o u n d a r i e s between the t e r r i t o r i e s
v i l l a g e s are r e c o g n i z e d .

No r i g h t s

of

different

i n f a l l o w land are r e c o g n i z e d .

It

r e v e r t s t o the community once a man has c l e a r e d l a n d , p l a n t e d i t over two

or t h r e e y e a r s .

An Edo who wishes to farm on l a n d o f a v i l l a g e o t h e r

than h i s own must seek the p e r m i s s i o n o f the o n i g i e or odionwere to do s o .

In p r a c t i c e ,

farms seem to have been e s t a b l i s h e d

i n two main ways.

First,

- 58 they c o u l d make an arrangement w i t h the headman o f an e x i s t i n g v i l l a g e to

s t a t i o n t h e i r farm-workers t h e r e and to farm on the v i l l a g e l a n d .

Alter-

n a t i v e l y a w e a l t h y c h i e f w i t h many s l a v e s might c l e a r v i r g i n f o r e s t

out-

s i d e the c o n t r o l o f any v i l l a g e and e s t a b l i s h a camp t h e r e to house h i s

s l a v e s and o t h e r dependents.

They too were a l l o w e d to c u l t i v a t e on t h e i r

own and the s l a v e s o r t h e i r c h i l d r e n would e v e n t u a l l y purchase

their

e m a n c i p a t i o n and the camp would develop i n t o a v i l l a g e w i t h the u s u a l

type o f v i l l a g e s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n .
The c u l t i v a t i o n o f permanent

crops has brought about some changes

i n the t r a d i t i o n a l p a t t e r n o f l a n d r i g h t s t h o u g h , t h e o r e t i c a l l y , i t

has

n o t r e s u l t e d i n i n d i v i d u a l ownership o f the l a n d .

large

r u b b e r and o i l - p a l m p l a n t a t i o n s

Wealthy men have

and v i l l a g e s have been encouraged by the

A d m i n i s t r a t i o n t o e s t a b l i s h communal l a b o u r p l a n t a t i o n s but t h e s e were

e v e n t u a l l y c o n v e r t e d to i n d i v i d u a l o w n e r s h i p .
T r a d i t i o n a l l y the a l l o c a t i o n o f house s i t e s

i n B e n i n C i t y was i n

the hands o f the Oba, who w o u l d , however, u s u a l l y c o n s u l t the c h i e f s or

e l d e r s o f the ward i n w h i c h the proposed b u i l d i n g was t o take p l a c e .

To-

day an Edo who wishes to a c q u i r e a s i t e must seek the recommendation o f

the

e l d e r s o f the ward i n w h i c h i t i s l o c a t e d a f t e r h a v i n g i t surveyed and a

p l a n made by the N a t i v e A u t h o r i t y S u r v e y o r .

IV.

A.

THE LIFE CYCLE

BIRTH

For the b i r t h o f her f i r s t c h i l d a woman o f t e n r e t u r n s to her

mother

- 59 and

she may do so f o r subsequent o n e s .

When she i s known t o have c o n c e i v e d

h e r husband may o f f e r s a c r i f i c e s t o her f a t h e r ' s

and h i s own a n c e s t o r s and

t o o t h e r s p i r i t s o r d i v i n i t i e s under whose protection(th?e c h i l d i s b e l i e v e d

to be.
and

The woman i s t r e a t e d w i t h c e r t a i n m e d i c i n e s , wears s p e c i a l amulets

d r e s s e s her h a i r i n a p p r o p r i a t e p a t t e r n s .

The c h i l d i s washed w i t h

sand and p a l m - o i l to ensure t h a t i t w i l l not s m e l l when i t grows u p , and

w i t h w a t e r , and the mother h e r s e l f i s washed i n the b a c k y a r d .

The um-

b i l i c a l c o r d i s p l a n t e d i n the ground w i t h the seed o f the k o l a or c o c o a nut t r e e i n the hope t h a t the c h i l d w i l l grow l i k e the t r e e .

The p l a c e n t a

i s b u r i e d i n s i d e or o u t s i d e the house and g r e a t c a r e i s t a k e n t o make the

h o l e b i g enough f o r i t t o spread out e v e n l y .
About t h r e e months a f t e r

the b i r t h and woman washes, puts

fine

c l o t h e s on h e r s e l f and the b a b y , and takes i t t o the market where she

makes o f f e r i n g t o the e d i o n o f the m a r k e t .

S h o r t l y afterwards

she takes

the c h i l d to the r i v e r and makes o f f e r i n g s t o the d i v i n i t y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h

it.

B.

NAMING CEREMONIES

The r i t e s accompanying the naming o f a c h i l d

(izomo) v a r y ' c o n s i d e r -

a b l y , b u t n o r m a l l y t a k e p l a c e on the s e v e n t h day a f t e r

the b i r t h .

morning the f a t h e r or h i s f a t h e r or s e n i o r b r o t h e r p r e s e n t s
his

In the

the c h i l d

to

a n c e s t o r s , making o f f e r i n g s and p r a y i n g t h a t i t w i l l grow up s a f e l y .

The baby i s u s u a l l y lowered a number o f times over the a l t a r o f the ancestor.

In some cases a s p e c i a l m e d i c i n e i s prepared some o f which i s rubbed

on the c h i l d and the r e s t

i n c l u d e d i n an amulet w h i c h i t w i l l wear throughout

- 60 its life.

In many f a m i l i e s the women o f the h o u s e h o l d c a l l

n e i g h b o u r s to h o l d a dance the same e v e n i n g .

prays to the c o l l e c t i v e a n c e s t o r

in their

The s e n i o r woman p r e s e n t

s p i r i t s f o r the c h i l d ' s w e l l - b e i n g and

its

head i s touched to the ground seven times i n t o k e n o f i t s s u b m i s s i o n t o

them.
so.

Names are g i v e n by the f a t h e r and by anyone e l s e who cares to do

Yams w h i c h were p l a c e d by the c h i l d ' s head on the bed on the day o f

b i r t h are d i v i d e d between the women p r e s e n t ,

the head o f one o f them

b e i n g r e s e r v e d t o the woman who f i r s t washed

it.

C.

INFANCY TO ADOLESCENCE

Up to the age o f s i x or seven boys and g i r l s p l a y t o g e t h e r .

seven o r e i g h t the boys b e g i n to accompany t h e i r f a t h e r s
farm and g r a d u a l l y l e a r n male s k i l l s .
elder sisters

r e g u l a r l y to

to the farm to f e t c h water and wood and to m a r k e t ;

boys takes p l a c e i n i n f a n c y o r e a r l y c h i l d h o o d .

they

The c i r c u m c i s i o n o f

This i s s t i l l

practised

C l i t o r i d e c t o m y o f g i r l s a l s o took p l a c e a t i n f a n c y , but

practice is f a l l i n g

i n t o abeyance.

the

G i r l s go w i t h t h e i r mothers and

q u i c k l y l e a r n to c a r r y s m a l l loads on t h e i r h e a d s .

by a l l E d o s .

At

There are no p u b e r t y r i t e s

for

its

either

sex.

D.

MARRIAGE

The t r a d i t i o n a l process o f m a r r i a g e was as

1. . Imwu-omo: the

' a s k i n g f o r the c h i l d . '

follows.
When a baby g i r l

i s born

s u i t o r s may b e g i n to approach her p a r e n t s f o r her h a n d , s e n d i n g

- 61 t o them a l o g o f wood and a b u n d l e o f yams.

When the

father

o f the g i r l , w i t h the a p p r o v a l o f h i s own f a t h e r o r s e n i o r

b r o t h e r , has chosen a s u i t a b l e mate, he informs h i m o f the
date o f the formal b e t r o t h a l .

The s u i t o r them prepares

gifts

w h i c h i n some v i l l a g e s c o n s i s t of a j a r o f p a l m - w i n e , two t r a y s
o f s l i c e d coconut w i t h two k o l a n u t s on each and 2s.

These

are t a k e n t o the a l t a r o f the g i r l ' s p a t r i l i n e a l a n c e s t o r s

to

n o t i f y them o f the b e t r o t h a l .
2.

A f t e r t h i s has been done, the s u i t o r must g i v e s e r v i c e (uganmwen)

to h i s p r o s p e c t i v e p a r e n t s - i n - l a w , g i v i n g p r e s e n t s o f yams to
the f a t h e r

and mother each y e a r , h e l p i n g the former on h i s farm,

p r o v i d i n g the mother w i t h f i r e w o o d .

Today t h e s e

'services'

o f t e n take the form o f p e r i o d i c g i f t s o f money and c l o t h .

3.

The anyo-imiomo: the

'wine o f r e c e i v i n g the c h i l d . '

When a

date has been f i x e d the s u i t o r prepares more g i f t s o f w i n e ,

k o l a , and coconut as f u r t h e r o f f e r i n g s to the a n c e s t o r s o f the
girl
and
one.

to n o t i f y them t h a t the m a r r i a g e i s about to take p l a c e

to ask f o r t h e i r h e l p i n making i t a f r u i t f u l

A t t h i s stage the groom w i l l make the marriage-payment

to the g i r l ' s f a t h e r ,
for

and prosperous

the

t o g e t h e r w i t h g i f t s f o r the mother and

' p e o p l e i n the h o u s e . '

The m a r r i a g e i s s e a l e d by the

payment o f 2s. w h i c h i s c a l l e d anyo-imiomo.

4.

I r h i o h a r i e : ' t a k i n g the b r i d e to her h u s b a n d . '

The

latter's

r e l a t i v e s and f r i e n d s g a t h e r at h i s house to dance and s i n g .

Meanwhile the g i r l
friends,

i s conducted by her b r o t h e r s ,

sister,

c a r r y i n g her p r o p e r t y , to the husband's h o u s e .

and
On

62

a r r i v a l the b r i d e , f e i g n i n g s h y n e s s ,
l a p by her b r o t h e r .

The husband's

i s p l a c e d i n her

senior wife,

husband's

i f he has any,

o f some o t h e r woman i n the house b r i n g s a bowl o f water i n

w h i c h money o r c o w r i e s have been p l a c e d and washes the b r i d e ' s
hands.

T h i s r i t e s y m b o l i z e s the acceptance o f h e r i n t o the

h o u s e h o l d and the money expresses

w i l l be a f r u i t f u l

one.

t o eat a s o l i t a r y m e a l .

the hope t h a t the m a r r i a g e

She i s then l e d away t o be bathed and

The husband t h e n e n t e r t a i n s

the b r i d e ' s

p a r t y and makes g i f t s to them, some f o r themselves and some to

t a k e back to h i s p a r e n t ' s - i n - l a w .

The b r i d a l p a r t y l e a v e s and

the husband c o n t i n u e s to e n t e r t a i n h i s own p e o p l e w i t h

feasting

and d a n c i n g .
Two days l a t e r the husband goes to thank the p a r e n t s o f
h i s b r i d e and i s e n t e r t a i n e d by them.

On the seventh day

after

the b r i d e ' s a r r i v a l her mother comes t o see h e r , and to demand

the c l o t h on w h i c h the p a i r s l e p t on the f i r s t n i g h t .

If

the

g i r l proved t o be a v i r g i n the c l o t h i s g i v e n to the mother and

she r e c e i v e s p r e s e n t s i n cash and i s e n t e r t a i n e d by the husband.
The same day the b r i d e c l e a n s the w a l l s o f the
a n c e s t o r s h r i n e and p r a y e r s are s a i d f o r h e r .

husband's

I t i s on t h i s

day too t h a t she e n t e r s the k i t c h e n and cooks f o r the f i r s t t i m e .

Today, B e n i n c h i l d b e t r o t h a l i s d y i n g o r has d i e d o u t .

The g e n e r a l

p a t t e r n o f the m a r r i a g e ceremony r e m a i n s , w i t h a l t e r a t i o n s depending on

o n e ' s a l l e g i a n c e to one o f the many C h r i s t i a n denominations i n B e n i n C i t y .
A woman can d i v o r c e her husband s i m p l y by r e p a y i n g the marriage-payment i n
the N a t i v e c o u r t or by f i n d i n g a l o v e r who i s w i l l i n g to pay i t f o r h e r .

- 63 -

The husband w i l l u s u a l l y make a c l a i m f o r refund o f the a d d i t i o n a l money

t h a t he has spent on h e r .

E.

DEATH AND MORTUARY R I T E S

Mortuary r i t e s d i f f e r
and rank o f the d e c e a s e d .
predecease

a c c o r d i n g t o c l a n , l o c a l i t y , and the

status

F o r the Edo the i d e a l i s t h a t the p a r e n t s s h o u l d

t h e i r c h i l d r e n and s e n i o r s i b l i n g s t h e i r j u n i o r s .

Children of

the deceased s h o u l d perform the mortuary r i t e s , w i t h the s e n i o r son p l a y i n g

the l e a d i n g r o l e , and no p e r s o n p l a y s an a c t i v e p a r t
one j u n i o r to h i m s e l f .

i n the r i t e s

I n B e n i n C i t y , at the p r e s e n t

f o r some-

day, most b u r i a l s

take p l a c e i n the p u b l i c c e m e t e r i e s and o n l y v e r y prominent people may

be b u r i e d , w i t h the Oba's p e r m i s s i o n , i n t h e i r h o u s e s .

No p e r s o n o t h e r

t h a n the Oba may be b u r i e d i n the Ogbe s e c t i o n o f the town.

When f u l l mortuary r i t e s are accorded they take seven days i n the
o f o r d i n a r y people and f o u r t e e n f o r the Oba and some i m p o r t a n t c h i e f s .
may be performed i m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r

case
They

the decease o r , i f the s e n i o r son i s too

young or cannot a f f o r d the n e c e s s a r y expense, be d e l a y e d i n d e f i n i t e l y .

Some mortuary r i t e s may t a k e p l a c e twenty y e a r s a f t e r

interment.

The

f o l l o w i n g i s a d e s c r i p t i o n o f the main stages o f the mortuary r i t e s

an o r d i n a r y a d u l t man w i t h
1.

for

sons.

When a death i s confirmed the p e o p l e i n the house and o t h e r

r e l a t i v e s and f r i e n d s b e g i n to weep and w a i l .

The body i s t a k e n o u t s i d e

For a d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s o f Edo mortuary r i t e s see ' F a t h e r s , E l d e r s ,

and Ghosts i n Edo R e l i g i o n , " i n A n t h r o p o l o g i c a l Approaches to the Study o f
R e l i g i o n ( e d . by M . B a n t o n ) , p p . 1 2 7 - 1 5 3 . A . S . A . Monograph N o . 3 , New
York: Frederick A . Praeger.

- 64 and washed, then l a i d on a bed i n s i d e the h o u s e .

The h a i r and

n a i l s are cut and i f the mortuary r i t e s are n o t to take p l a c e

i m m e d i a t e l y , are p r e s e r v e d by the s e n i o r s o n , u s u a l l y i n a b l o c k
of ' c h a l k . '
blood.

A goat i s s a c r i f i c e d and the body a n n o i n t e d w i t h

The corpse i s then adorned w i t h b r a c e l e t s o f c o w r i e s

and a w h i t e c l o t h and a f e a t h e r

i s s t u c k i n t o the h a i r .

If

the grave i s i n the cemetery the c h i l d r e n o f the deceased go

t h e r e i n p r o c e s s i o n w i t h the c o r p s e , s i n g i n g seven s p e c i a l
b u r i a l songs and s c a t t e r i n g c h a l k , s a l t , and c o w r i e s on the way.
A hen i s k i l l e d and i t s b l o o d used to wash from the f e e t o f the
mourners those i m p u r i t i e s and r i t u a l dangers a s s o c i a t e d w i t h
the

grave.
I f the f u l l mortuary r i t e s are to be performed immediately

these r i t e s

c o n s t i t u t e the f i r s t d a y .

O t h e r w i s e the

mortuary b e g i n s w i t h o n l y members o f the deceased

seven-day

lineage per-

forming the iwaorinmwin (the l a y i n g out o f the c o r p s e ) .

The

n a i l s and h a i r w h i c h have been p r e s e r v e d from the dead man

are t i e d , w i t h c h a l k , s a l t ,
which a white feather

and c o w r i e s , i n a w h i t e c l o t h

is inserted.

into

Over t h i s b u n d l e , w h i c h

r e p r e s e n t s the c o r p s e , a goat i s s l a u g h t e r e d .

The seven b u r i a l

songs are sung and the body i n t e r r e d .

2.

Izakhwe: the c e r e m o n i a l p r o c e s s i o n around the town.

son s l a u g h t e r s

The s e n i o r

a cow o r goat on the t h r e s h o l d o f the house f o r

the e r h a s p i r i t s o f the f a m i l y on the t h i r d d a y .

each o f h i s b r o t h e r s

Then he and

and b r o t h e r s - i n - l a w and, sometimes, h i s

a d u l t sons and daughters

o f t h e i r husbands,

place

themselves

- 65 at the head o f groups o f dependents and f r i e n d s which march

around the town i n o r d e r o f s e n i o r i t y o f t h e i r l e a d e r s ,

to

the accompaniment o f b u r i a l and o t h e r songs i n honour o f the

dead.
3.

Isoton:

On the f i f t h

day t h e r e i s another p r o c e s s i o n .

This

time the l e a d e r o f each group has a box (okun) d e c o r a t e d w i t h

a r e d c l o t h and bradd adornments w h i c h r e p r e s e n t s the p r o s p e r i t y o f the deceased and the r e s p e c t
l e a d e r takes w i t h h i m o f f e r i n g s
w h i c h are a g o a t ,

accorded h i m .

The

(oton) the main components o f

a calabash o f . o i l , basket of cocoanuts,

k o l a n u t s , a mat, and a w h i t e c l o t h .

seven

On r e t u r n to the house

each mourner p r e s e n t s h i s o t o n to the assembled e l d e r s o f

the

l i n e a g e , who i n s p e c t them t o see i f they are c o m p l e t e ; i f not

a sum o f money i s o f f e r e d i n as a
4.

Ikpowia:

A. dance b e g i n s on the e v e n i n g o f the f o l l o w i n g day

which w i l l
tion,

substitute.

continue u n t i l daybreak.

A p e r s o n , chosen by d i v i n a -

i s d r e s s e d up i n f i n e c l o t h e s to r e p r e s e n t

the

deceased.

D u r i n g the n i g h t he s i t s on a bench i n the house w h i l e a l l h i s

descendants

come, and, through a spokesman a s s u r e s them t h a t

the deceased w i l l

c o n t i n u e to look a f t e r

them from erimwin

(the s p i r i t w o r l d ) as he has done on e a r t h .

father'
5.

T h i s done

dances w i t h h i s c h i l d r e n f o r the l a s t

A t dawn the p e o p l e , l e d by the f a t h e r ,

'the

time.

go i n p r o c e s s i o n to a

nearby a r e a o f bush where a framework o f s t i c k s , covered w i t h

a c l o t h , has been e r e c t e d .
components are thrown away.

When the s t r u c t u r e

collapses,

T h i s r i t e , known as the

its

isuerhanfua

- 66 -

( t h r o w i n g away the s t i c k s ) , s y m b o l i z e s the f i n a l

disposal of

the remains o f the deceased and the c a s t i n g o f f o f r i t u a l imp u r i t i e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h death from the mourners.

The subse-

quent s t a t e o f r i t u a l p u r i t y i s e x p r e s s e d i n the song ' I t

is

c o o l l i k e the bush near the r i v e r ' which accompanies the homeward p r o c e s s i o n .

fired

As the mourners r e a c h the house a mortar

to induce the

representative

'father's'

is

s p i r i t to. come home and h i s

t r a c e s a l i n e w i t h powdered c h a l k to the

shrine

where he w i l l be w o r s h i p p e d .
6.

A few hours

l a t e r the ("senior son and h i s f a t h e r ' s

senior

sur-

v i v i n g b r o t h e r perform the r i t e known as ukonmwen ( p l a n t i n g )

i n which c a r v e d s t i c k s (ukhurhe) are p l a c e d u p r i g h t on the

a l t e r o f the d e c e a s e d .

A goat i s s a c r i f i c e d and o t h e r

offerings

made and the

'father'

i s asked to c o n t i n u e to come t h e r e and

eat w i t h h i s

' c h i l d r e n ' who come i n t h e i r t u r n to pray f o r

t h e m s e l v e s , t h e i r spouses, and t h e i r

dependents.

A p a r t from these mortuary r i t e s w h i c h are the c o n c e r n o f the d e c e a s e d ' s

s i b l i n g s and descendants

h i s membership o f o t h e r k i n d s o f groups i s a l s o

s i g n i f i e d after h i s death.

Thus a goat must be p r e s e n t e d by the s e n i o r son

to the people o f the v i l l a g e f o r s a c r i f i c e f o r the e d i o n s p i r i t s and to

the

members o f any c u l t - g r o u p o r t i t l e - a s s o c i a t i o n o r o r d e r o f which he was a

member.

The mortuary r i t e s o f the Oba f o l l o w the same g e n e r a l p a t t e r n

are much more

elaborate.

but

CHAPTER I I I

THE STRUCTURE OF THE EDO COSMOLOGY

I.

INTRODUCTION

As we have seen i n Chapter I , w r i t e r s such as E v a n s - P r i t c h a r d (Nuer

R e l i g i o n ) and L i e n h a r d t ( D i v i n i t y and E x p e r i e n c e ) have a n a l y z e d the
mologies o f the N i l o t i c Nuer and D i n k a r e s p e c t i v e l y .
i n a supreme D i v i n i t y as w e l l as o t h e r d i v i n i t i e s . ' ' "

Both peoples

cosbelieve

These d i v i n i t i e s ,

however, are not seen as b e i n g s h a v i n g a s e p a r a t e e x i s t e n c e , but as

re-

f r a c t i o n s o f the one s p i r i t who i s p e r v a s i v e i n the w o r l d .

The v a r i o u s d i v i n i t i e s i n the Edo cosmology are not s i m p l y r e f r a c t i o n s o f the a t t r i b u t e s

of a universal s p i r i t .

They are c a t e g o r i e s

b e i n g h a v i n g a s e p a r a t e e x i s t e n c e who can be d i f f e r e n t i a t e d

of

from each

other.
The Edo w o r l d i s b i p a r t i t e .

Osanobua i s b e l i e v e d t o be the

founder

o f the d i v i n i t y - o r d e r (erimwin) and the c r e a t o r o f the w o r l d o f man and

n a t u r e (a g b o n) .

A l l o f the d i v i n i t i e s l i v e i n e r i m w i n and communicate

w i t h man who l i v e s i n agbon.

tured.

The Edo cosmology i s h i e r a r c h i c a l l y s t r u c -

The s t a t u s and r o l e o f the d i v i n i t i e s i s b e l i e v e d to have been

by Osanobua who has c r e a t e d a l l t h i n g s .

set

He has d e l e g a t e d v a r y i n g degrees

I w i l l use the term d i v i n i t y throughout t h i s w o r k . Many w r i t e r s

use o t h e r t e r m i n o l o g y such as gods, s p i r i t s , d e i t i e s and super-human
b e i n g s . By d i v i n i t y I w i l l mean any o f the Edo e n t i t i e s b e l i e v e d to d w e l l
i n erimwin.

- 68 of power to the d i v i n i t i e s , g i v i n g them p a r t i c u l a r spheres o f i n f l u e n c e

i n agbon.

In the p r o v i d e d c h a r t

(Diagram 1 ) , i t can be seen t h a t some

d i v i n i t i e s are a t t a c h e d to a p a r t i c u l a r s o c i a l u n i t , d e f i n e d by membership
i n a lineage or v i l l a g e - u n i t .

Other d i v i n i t i e s are f r e e .

The usage o f

the term f r e e does not mean t h a t they are not served by a c u l t ; i t i s

t h a t the c u l t i s not coterminous w i t h a predetermined s o c i a l u n i t .

just

Esu and

and azen are a l s o f r e e , but are not served by any c u l t .

Each of. tfhe d i v i n i t i e s has h i s a l l o t t e d p l a c e i n the cosmology.
A c c o r d i n g t o Bradbury (1957: 52) t h e r e are four c a t e g o r i e s o f b e i n g i n the
2
Edo c o s m o l o g y .
1.

D i v i n i t i e s who have never been i n c a r n a t e d as human b e i n g s .

2.

S p i r i t s o f the

3.

H e r o - d i v i n i t i e s associated with n a t u r a l features

departed.
o f the e n v i r o n -

ment .
4.

P e r s o n a l s p i r i t s and powers.

Category 1
Osanobua, O l o k u n , Ogun, Ogiuwu, Obiemwen, Osun and E s u .

Although

none o f these d i v i n i t i e s has ever been i n c a r n a t e d as human b e i n g s , we need a

f u r t h e r means o f d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g them.
important d i v i n i t i e s
differentiated
priest

(ohen).

Olokun and Ogun are two o f the most

i n the Edo r e l i g i o n .

Both o f these b e i n g s c o u l d be

from the o t h e r s by v i r t u e o f t h e i r a b i l i t y to possess

Osanobua has never been known to possess

the

any man.

I would a c c e p t t h i s c l a s s i f i c a t o r y scheme w i t h r e s e r v a t i o n s .
Bradb u r y ' s c h o i c e o f ' i n c a r n a t i o n ' may be somewhat m i s l e a d i n g . For i n c a r n a t i o n
i m p l i e s t h a t a s p i r i t u a l b e i n g becomes man. No d i v i n i t y i n the Edo c o s mology has ever done t h a t ; the h e r o - d i v i n i t i e s were once men, l a t e r becoming
spirit.

- 69 THE EDO COSMOLOGY

NAME OF
DIVINITY

MEANING OF
NAME

Osanobua

Creator of

ATTRIBUTES OF
DIVINITY

O m n i s c i e n t , omnipotent r u l e r of
the cosmos

ASSOCIATION
WITH FEATURES
OF THE NATURAL
ENVIRONMENT

SYMBOLIC
REPRESENTATION

SPHERE OF
INFLUENCE

I n the p a s t Osanobua
was r e p r e s e n t e d by
O b a - f i g u r e s and a
s m a l l heap o f sand
with a stick in its
midst t i e d w i t h a
s t r i p of c l o t h

Upholder o f
s o c i a l and
moral order
i n Edo k i n g dom

ASSOCIATION
WITH UNITS OF
THE SOCIAL
STRUCTURE

CULTIC
FOLLOWING

RELIGIOUS
FUNCTIONARY
(OHEN)

DIVINITY AS
THE OBJECT OF
SACRIFICE
AND OFFERINGS

Yes
o n l y food
offerings

None

None

Yes

Yes

The sea

None

Yes

Yes

Yes

Olokun

Divinity of
the sea

Favoured son o f
Osanobua.
Peacable, gentle
and good

An O b a - f i g u r e s u r rounded by s e r v a n t s
the c o l o u r w h i t e

Giver of
health,
w e a l t h and
children

Ogun

D i v i n i t y of
metal

F u r i o u s , tempermental and
c a p a b l e o f dest r u c t i v e acts

Anything metal;
the c o l o u r r e d

A r b i t e r of
justice.
tutelary divi n i t y for
i r o n workers

None

None

None

None

Yes

Esu

Divinity
who does
evil

D i r t y , black
and u g l y .
Capable o f
destructive
acts

Thorn s t i c k o r a
s m a l l wooden d o l l ;
the c o l o u r b l a c k

Disrupts indiv i d u a l and

s o c i e t a l harmony

None

None

None

None

Yes

Herodivinities

Names o f
hero-divin i t i e s are
synonymous
with a feat u r e o f the
n a t u r a l environment

Attributes vary
from d i v i n i t y
to d i v i n i t y

V a r i e s from d i v i n i t y to d i v i n i t y

Welfare of
particular
villages

Served
exclusiv e l y by
village
units

None

Yes

Yes

Ogauwu

King of
death

Formerly a
furious being

Ob iemwen

Particular
features of
environment
particularly
rivers

None

P r e s e n t s the
s o u l s o f Edo
to Osanobua

None

None

None

None

None

None

A s s i s t s Olokun

None

None

None

None

None

Empowers
Medicines

None

None

Usually
l i m i t e d to
domestic
spheres

Some V i l l a g e s have
recognized
ohenOsun

None

(?)

Object o f
sacrifice
during
annual r i t e
(ihuan-Osun)

Osun

D i v i n i t y of
Medicine

Edion

Collective
predecessors
o f a group

Similar in a t t r i b u t e s to the l i v ing edion

Ukhurhe s t a f f s
and b r a s s heads

W e l f a r e o f the
collectivity
eg. v i l l a g e unit

None

Served exclusively
by c o l l e c tivities

None

None
Living
odionwere
performs
priestly
function

Yes

Erha

Named
departed
father

Similar in
a t t r i b u t e s to
the l i v i n g erha

Ukhurhe s t a f f s
and b r a s s heads

W e l f a r e o f the
patrilineage

None

Served exclusively
by p a t r i lineage

None

None
L i v i n g erha
performs
priestly
function

Yes

Azen

B e i n g who
has the abi l i t y to det a c h essence
( o r i o n ) from
body

Anti-social,
Destructive
and e v i l

Items a s s o c i a t e d
w i t h the l e f t

Disrupt health
and harmony o f
Edo

None

None
Obonoyada
Rave'special
knowledge

Ehi

Spiritual
counterpart
who l i v e s i n
erimwin

Similar in a t t r i b u t e to c o u n t e r p a r t i n agbon

None

Meet i n the
iroko tree

Welfare of
earthly
counterpart

Diagram 1

None

None

Served exclusively
by e a r t h l y
counterpart

None

None

Yes

Yes

- 70 -

Osanobua, 01okun, Ogun and Osun are a l l s e r v e d by o h e n .

Esu i s n o t .

Yet

o f the four d i v i n i t i e s j u s t m e n t i o n e d , o n l y Osun i s l i m i t e d t o a domestic

sphere.

Osun has not become the c e n t r e o f c u l t s a p p e a l i n g to a wide

audience.

Osanobua and 01okun are a s s o c i a t e d w i t h e v e r y t h i n g t h a t

harmony i n the Edo c u l t u r e .

In c o n t r a s t

to the n a t u r e o f Osanobua and

01okun, Ogun i s temperamental and d e s t r u c t i v e .

w i t h a n y t h i n g a s s o c i a t e d w i t h e v i l or d e a t h .
anything good.

Oloktin i s never

linked

And Esu i s never l i n k e d w i t h

T h u s , though a l l the d i v i n i t i e s

i n c a t e g o r y 1 have i n

common the f a c t t h a t they were never human, t h e i r n a t u r e s and

differ

promotes

attributes

considerably.

Category 2
S p i r i t s o f the d e p a r t e d .

T h i s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i s u s e f u l and Bradbury

makes the d i s t i n c t i o n between the c o l l e c t i v e a n c e s t o r s

i n d i v i d u a l ancestors
lectivities:

(erha).

( e d i o n ) and the

Bradbury (1957: 56) d i s t i n g u i s h e s s i x c o l -

the c o l l e c t i v e a n c e s t o r s

o f a g r o u p , a w a r d , an extended

f a m i l y , past w o r s h i p p e r s o f a d i v i n i t y , a p a l a c e a s s o c i a t i o n and the e d i o n

of a l l Edo.
Category 3
Hero-divinities.

By h e r o i c i s meant the d e m o n s t r a t i o n o f

natural c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s during l i f e
nature).
acclaimed.

super-

l i v e d i n agbon (the w o r l d o f man and

The h e r o - d i v i n i t i e s were r e c o g n i z e d by the Edo but were not

They were i n c a r n a t e d

(transformed i s p r o b a b l y more

because o f t h e i r s u p e r n a t u r a l powers.
few o f such transformed

spirits.

accurate)

O v i a , Okhauhe, A k e , O d i g g i are a

- 71 Category 4
P e r s o n a l s p i r i t s and powers.
difficulty

i n any a n a l y s i s o f the Edo r e l i g i o u s s y s t e m .

a s p i r i t u a l counter p a r t
Africa.

T h i s c a t e g o r y p r o v i d e s the most

( E h i ) i s common to a number o f c u l t u r e s

V . Uchendu i n h i s enthnography

(1965: 16) mentions the concept o f E h i .

l e n g t h on t h i s s u b j e c t
19-24).

i n West

The Igbo o f Southeast N i g e r i a

M . F o r t e s has a l s o w r i t t e n

i n Oedipus and Job i n West A f r i c a n R e l i g i o n

The Edo b e l i e f i n E h i can o n l y be u n d e r s t o o d

o t h e r d a t a on the Edo concepts o f the p e r s o n a l i t y .

i n d i v i d u a l i s thought

The concept o f

at
(1959:

i n the l i g h t o f

E s s e n t i a l l y every

o f as h a v i n g two p a r t s : the l i v i n g p e r s o n i n agbon

and the s p i r i t u a l c o u n t e r p a r t

Ehi

who i s i n e r i m w i n .

An

by the Edo to i n t e r c e d e on t h e i r b e h a l f b e f o r e Osanobua.

Ehi is believed

Sacrifices

o f f e r e d to an E h i as the Edo t r y t o i n f l u e n c e the d i r e c t i o n o f t h e i r

The Edo a l s o o f f e r

s a c r i f i c e s t o t h e i r head

r e c o g n i z e d by the Edo to be the s e a t o f judgment.

h a v i n g a 'good h e a d ' or a 'bad h e a d '

(uhumwun).

are
life.

The head

is

A man i s spoken o f as

a c c o r d i n g to h i s f a t e o r f o r t u n e

in

life.
The Edo a l s o have another u n u s u a l s a c r i f i c e .

The arm (obo)

is

b e l i e v e d t o be the seat o f the power o f a c c o m p l i s h i n g t h i n g s

(etin).

bury s t a t e s t h a t i t s

of w a r r i o r s

'worship i s p a r t i c u l a r l y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c

Brad-

The i n d e f i n i t e a r t i c l e i s used to i n d i c a t e t h a t E h i i s not a

u n i t a r y b e i n g l i k e 01okun or Ogun. There are many E h i . 'Thus the e x p r e s s i o n ' E h i d i d ' c o u l d o n l y be used by an i n d i v i d u a l Edo r e f e r r i n g to h i s
own E h i .

4
I w i l l i n c l u d e n o n - b l o o d o f f e r i n g s i n the r u b i c s a c r i f i c e .
There
are a number o f d i f f e r e n t types o f s a c r i f i c e : meal o r d r i n k o f f e r i n g s ,
g i f t s , v o t i v e , p r o p i t i a t o r y , s u b s t i t u t i o n a r y and p r e v e n t i v e (See Idowu
1962: 118-124 f o r a d i s c u s s i o n o f Yoruba s a c r i f i c e s ) .

- 72 -

but i s a l s o p r a c t i c e d by o t h e r w e a l t h y and h i g h - r a n k i n g p e r s o n s '

38).

(1957:

I n p r a c t i c e the Edo seem to be s a c r i f i c i n g to t h e i r uhumwun, but

when I q u e s t i o n e d

informants

I found t h a t t h e r e i s an a c t u a l e n t i t y

e r i m w i n who i s the r e c i p i e n t o f the s a c r i f i c e .

made to the v a r i o u s d i v i n i t i e s ,
are the most

ambiguous.

F o r my purposes

Edo cosmology.

(azen)

i n any o f these f o u r

I have found i t u s e f u l to i n c l u d e them i n the

A l t h o u g h human by d a y , the azen p a r t i c i p a t e

d u r i n g the n i g h t .

i n erimwin

They move from one l e v e l o f e x i s t e n c e to another

b e i n g permanently f i x e d
( s p i r i t s o f the departed
The a z e n ' s

sacrifices

those o f f e r e d to an uhumwun and an obo

Bradbury does not i n c l u d e the w i t c h e s

categories .

Of a l l the

in

in either.
father)

T h i s i s not the case w i t h the

who now r e s i d e permanently

without

erha

in erimwin.

a b i l i t y t o move from one l e v e l and back a g a i n w i l l be seen as

important when we examine the Edo i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h the

azen.

C l a s s i f y i n g by B r a d b u r y ' s scheme, t h e n , omits the azen and does not

adequately

differentiate

the d i v i n i t i e s i n c l u d e d w i t h i n c a t e g o r y 1.

does Bradbury i n c l u d e Esu i n any o f the

II.

Nor

categories.

CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF THE EDO DIVINITIES

A.

OSANOBUA: THE SUPREME KING AND CREATOR OF ALL THINGS

1.

Meaning o f Name

There are many names f o r the supreme d i v i n i t y .

g u i s t i c u n i t used by the Edo i s O s a .

The minimal

lin-

When t h i s i s combined w i t h d e s c r i p t i v e

- 73 w o r d s , the Edo are a b l e to c h a r a c t e r i z e f a c e t s o f h i s n a t u r e .

The word

Osanobua i s now most commonly used f o r the supreme d i v i n i t y and conveys

the i d e a o f one who i s the u l t i m a t e source o f a l l t h i n g s i n erimwin and
agbon.

2.

A t t r i b u t e s o f the

Divinity

Osanobua i s the source of a l l l i f e ,

the one who determines

u l t i m a t e d e s t i n y o f the E d o , o m n i s c i e n t and o m n i p o t e n t .

the

He i s i n no way

associated with anything e v i l .

3.

Symbolic R e p r e s e n t a t i o n

I n the p a s t Osanobua was r e p r e s e n t e d by Oba f i g u r e s and by a s m a l l

heap o f sand w i t h a s t i c k i n the m i d s t o f i t .

I n present

day B e n i n ,

the

o u t s i d e o f the H o l y Aruosa ( s h r i n e o f Osa) has the f l u t e d p a t t e r n o f

a r c h i t e c t u r e used o n l y by the Oba.

Above the e n t r a n c e to the s h r i n e

the ada and eben ( c e r e m o n i a l s w o r d s ) , a l s o symbols o f r o y a l t y .

Olokun s h r i n e

(aruOlokun) 01okun was r e p r e s e n t e d

are

I n one

as a k i n g surrounded by

numerous a t t e n d a n t s and images o f o t h e r d i v i n i t i e s .

One o f the

represen-

t a t i o n s , c a r v e d out o f wood and p l a c e d near Olokun was t h a t o f Osanobua.

Now a l l Edo b e l i e v e t h a t Osanobua i s not s u b s e r v i e n t to O l o k u n .

The

p l a c i n g o f Osanobua i n r e l a t i o n s h i p to Olokun i n d i c a t e s who the Edo t h i n k

i s most important and most approachable i n the s o l v i n g o f t h e i r p r o b l e m s .
A number o f p r o v e r b i a l statements are used t o r a t i o n a l i z e t h i s

fact.

That Olokun seems to have superseded Osanobua i n r i t u a l focus i s e x p l a i n e d

- 74 by c i t i n g the Edo p r o v e r b :
improve' or

'Happy i s he whose c h i l d has been a b l e to,

'Happy i s the c h i l d who has been a b l e to surpass h i s

The statement Omosorhae-erihen sums up the Edo b e l i e f .

'Olokun

father.'
assumes

the power o f g o d . '

4.

Sphere o f

Influence

In the mythology Osanobua i s p i c t u r e d as a k i n g ,

l i v i n g i n splendour

w i t h many w i v e s and c h i l d r e n : among h i s c h i l d r e n are o t h e r d i v i n i t i e s and

the f i r s t k i n g s o f I f e , o t h e r Yoruba towns and B e n i n .
the d i v i n i t i e s , execute h i s purposes

i n agbon.

Osanobua's c h i l d r e n ,

Osanobua seems p r i m a r i l y

concerned w i t h the w e l f a r e o f the e n t i r e Edo kingdom.

It

to t h i n k , therefore,

The Edo b e l i e v e

t h a t Osanobua i s

'deus o t i o s u s . '

is

inaccurate

t h a t Osanobua m a n i f e s t s h i m s e l f not o n l y through the c r e a t i o n o f l i f e ,

a l s o through h i s m i n i s t e r s : the l e s s e r

5.

Cultic

but

divinities.

Following

H i s t o r i c a l l y t h e r e was no c u l t a t t a c h e d to Osanobua.

But i n r e c e n t

y e a r s Osanobua has been served at the H o l y A r u o s a Church i n B e n i n C i t y .

6.

Religious Functionaries

I n contemporary Edo c u l t u r e t h e r e are two ohen who o f f i c i a t e at

weekly s e r v i c e s h e l d at the A r u o s a .
this

task.

the

They have been s p e c i a l l y chosen f o r

- 75 -

7.

Osanobua

In
culture

as

the

the

past

Osanobua

foodstuffs

and

blood

is

nor

social

B.

OLOKUN:

THE POWERFUL

1.

Meaning

of

2.

of

the

earth,

River

near

Attributes

Olokun

3.

with

he

any

identified

SON OF

in

contemporary

Edo

the

form of

various

particular

feature

of

exclusively with

any

the

units

of

of

which
the

the

are

the

said

town o f

sea
to

(okun),

have

that

their

is with

source

in

the

the

great

Ethiope

Urhonigbe.

Divinity

favoured

gentle

and

good.

son of

Osanobua

and

is

conceptualized

as

Representation'

Olokun

is

an Oba w i t h

Olokun:

OSANOBUA

identified with

the

Where
as

is

is

Symbolic

sented

offerings

in

Name

is

peaceful,

thank

but

structure.

Olokun

(Olokun)

only

were made,

associated with

the

waters

Sacrifice

donations.

not

environment,

of

sacrifices

receives

monetary

Osanobua
natural

Object

the

represented
his

retinue

ohenOlokun

must

by

mud

or

and w i v e s .
wear w h i t e

wooden
The
and

images,

he

is

repre-

colour white

is

associated

pieces

of

white

chalk

(taken

- 76 -

from the r i v e r s ) adorn the a l t e r s o f Olokun

4.

Sphere o f

shrines.

Influence

Olokun i s the b r i n g e r o f c h i l d r e n .
v a l u e d i n the Edo c u l t u r e .

C h i l d r e n (omo) are h i g h l y

T h i s can be i l l u s t r a t e d by c i t i n g one o f

names g i v e n to a Edo c h i l d : Emokpae=Emokpogbe.

'It

T r a n s l a t e d t h i s means:

i s c h i l d r e n who r a i s e the p r e s t i g e o f the f a m i l y . '

monetary w e a l t h means n o t h i n g i n the Edo c u l t u r e .

to be the b r i n g e r o f w e a l t h .

the

Without c h i l d r e n

Olokun i s a l s o b e l i e v e d

Bradbury suggests (1957: 53) t h a t

the

a s s o c i a t i o n o f Olokun w i t h w e a l t h undoubtedly owes something to the coming

o f the European t r a d i n g s h i p s a c r o s s

the

sea.

Olokun i s a l s o b e l i e v e d to

be concerned w i t h the h e a l t h o f the Edo, one o f the main concerns

f o r example,
supreme.'

i n a name such as Egberanmwen=Egberanmwen

osere.

reflected,

'Health is

O l o k u n ' s sphere o f i n f l u e n c e i s to purvey b l e s s i n g to the Edo:

h e a l t h , w e a l t h and c h i l d r e n .

5.

A s s o c i a t i o n w i t h F e a t u r e s o f the N a t u r a l Environment

Olokun i s s a i d to d w e l l i n the s e a ,
the e a r t h w h i c h are s a i d to have t h e i r
River.

t h a t i s , i n the g r e a t waters o f

source i n the E t h i q p e (Olokun)

I n t o t h i s r i v e r , w h i c h r i s e s near the town o f Urhonigbe i n the

s o u t h e a s t c o r n e r o f the kingdom, a l l the r i v e r s o f the w o r l d are b e l i e v e d

to f l o w ;

its

bury 1957:

immediate t r i b u t a r i e s

53).

are i d e n t i f i e d as O l o k u n ' s wives (Brad-

- 77 6.

A s s o c i a t i o n w i t h U n i t s o f the S o c i a l

Structure

There are o n l y two or t h r e e v i l l a g e s who w o r s h i p Olokun c o r p o r a t e l y .

The

town o f U r h o n i g b e , the main c e n t r e o f the c u l t , and Ughoton, the o l d

p o r t o f B e n i n , have an annual f e s t i v a l i n honour o f O l o k u n .

Otherwise,

Olokun i s worshipped by i n d i v i d u a l s b e f o r e t h e i r own domestic a l t a r s

by a c u l t c e n t e r i n g around an i n f l u e n t i a l p r i e s t e s s

7.

small a l t a r .
a priestess

(1957: 53) t h a t e v e r y woman i n a house has her own

In a sense every woman who has h e r own a l t a r

of Olokun.

r e g u l a r l y t o honour the

and become the focus o f a c u l t , which meets

divinity.

Religious Functionaries

The head p r i e s t e s s

(ohen) o f Olokun l i v e s at U r h o n i g b e .

t r u e t h a t many women have t h e i r own domestic a l t a r s ,

women who come to be s p e c i a l l y r e c o g n i z e d as p r i e s t e s s e s

w i t h the d i v i n i t y .

Although

as w e l l as f o r a s s i s t a n c e

in their

Olokun as the Object o f

it

t h e r e are some
having influence

T h e i r a l t a r s w i l l c o n t a i n some i t e m / s o b t a i n e d

the main s h r i n e at Urhonigbe and people w i l l

9.

installed is

Some, however, are r e c o g n i z e d to have more i n f l u e n c e

w i t h the d i v i n i t y than o t h e r s

is

priest.

C u i t i c Following

Bradbury s t a t e s

8.

or

or

from

come to them f o r the u g i O l o k u n

affairs.

Sacrifice

Olokun i s the o b j e c t o f s a c r i f i c i a l o f f e r i n g s o f a b l o o d l e s s and

- 78 blood

type.

C.

OGUN: THE ARBITER OF JUSTICE

1.

Meaning o f Name

One who c o n t r o l s o r r u l e s metal

2.

( t h e god o f i r o n ) .

A t t r i b u t e s o f the D i v i n i t y

Ogun i s o f a f u r i o u s , temperamental c h a r a c t e r .

He i s b e l i e v e d t o

be capable o f d e s t r u c t i v e a c t s .

3.

Symbolic

Representation

Ogun i s s y m b o l i z e d by a n y t h i n g a s s o c i a t e d w i t h m e t a l .
the aruOgun i s covered w i t h p i e c e s o f s c r a p m e t a l .

F o r example,

I n some cases an a r u

w i l l be demarcated by a s i n g l e i r o n s t a k e d r i v e n i n t o t h e ground.

4.

Sphere o f I n f l u e n c e

The name 'pioneer d i v i n i t y ' has been g i v e n t o Ogun.

The Edo b e l i e v e

t h a t i t i s Ogun who feeds t h e o t h e r d i v i n i t i e s and makes t h e way c l e a r

f o r i n d i v i d u a l Edo t o l i v e h a r m o n i o u s l y

and s u c c e s s f u l l y .

A l l Edo know

the power o f Ogun who vents h i s f u r y on people g u i l t y o f u n j u s t a c t s .

- 79 5.

A s s o c i a t i o n w i t h U n i t s o f the S o c i a l

Structure

S i n c e Ogun i s i d e n t i f i e d w i t h a n y t h i n g m e t a l , he has become

tutelary

s p i r i t o f anyone i n any way a s s o c i a t e d w i t h m e t a l w o r k .

m e t a l g u i l d s i n the o l d days worked under h i s g u i d a n c e .

day smiths w o r k i n g on Igun S t r e e t
tutelary d i v i n i t y .

the
The

And the p r e s e n t

i n B e n i n C i t y c o n s i d e r Ogun to be

They have an aruOgun i n t h e i r f o r g e s ;

their

the aru b e i n g

demarcated by a c o l l e c t i o n o f scrap p i e c e s o f m e t a l heaped t o g e t h e r on top

of

an a p p r o x i m a t e l y 3 ' by 3 ' mud s h r i n e .

Informants have t o l d me t h a t

anyone w o r k i n g w i t h b r a s s , bronze o r i r o n does not need to s a c r i f i c e to

Ogun w i t h the h e l p o f a p r i e s t w h i c h i s the u s u a l p a t t e r n

f o r the commoner.

Truck d r i v e r s are q u i t e o f t e n devotees o f Ogun s i n c e t h e i r l i v e l i h o o d

is

dependent upon m e t a l ( t h e i r t r u c k s ) , a l l o f w h i c h Ogun i s s a i d to own.

6.

Cuitic

Following

Ogun i s not merely served by s p e c i a l c a t e g o r i e s

the c u l t u r e .

There are many Ogun s h r i n e s throughout B e n i n C i t y .

O l o k u n , v a r i o u s p e o p l e w i l l a t t a c h themselves
forming a c u l t .

to a p a r t i c u l a r ohen

i s an i r o n s t a k e d r i v e n i n t o the g r o u n d .

have a s h r i n e

7.

Like
thus

Most Edo n o n - C h r i s t i a n s w i l l have t h e i r own domestic

s h r i n e b e f o r e which they w i l l o f f e r p r a y e r s to Ogun.

gun

o f people w i t h i n

The s i m p l e s t aruO-

However, most c u l t s

will

house.

Religious Functionaries

Ogun i s served by ohen who are b e l i e v e d by the Edo to be chosen

- 80 by Ogun.

Once chosen they undergo some t r a i n i n g and then b e g i n s e r v i n g

Ogun by p e r f o r m i n g s a c r i f i c e s and the ugiOgun every f i v e

8.

days.

Ogun as an Object o f S a c r i f i c e

Ogun i s the o b j e c t

of s a c r i f i c e s , both o f a b l o o d l e s s and b l o o d

type.

D.

ESU: THE ENEMY OF OSANOBUA AND MAN

1.

Meaning o f the Name

I am not c l e a r on the etymology o f E s u .

Esu means one who i s a s s o c i a t e d

2.

A t t r i b u t e s o f the

G e n e r a l l y , we can say

that

with e v i l .

Divinity

Esu i s d i r t y , b l a c k and u g l y .

He i s b e l i e v e d by the Edo to be a

c a p r i c i o u s d i v i n i t y who, u n l i k e Ogun, enjoys

d e s t r o y i n g and

harassing

man.

3.

Symbolic R e p r e s e n t a t i o n

Esu i s r e p r e s e n t e d by a t h o r n s t i c k , or a s m a l l c a r v e d d o l l ,
a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the c o l o u r b l a c k .
the s a c r i f i c i a l items o f f e r e d

and

is

The aruEsu i s p a i n t e d b l a c k and many o f

to Esu are

black.

- 81 4.

Sphere o f

Influence

As the enemy o f Osanobua and the E d o , Esu i s opposed to

harmonious f u n c t i o n i n g o f the Edo c u l t u r e .

The Edo t r y t o keep him at

a d i s t a n c e and would never t h i n k o f s i n g i n g h i s p r a i s e s .

offered

S a c r i f i c e s are

to Esu i n o r d e r to appease h i m , o r to persuade him to work e v i l

a g a i n s t an enemy.

A l l n o n - C h r i s t i a n Edo w i l l have an a l t a r f o r Esu at

the f r o n t o f t h e i r h o u s e .

The Edo say t h a t the aruEsu i s p l a c e d o u t s i d e

so t h a t Esu w i l l come to the aru,-partake

l e a v i n g those

5.

the

o f the o f f e r i n g and go away

i n s i d e the house unharmed.

Esu as the Object o f

Sacrifice

I have a l r e a d y mentioned t h a t Esu i s the o b j e c t o f s a c r i f i c e .

Un-

l i k e the o t h e r d i v i n i t i e s , Esu i s seldom thanked f o r a n y t h i n g he might

happen to d o .
Esu i s not a s s o c i a t e d w i t h any f e a t u r e o f the n a t u r a l
nor i s he a s s o c i a t e d w i t h u n i t s o f the s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e .

environment,

There are no

c u l t s f o l l o w i n g Esu and t h e r e are no t r a i n e d r e l i g i o u s f u n c t i o n a r i e s

to

serve him.

E.

THE HERO-DIVINITIES: TRANSFORMED HUMANS

1.

Meaning o f the Name/s

The h e r o - d i v i n i t i e s are m y t h i c a l or s e m i - m y t h i c a l f i g u r e s o f the

p a s t who are b e l i e v e d to have t u r n e d i n t o n a t u r a l f e a t u r e s

o f the environment

- 82 (usually r i v e r s ) .

The name o f the d i v i n i t y i s u s u a l l y synonymous w i t h

the name g i v e n t o the p a r t i c u l a r f e a t u r e o f the

2.

A t t r i b u t e s o f the

environment.

Divinity/ies

F u l l d a t a i s l a c k i n g h e r e ; Okhauhe,~* f o r example, has

attributes

similar

to Olokun a l t h o u g h Okhauhe i s b e l i e v e d to have a more f u r i o u s

nature.

3.

Symbolic R e p r e s e n t a t i o n

The d i f f e r e n t

d i v i n i t i e s are r e p r e s e n t e d

Okhauhe as an example, he i s r e p r e s e n t e d

symbolically.

Using

symbolically w i t h rocks

taken

from the Okhauhe R i v e r .

4.

Sphere o f

Influence

The h e r o - d i v i n i t i e s act as guardians o f the

5.

A s s o c i a t i o n w i t h Features

village.

o f the N a t u r a l Environment

A l l h e r o - d i v i n i t i e s are a s s o c i a t e d w i t h some f e a t u r e o f the

environment.

natural

O v i a , Okhauhe, Ake are a s s o c i a t e d w i t h r i v e r s .

I was i n the process o f s t u d y i n g the h e r o - d i v i n i t y Okhauhe but

due to the c i v i l war I was u n a b l e to conclude my r e s e a r c h .

- 83 6.

A s s o c i a t i o n w i t h U n i t s o f the S o c i a l

Structure

The most i m p o r t a n t f a c t about the h e r o - d i v i n i t i e s i s t h a t they

are

served almost e x c l u s i v e l y by a v i l l a g e or a group o f v i l l a g e s s i t u a t e d

near the h e r o - d i v i n i t y ' s p l a c e o f t r a n s f o r m a t i o n .

Occasionally there i s

some c o o p e r a t i o n between v i l l a g e s i n the sense t h a t the p r i e s t or t h e i r

representatives

from one v i l l a g e w i l l v i s i t another v i l l a g e s e r v i n g the

same h e r o - d i v i n i t y when a f e s t i v a l ( u g i e ) i s i n p r o g r e s s .
Bradbury g i v e s a b r i e f
h e r o - d i v i n i t i e s i n Edoland.

d e s c r i p t i o n o f O v i a , one o f the b e s t known

O v i a i s s a i d to be the m y t h i c a l w i f e o f a

k i n g who melted i n t o a r i v e r out o f g r i e f at b e i n g accused by her c o - w i v e s

o f b r i n g i n g i l l upon her husband.

O v i a i s the name o f the l a r g e s t r i v e r

i n the B e n i n kingdom though many v i l l a g e s p r a c t i c i n g the c u l t have no

p a r t i c u l a r connection with i t .

I t i s p o p u l a r l y known as

'Ovia j u j u .

One o f the b e s t known ceremonies a s s o c i a t e d w i t h O v i a i s the O v i a

masquerade.

Once a year most o f the men i n the v i l l a g e go i n t o s e c l u s i o n

i n the groves around the s h r i n e f o r p e r i o d s up to two months.

p e r i o d i c a l l y c o m p l e t e l y masked except f o r t h e i r f e e t .

These marked

f i g u r e s are known as e r i m w i n - O v i a and are thought to r e p r e s e n t

o f the past w o r s h i p p e r s o f O v i a .

Each masquerader

r e c e n t l y deceased p a t r i l i n e a l a n c e s t o r .

They emerge

the

spirits

impersonates h i s most

The f i r s t dance i s h e l d b e f o r e

the s h r i n e o f O v i a , the second and t h i r d i n f r o n t o f the houses o f

the

two O v i a p r i e s t s and the r e s t f o r the v i l l a g e as a whole or i n o t h e r

v i l l a g e s t o which they have been

invited.

The male w o r s h i p p e r s are graded a l o n g l i n e s s i m i l a r to those o f

the v i l l a g e age grades though the p e r s o n n e l o f the c o r r e s p o n d i n g s e c u l a r

and r i t u a l grades i s not n e c e s s a r i l y i d e n t i c a l .

the O v i a groves except on two o c c a s i o n s .

Women are b a r r e d

from

T h e i r duty i s to keep the men

w e l l fed and to s i n g at n i g h t and i n the morning f o r t h e i r

safety,

for

they are b e l i e v e d to be on the t h r e s h o l d between agbon and e r i m w i n and

therefore

i n great danger.

It

i s the women who f i n a l l y k i l l

off

the

e r i m w i n - O v i a by t h r o w i n g c l o t h s over t h e i r h e a d s , thus e n s u r i n g the

return

o f the men to the r e a l w o r l d .

7.

Cuitic

Following

The s e r v i c e o f the h e r o - d i v i n i t i e s i s r e s t r i c t e d

to

particular

v i l l a g e s or continguous v i l l a g e s near the p l a c e o f the d i v i n i t y ' s t r a n s formation.

City.

For example, t h e r e are no c u l t s o f O v i a or Okhauhe i n B e n i n

I f an Edo wanted t o i n t e r a c t w i t h O v i a he would have to t r a v e l

the a r u O v i a l o c a t e d i n the v i l l a g e s e r v i n g t h a t d i v i n i t y .

to

Ovia-worship,

l i k e the w o r s h i p o f Olokun and Ogun, i s not c o n f i n e d to the y e a r l y u g i e .

Every f i f t h

day the p r i e s t s

go to the s h r i n e t o make o f f e r i n g s .

d u a l s go to them w i t h r e q u e s t s t h a t they make s p e c i a l p r a y e r s

Indivi-

and,

in

p a r t i c u l a r , women who d e s i r e c h i l d r e n seek t h e i r a i d i n making o f f e r i n g s

to O v i a w i t h promises to p r o v i d e f u r t h e r

sacrifices

answered.

8.

Religious Functionaries

Each h e r o - d i v i n i t y i s served by an o h e n .

i f t h e i r prayers

are

- 85 F.

THE ANCESTORS: SPIRITS OF THE DEPARTED

S p i r i t s o f the d e p a r t e d f a l l
domestic a n c e s t o r c u l t .

i n t o two c l a s s e s .

F i r s t , there i s the

Here i t i s t h e i n d i v i d u a l g e n e a l o g i c a l l y d e f i n e d

a n c e s t o r ( e r h a / i y e ) who i s t h e o b j e c t o f r i t u a l a c t i o n .

Secondly, there

are t h e c o l l e c t i v e a n c e s t o r s o r p r e d e c e s s o r s o f a group ( e d i o n ) .

I.

The Erha

1.

Meaning o f Name

Erha i s Edo f o r f a t h e r and r e f e r s t o t h e named d e p a r t e d f a t h e r who

now d w e l l s i n e r i m w i n ; i y e i s Edo f o r mother.

Of t h e two t h e d e p a r t e d

e r h a i s by f a r t h e most i m p o r t a n t .

2.

A t t r i b u t e s of the D i v i n i t y

The d e p a r t e d e r h a i s c o n c e i v e d as s t a n d i n g i n much the same r e l a t i o n

t o h i s descendants

3.

as does t h e head o f t h e extended

f a m i l y i n agbon.

Symbolic R e p r e s e n t a t i o n

The a l t a r o f t h e e r h a (aruerha) i s d e c o r a t e d w i t h Ukhurhe s t a f f s

and wooden o r b r a s s heads w h i c h r e p r e s e n t t h e d e p a r t e d f a t h e r .

I f a man

d i e s who was a l s o a s e n i o r s o n , an a d d i t i o n a l ukhurhe w i l l be added t o

the e x i s t i n g a l t a r , o t h e r w i s e t h e l i v i n g s e n i o r son w i l l b e g i n h i s own a l t a r .

- 86 -

4.

Sphere o f

Influence

The erha a c t s as the g u a r d i a n o f the l i n e a g e w h i c h i n v o l v e s p u n i s h i n g

such o f f e n s e s

5.

as i n c e s t , a d u l t e r y , s t e a l i n g and q u a r r e l l i n g .

A s s o c i a t i o n w i t h U n i t s o f the S o c i a l

Structure

The e r h a are a s s o c i a t e d e x c l u s i v e l y w i t h the p a t r i l i n e a g e .

Bradbury

n o t e s (1957: 54) t h a t i n accordance w i t h the r u l e o f p r i m o g e n i t u r e , and

s i n c e i d e a l l y every man s h o u l d have a s e n i o r s o n , t h e r e i s a l i k e l i h o o d
o f f i s s i o n o f the a n c e s t o r - w o r s h i p p i n g u n i t .

The e f f e c t i v e

ancestor-

w o r s h i p p i n g u n i t i n c l u d e s the youngest c h i l d r e n and the s u r v i v i n g

and s i s t e r s o f the e r h a - - a p p r o x i m a t e l y two to four g e n e r a t i o n s

6.

i n depth.

Religious Functionary

The s e n i o r son o.fythe departed erha i s the one who performs

f u n c t i o n o f m e d i a t i n g the departed

7.

The E r h a as the O b j e c t o f

1.

the

erha.

Sacrifice

The e r h a are the o b j e c t o f b l o o d s a c r i f i c e s and food

II.

brothers

offerings.

The E d i o n

Meaning o f Name

The c o l l e c t i v e a n c e s t o r s

or predecessors

o f a group are known as

- 87 edion.

There are d i f f e r e n t k i n d s o f e d i o n but i n t h i s study we are

p r i m a r i l y concerned w i t h those e d i o n who are thought

to be the

original

o c c u p i e r s o f the v i l l a g e .

The departed e d i o n are those i n d i v i d u a l s who

have a c h i e v e d the t i t l e o f o d i o n w e r e .

not named.

2.

A t t r i b u t e s o f the

U n l i k e the e r h a ,

the e d i o n are

Divinity/ies

L i k e the e r h a , the e d i o n are b e l i e v e d t o stand i n the same r e l a t i o n s h i p to the descendants as the odionwere d i d to the v i l l a g e u n i t .

3.

Symbolic

Representation

The e d i o n are r e p r e s e n t e d

by ukhurhe s t a f f s

are p l a c e d on the a l t a r o f the departed

4.

Sphere o f

and b r a s s heads which

edion.

Influence

The e d i o n a c t as the g u a r d i a n o f the p h y s i c a l and moral w e l l - b e i n g

o f members o f the

5.

village.

A s s o c i a t i o n w i t h U n i t o f the S o c i a l

Structure

The e d i o n are s e r v e d e x c l u s i v e l y by the v i l l a g e u n i t .

have e d i o n s h r i n e s
meeting p l a c e s .

(ogwedion).

A l l villages

These s h r i n e s may a l s o s e r v e as community

- 88 6.

Religious Functionary

The odionwere i s the one who mediates the departed e d i o n j u s t

the e r h a mediates

7.

the departed

The E d i o n as the O b j e c t o f

as

father.

Sacrifice

The e d i o n are the o b j e c t o f p e r i o d i c s a c r i f i c e s o f a b l o o d and

b l o o d l e s s n a t u r e and a y e a r l y t h a n k s g i v i n g s a c r i f i c e .

G.

THE AZEN: BRIDGE BETWEEN ERIMWIN AND AGBON

1.

Meaning o f Name

The meaning o f azen i s one who has the a b i l i t y to d e t a c h h i s / h e r

essence

2.

( o r i o n ) from the body i n o r d e r to p a r t i c i p a t e i n e r i m w i n .

A t t r i b u t e s o f the

Divinity/ies

The azen has the a t t r i b u t e s

o f a h i g h l y a n t i - s o c i a l b e i n g who i s

the a n t i t h e s i s o f the Edo modal p e r s o n a l i t y .

3.

Symbolic R e p r e s e n t a t i o n

The azen are not r e p r e s e n t e d

left

symbolically.

However, t h i n g s o f

are a s s o c i a t e d w i t h them ( e g . the l e f t f o o t o f a g o a t ) .

And they

the
are

89

i d e n t i f i e d w i t h t h i n g s t h a t are repugnant

to the o t h e r d i v i n i t i e s and the

Edo t h e m s e l v e s .

4.

Sphere o f

Influence

The azen d i s r u p t the harmonious f u n c t i o n i n g o f the Edo s o c i e t y .

They a t t a c k the Edo at the v a l u e p o i n t s i n t h e i r c u l t u r e ( w e a l t h , h e a l t h
and f e r t i l i t y ) .

5.

A s s o c i a t i o n w i t h F e a t u r e s o f the N a t u r a l Environment

The azen do not r e s i d e permanently i n any p a r t i c u l a r a r e a ,

but

every v i l l a g e has i t s group o f azen who are b e l i e v e d to meet i n a p a r t i c u l a r t r e e d u r i n g the n i g h t .

6.

Religious Functionary

The obo noyada (One who goes to the j u n c t i o n ) i s b e l i e v e d to have

s p e c i a l knowledge o f the a z e n .

H i s a i d i s sought i n making s a c r i f i c e s

the azen to persuade them t o d e s i s t

i n their e v i l doing.

The obo noyada

. . .

c o u l d not be c o n s i d e r e d as a p r o f e s s i o n a l o h e n .

7.

The Azen as O b j e c t s o f

Sacrifice

The azen are the r e c i p i e n t s o f s a c r i f i c e and o f f e r i n g s w h i c h are

u s u a l l y p l a c e d at road j u n c t i o n s

to

(ada) on the o u t s k i r t s o f the town.

- 90 -

There i s no c u l t i c f o l l o w i n g o f the a z e n ; they are not i d e n t i f i e d

w i t h any p a r t i c u l a r u n i t o f the s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e

and t h e r e i s no a r u

a s s o c i a t e d w i t h them.

H.

E H I : DESTINY IN THE EDO TRADITIONAL RELIGION

I.

Meaning o f Name

The i d e a conveyed i n the word E h i . i s t h a t o f s p i r i t u a l

counterpart.

Every l i v i n g Edo has an E h i l i v i n g i n e r i m w i n .

2.

A t t r i b u t e s o f the

Divinity

The E h i has s i m i l a r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s to' h i s c o u n t e r p a r t

3.

i n agbon.

Symbolic R e p r e s e n t a t i o n

An E h i i s not s y m b o l i c a l l y r e p r e s e n t e d by the Edo commoner.

How-

e v e r , Bradbury notes (1957: 58) t h a t on s t a t e o c c a s i o n s the Oba wears an

image o f h i s E h i i n the form o f a d o l l .

4.

Sphere o f

Influence

An E h i stands b e h i n d h i s c o u n t e r p a r t
the l a t t e r

i s making h i s r e q u e s t

ensures t h a t h i s c o u n t e r p a r t

i n agbon, p a r t i c u l a r l y when

to the c r e a t o r .

In t h i s c a s e , an E h i

does not f o r g e t a n y t h i n g .

His essential

function,

then,

i s t o i n t e r c e d e on b e h a l f o f h i s c o u n t e r p a r t

and to ensure t h a t he f u l f i l l s

5.

h i s predetermined

i n agbon

destiny.

A s s o c i a t i o n w i t h F e a t u r e s o f the N a t u r a l Environment

An E h i i s not a s s o c i a t e d w i t h any f e a t u r e s o f the n a t u r a l e n v i r o n ment.

6.

A s s o c i a t i o n w i t h U n i t s o f the S o c i a l

Structure

An E h i ' s c o n c e r n i s t o t a l l y o r i e n t e d t o h i s e a r t h l y

counterpart.

An E h i i s the r i t u a l focus o f i n d i v i d u a l s and never c u l t s o f

collectivi-

ties.

7.

Religious Functionary

The i n d i v i d u a l mediates h i s own E h i .

There i s no s h r i n e

associated

w i t h an E h i .

8.

E h i as the O b j e c t o f

Sacrifice

An E h i i s the o b j e c t o f b o t h s a c r i f i c e s and o f f e r i n g s .

I.

THE WORSHIP OF OBIEMWEN AND OGIUWU

The w o r s h i p o f two d i v i n i t i e s - - O b i e m w e n and Ogiuwu--has f a l l e n

into

- 92 abeyance.

F o r m e r l y Obiemwen was a s s o c i a t e d w i t h f e r t i l i t y .

s a i d t h a t today Ob iemwen works w i t h Olokun as an a s s i s t a n t .

are made to h i m .

My informant
No s a c r i f i c e s

Ogiuwu (King o f death) was served at a s p e c i a l s h r i n e

i n the c e n t r e o f B e n i n C i t y by members o f the Oba's r e t i n u e known as

Ukebo.

S a c r i f i c e s were made to Ogiuwu m a i n l y by the Oba to induce him t o

'delay.'

Though Ogiuwu no l o n g e r communicates w i t h the E d o , he

still

r e t a i n s a p o s i t i o n and f u n c t i o n i n the Edo cosmology.

Ogiuwu i s the r e c o r d e r o f a l l deaths and the p r e c i s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s
r e l a t i n g to d e a t h , d w e l l i n g i n a p l a c e v e r y dark and t e r r i b l e to l o o k
His

f u n c t i o n i s an i m p o r t a n t o n e - - t h a t

at.

o f the p r e s e n t a t i o n o f a p e r s o n ' s

p r i o n (the s o u l u a l p a r t o f the i n d i v i d u a l ) b e f o r e the supreme k i n g ,

Osanobua.

Ogiuwu has n o t h i n g to do w i t h the a c t u a l event o f death and

would never be thought o f as the cause o f a p e r s o n ' s

death.

The Edo C y c l e o f Death

Osanobua

Birth

Erimwin

Ego's o r i o n

Agbon

Diagram 2
When ego d i e s , the cause o f h i s death w i l l be d i s c o v e r e d by d i v i n a tion.

A t death e g o ' s o r i o n w i l l be t a k e n by Ogiuwu who has r e c o r d e d the

n a t u r e o f e g o ' s death and p r e s e n t e d to Osanobua.

and w i l l

Osanobua w i l l

then send h i m on another m i s s i o n i n t o the w o r l d .

judge ego

The Edo b e l i e v e

i n r e i n c a r n a t i o n : a p e r s o n must complete f o u r t e e n c y c l e s b e f o r e he
r e s i d e s i n erimwin permanently.

finally

Some Edo b e l i e v e t h a t e g o ' s E h i and

- 93 -

o r i o n i n t e r c h a n g e at death and the b i r t h o f a

III.

child.

CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF SOME RELIGIOUS

AND MAGICAL PRACTITIONERS

A.

THE OHEN

We have a l r e a d y seen t h a t p r o f e s s i o n a l p r i e s t s
Osanobua, O l o k u n , Ogun and the h e r o - d i v i n i t i e s .

(ohen)

In c o n t r a s t

mediate
to the e r h a

and e d i o n r e s p e c t i v e l y , the ohen are chosen by t h e i r d i v i n i t y .

The p r i e s t -

hood may be i n h e r i t e d , but u n l i k e the p r i e s t l y f u n c t i o n performed by the

l i v i n g e r h a and odionwere t h i s i s not a p r e r e q u i s i t e .
a dead ohen i s not enough; one must be
differentiating

' c h o s e n ' by the d i v i n i t y .

Another

f a c t o r may be t h a t , w i t h the e x c e p t i o n o f the ohenOsanobua,

the ohen are s e r v i n g d i v i n i t i e s who possess

occasions.

C o n s a n g u i n i t y to

and c o n t r o l them at g i v e n r i t u a l

The departed s p i r i t s never possess

those i n d i v i d u a l s m e d i a t i n g

them.

B.

THE 0B0 NOYADA

Reference has been made to the obo n o y a d a .

i n s p e c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p t o the azen and, t h e r e f o r e ,
them.

C.

He i s b e l i e v e d to be
capable of i n f l u e n c i n g

He a l s o has a knowledge o f h e r b s .

THE OBODIN

The c u r i n g d o c t o r (obodin) must be d i s t i n g u i s h e d from the ohen.

An

- 94 ohen may have some knowledge o f the use o f herbs and m e d i c i n e s but
does not always f o l l o w .

An obo ( p l u r a l : ebo) or

'native doctor

s p e c i a l i z e i n c u r i n g , d i v i n i n g and combating a z e n .

may

His primary f u n c t i o n ,

t h o u g h , i s to p r e p a r e m e d i c i n e s w h i c h are g i v e n t o the p a t i e n t

to d r i n k ,

rubbed on the body o r i n s e r t e d as t a l i s m a n and c a r r i e d about on the

son.

Some obo c l a i m to be a b l e to s e t b o n e s .

D.

per-

They a l s o c l a i m t o have

power to d e a l w i t h l e p r o s y , impotency, l o v e a f f a i r s ,
success

this

eye s i g h t t r o u b l e and

in trade.

THE DIVINER

The d i v i n e r i s the a x i s f i g u r e i n the Edo r e l i g i o u s s y s t e m .

Brad-

bury subsumes the d i v i n e r under the r u b r i c magic (Bradbury 1957: 5 9 ) .

are

' m a g i c a l ' elements

i n d i v i n a t i o n , but I t h i n k t h a t the d i v i n e r must

be viewed as an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f the Edo r e l i g i o u s s y s t e m .

approached f o r t h r e e b a s i c
1.

There

The d i v i n e r i s

reasons:

To d i s c o v e r what d i v i n i t y s h o u l d be i n t e r a c t e d w i t h i n o r d e r
to a c h i e v e a p a r t i c u l a r e n d .

The d i v i n e r w i l l not o n l y suggest

an a v a i l a b l e d i v i n i t y , but he w i l l a l s o t e l l

the

supplicant

what items s h o u l d be used i n the s a c r i f i c e .

2.

To d i s c o v e r what the cause o f an u n f o r t u n a t e

3.

To d i s c o v e r the meaning o f dream e x p e r i e n c e s .

It

event

is.

i s the d i v i n e r who s e t s the Edo r e l i g i o u s system i n m o t i o n .

Out

of c o n c e r n and a n x i e t y t o a l l e v i a t e a d i s t r e s s f u l s i t u a t i o n , the Edo w i l l

approach the d i v i n e r i n o r d e r t o d i s c o v e r which channel o f communication
i s open to them, i . e ^ w h i c h d i v i n i t y would be most open to h e a r i n g

their

- 95 case and most c a p a b l e o f d o i n g something about the p r o b l e m .

An u n f o r t u n a t e

event such as the death o f a c h i l d w i l l cause the Edo to seek the d i v i n e r ' s
interpretation.

What d i v i n i t y i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the death

(probably

e i t h e r Ogun, Esu or the a z e n ) ; what i s the s i g n i f i c a n c e o f the death and

what must be done to r e g a i n the f a v o u r o f the angered d i v i n i t y .
meaning o f dreams Cj-s: a l s o i n t e r p r e t e d by the d i v i n e r .

The

For i n the Edo

c u l t u r e dreams are b e l i e v e d t o be one o f the means whereby d i v i n i t y

into t h e i r consciousness.

The d i v i n e r ' s f u n c t i o n i s to i n t e r p r e t

breaks

the

c o n t e n t o f the dream: what d i v i n i t y i s s y m b o l i c a l l y r e p r e s e n t e d , what he

is

s a y i n g and what response i s demanded.

The most common type o f d i v i n e r i s the ogwega.

He i s t r a i n e d to

i n t e r p r e t p a t t e r n s produced by the t h r o w i n g o f a n e c k l a c e c o n t a i n i n g 16
s h e l l s w i t h a concave and convex s i d e .
;

The p o s s i b l e c o n f i g u r a t i o n s are

numerous and each c o n f i g u r a t i o n i s r e l a t e d to a p a r t i c u l a r problem and

divinity,

a s o l u t i o n b e i n g o f f e r e d on the b a s i s o f the p a t t e r n i n g o f

d i v i n a t o r y apparatus.

the

In the average v i l l a g e or town t h e r e w i l l be many

i n d i v i d u a l s who c l a i m to d i v i n e , but o n l y a few w i l l g a i n a r e p u t a t i o n

as p a r t i c u l a r l y s k i l f u l l

d i v i n e r s . . O t h e r s , the Edo f e e l ,

are

charlatans.

The;ewawa d i v i n e r works by c a s t i n g a number o f s m a l l f i g u r e s o f

human b e i n g s , animals and inanimate o b j e c t s on to a p l a t t e r ,
the answer a c c o r d i n g to the p a t t e r n

i n which they f a l l

interpreting

(Bradbury 1957: 59).

I have not observed t h i s method, but Bradbury s t a t e s t h a t i t was p r a c t i c e d

by the ewaise who i n h a b i t e d a number o f wards i n B e n i n C i t y .
among the Oba's o f f i c i a l
and

i n making charms

medicines.

' d o c t o r s ' and were s k i l f u l :

They were

i n preparing medicines

D i v i n e r s are u s u a l l y s k i l l e d i n the p r e p a r a t i o n s o f

96

Olokun ohen have t h e i r own system o f d i v i n a t i o n ( a k p e l e ) u s i n g

cowrie s h e l l s .
and Ogun.

And k o l a - d i v i n a t i o n i s p r a c t i c e d by the p r i e s t s o f Olokun

T h i s p a r t i c u l a r k i n d o f d i v i n a t i o n i s l i m i t e d to the s a c r i f i c e

performed b e f o r e the s h r i n e .
to i t s p a t t e r n i n g ,

The f o u r - s i d e d k o l a i s used and a c c o r d i n g

the p r i e s t w i l l be a b l e to t e l l

i f the d i v i n i t y

h e a r d the message and i f a n y t h i n g has been o m i t t e d from the

has

sacrificial

gift.
Yoruba systems o f d i v i n a t i o n have made some i n r o a d s i n t o E d o l a n d .
Ifa d i v i n a t i o n , consisting of d i v i n a t i o n with palm-kernels, is
w i t h the w o r s h i p o f the d i v i n i t y O r u n m i l a .

associated

However, by f a r the most

common type o f d i v i n a t i o n i n Edoland i s the ogwega.

W i t h t h i s summary statement o f the Edo cosmology i n m i n d , I t u r n
t o the d e t a i l o f Edo d i v i n i t i e s .

CHAPTER I V

OSANOBUA: SUPREME KING AND CREATOR OF ALL THINGS

I).

THE EDO REPRESENTATION OF OSANOBUA

There are a number o f ways o f deducing what a people b e l i e v e about

a particular divinity.
is

Through an a n a l y s i s o f the mythology the

researcher

a b l e t o d i g beneath the c o m p l e x i t i e s and even a b s u r d i t i e s o f myth i n

o r d e r to p e r c e i v e what i s the

' t r u t h ' ' ' about a p a r t i c u l a r d i v i n i t y .

1

For-

t u n a t e l y t h e r e are a number o f p r i n t e d documents connected w i t h the f o u n d i n g o f the H o l y A r u o s a Church (See Oba o f B e n i n 1946a; 1946b; 1 9 4 6 - 8 ) .
These w r i t i n g s c o n t a i n a number o f Edo myths about Osanobua.
attempt to a n a l y z e them as one means o f a r r i v i n g at the Edo
of

I will
representation

Osanobua.
Another i m p o r t a n t means o f a s c e r t a i n i n g what the Edo t h i n k about

the H i g h God i s through an a n a l y s i s o f the names the Edo g i v e to

their

children.

M . O m i j i e w r i t i n g i n N i g e r i a M a g a z i n e ' s L i t e r a r y Supplement

(1968: 40)

states:

B i n i names r e f l e c t the B i n i t h o u g h t e s p e c i a l l y s i n c e they express

i n most cases v e r y many i d e a s , b e l i e f s and maxims. B i n i names a r e ,
t h e r e f o r e , expressed p r o v e r b i a l l y , and I choose t o c a l l them so f o r
want o f a b e t t e r term: Proverb-Names.

Myths are man's attempt to get at the 'meaning o f t h i n g s ' ; to

grasp the t o t a l i t y o f e x p e r i e n c e .
They are not t r i v i a l or a b s u r d . Myth
r e l a t e s to t h a t w h i c h i s ' e t e r n a l l y t r u e . '
P a u l T i l l i c h (1957: 49) has
w r i t t e n t h a t myth ' i s the c o m b i n a t i o n o f symbols o f our u l t i m a t e c o n c e r n . . .
There i s no s u b s t i t u t e f o r the use o f symbols and myths: they are the
language o f f a i t h . '

- 98 -

U n l i k e N o r t h American names, A f r i c a n names have profound meaning and

significance.

K . C r a g g , w r i t i n g on ' C h r i s t i a n symbolism and the

m i n d , ' has noted t h a t

men "are c a l l e d . "
150).

'names,

i n the w h i t e w o r l d , are no more t h a n what

Not so i n A f r i c a where they are what men a r e '

For our purposes

African

(1968:

the name f u n c t i o n s as a r e c o r d e r o f an i n d i v i d u a l ' s

p e r c e p t i o n o f the a c t i v i t y o f d i v i n i t y .

A name w i l l be g i v e n not o n l y as

a t r i b u t e to a p a r t i c u l a r d i v i n i t y but a l s o as an i n d i c a t o r t h a t
d i v i n i t y has spoken o r i n t e r v e n e d i n Edo a f f a i r s .

the

The name can be g i v e n

t o r e f l e c t an E d o ' s predicament at a p a r t i c u l a r h i s t o r i c a l time

(eg.

f a m i l i a l c o n f l i c t ) o r c e r t a i n problems r e l a t e d to the a c t u a l b i r t h o f
child.

An a n a l y s i s o f Osa-names p o i n t s to what the Edo b e l i e v e i s

n a t u r e o f Osanobua as w e l l as how the Edo i n t e r p r e t

the

the

c e r t a i n events as a

2
m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f Osanobua.

A.

OSANOBUA AS HE IS PRESENTED IN THE MYTHOLOGY

1.

The S t o r y o f Erhamwoisa

There l i v e d a p o w e r f u l D i v i n i t y c a l l e d E r h a m o i s a .
c a l l e d Obiemwen.

H i s w i f e was

They had many c h i l d r e n namely, O l o k u n , Ogiuwu, E s u , E h i

P . B e r g e r (1969: 75) suggests t h a t w i t h i n e x p e r i e n c e d r e a l i t y t h e r e

are ' s i g n a l s o f t r a n s c e n d e n c e ' which p o i n t beyond man's " n a t u r e . "
In the
c o n t e x t o f t h i s study p a r t i c u l a r events are i n t e r p r e t e d by the Edo as
' s i g n a l s ' of a p a r t i c u l a r d i v i n i t y ' s presence.
3

I w i l l t r y to f o l l o w the t e x t g i v e n by the Oba i n The Addresses

o f the Oba o f B e n i n i n c o n n e x i o n w i t h the ARUOSA as c l o s e l y as p o s s i b l e ,
but w i l l paraphrase where n e c e s s a r y i n o r d e r to have a g r a m m a t i c a l t e x t .

- 99 and so o n .

Olokun was v e r y w i t t y , good and k i n d ; Oriuwu was v e r y h a r s h ,

4

d r e a d f u l and i r a s c i b l e .

Ehi

was w i c k e d and t r o u b l e s o m e .

was s i m p l e , good-natured and o b l i g i n g : Esu

The thunderous n o i s e d u r i n g a storm was

b e l i e v e d to be the u t t e r a n c e s o f Ogiuwu.

E h i was O l o k u n ' s f a v o u r i t e and

h e , Olokun and Ogiuwu always moved and p l a y e d w i t h bows and arrows

to-

gether.

(etee) ;

One day O l o k u n , Ogiuwu and E h i began to shoot at a t a r g e t

e x c i t e d by the number o f s c o r e s he made Olokun e j a c u l a t e d

'Menmwen O r i r e n f o

N'Ovb ierhamwo i s a ' meaning ' I have an i n t i m a t e knowledge o f God' or

known by God as h i s S o n .

When Ogiuwu made a s c o r e h e , t o o ,

' I am

ejaculated

'Menmwen O r i z e r e n N ' O v b i e r h a m w o i s a ' meaning ' I am o n l y known a l i t t l e by

F a t h e r God. '

E h i made a s c o r e but he d e c l a r e d h i m s e l f to be

'Imarenhiehie

N'Ovb ierhamwo i s a meaning ' I am known not as a son o f the F a t h e r G o d . '

t h a t time Erhamwoisa s a t down at Egun and He o v e r h e a r d them.

The n e x t day

He c a l l e d the t h r e e c h i l d r e n and o r d e r e d them to go to the r i v e r to

water for Him.

He gave to each a b a s k e t

At

fetch

i n w h i c h to b r i n g water home.

B e f o r e the c h i l d r e n l e f t f o r the r i v e r Olokun q u i c k l y made a b a n u r i (a k i n d

o f p i c t u r e ) i n the sand on the g r o u n d .

He r e q u e s t e d Erhamwoisa to remove

the p i c t u r e and keep i t safe i f i t r a i n e d i n h i s absence.

always k e p t the r a i n s i n a b i g tank under l o c k and k e y .

Erhamwoisa
When t h e r e was a

drought He opened the tank and i t would r a i n .

I f i t was too wet He l o c k e d

up the r a i n s i n the t a n k .

o f the c h i l d r e n to the r i v e r

A f t e r the d e p a r t u r e

Esu went s e c r e t l y to open the tank i n w h i c h the r a i n s were kept and i t

In t h i s myth E h i i s c o n c e p t u a l i z e d as a s i n g l e d i v i n i t y .
This
appears to c o n t r a d i c t ' w h a t most Edo b e l i e v e about t h e i r E h i . P o s s i b l y
t h i s myth r e f e r s to a p e r i o d o f time b e f o r e the c r e a t i o n " o f the E d o .
Or something has been l o s t i n t r a n s l a t i o n . A t any r a t e , f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h
i s needed i n t o the Edo b e l i e f i n E h i .

- 100 rained very h e a v i l y .

was d e s t r o y e d .

The p i c t u r e made by Olokun i n the sand on the ground

Meanwhile the c h i l d r e n r e t u r n e d

from the r i v e r .

Erhamwoisa

then asked Olokun to produce the water he brought from the r i v e r .

Instead

o f p r o d u c i n g the water Olokun asked Erhamwoisa to g i v e him the p i c t u r e He

asked Him to remove and keep safe
said,

i f i t rained.

Erhamwoisa s m i l e d and

' D i d n ' t you know t h a t the p i c t u r e i n the sand c o u l d not be removed?'

' D i d n ' t you k n o w , ' r e i t e r a t e d

Olokun,

Erhamwoisa s m i l e d a g a i n and s a i d ,

' t h a t a basket

c o u l d not h o l d w a t e r ? '

' O l o k u n , r e a l l y you are a k n o w - i t - a l l . '

Erhamwoisa then asked Ogiuwu to produce the water he brought from the r i v e r .
Ogiuwu produced the b a s k e t but o n l y a few drops o f water remained on the
l e a v e s which he put i n the b a s k e t to p r e v e n t
s m i l e d and s a i d ,

leakage.

'Ogiuwu, r e a l l y you d o n ' t know v e r y m u c h . '

E h i t o l d Erhamwoisa t h a t he dipped the b a s k e t

it

d i d not h o l d w a t e r .

very i g n o r a n t .

Erhamwoisa a g a i n

Erhamwoisa s m i l e d and s a i d ,

Erhamwoisa now d e c i d e d to make g i f t s

to Olokun he gave ukurhe and u w e n r h i o n t a n

one end and s a i d ,

i n t o the r i v e r but
' E h i , r e a l l y you are
to the c h i l d r e n ;

with a parrot

tail

feather

' O l o k u n , you must merely say your w i s h e s , stamp and whip

the ground w i t h the ukurhe and u w e n r h i o n t a n and your wishes w i l l be

filled

instantly.'

on

Olokun thanked Erhamwoisa and d e p a r t e d .

ful-

The ukurhe

and u w e n r h i o n t a n were the s e a l s w i t h w h i c h Erhamwoisa used to s e a l h i s

o r d e r s and d e c r e e s .
Olokun.
his

Esu was annoyed because Erhamwoisa gave the s e a l s

He went away a n g r i l y .

Whenever Erhamwoisa c a l l e d a meeting o f

c h i l d r e n Esu would not e n t e r Erhamwoisa's h o u s e .

at the g a t e .

I n s t e a d he would

Ever s i n c e men always put Esu a t t h e i r g a t e s .

became w e a l t h y and b u i l t a p a l a c e f o r h i m s e l f .
g r e a t e r than Erhamwoisa H i m s e l f .

to

stay

Olokun

He was acknowledged to be

Of h i m i t used to be s a i d ,

'Abiomo No

- 101 -

Somwan R'Erhamwoisa N a b i o l o k u n ' meaning

'It

i s n a t u r a l to beget a c h i l d

who may be g r e a t e r t h a n one, hence F a t h e r God begets O l o k u n . '

was made the keeper o f the s u n .

He commanded i t t o r i s e and s e t

Hence the s a y i n g 'Owen N O ' r i o k u n . Owen No Ko K u n d e , ' meaning

who proceeds

to and from O l o k u n . '

without consulting Olokun.

Olokun
daily.

'Thou sun

Erhamwoisa would not do a n y t h i n g

Both d i v i n i t i e s were regarded as one and the

same d i v i n i t y and were always r e f e r r e d

to as O s a v b o l o k u n .

The good n a t u r e d n e s s and o b l i g i n g h a b i t o f E h i earned f o r him the

post of a sponsor, defender,

g u i d e , m e d i a t o r and advocate f o r a l l d i v i n i -

t i e s and human b e i n g s a t Eguasa and E g u a ' O l o k u n ( O l o k u n ' s p a l a c e ) .

Erhamwoisa, Ob iemwen, Olokun and Ogiuwu were known as I k a d a l e enen no
d e r i n m w i n y i (The f o u r c a r d i n a l p o i n t s t h a t h e l d o r r u l e d the s p i r i t w o r l d ) .
Esu was known as o k a i g h e l e e r i n m w i n (The head o f the w o r k i n g c l a s s " ' s p i r i t s ) .

2 . . Osanobua as He i s Represented

i n some T r a d i t i o n a l S t o r i e s i n

The Book o f H o l y A r u o s a

I n Book I , page 7 we l e a r n t h a t Osanobua r e c e i v e d p r a y e r s and s a c r i fices.

'The k i n g went to A r u o s a at once w i t h f o u r k o l a n u t s and made a

s a c r i f i c e to Osanobua.

He prayed i n t h i s manner.

I s h o u l d have the upperhand over the r e b e l . '

p l a c e d one p i e c e on the

'Osanobua, g r a n t

that

He broke the k o l a n u t s and

altar.

In the s t o r y o f Ogbeide (Book I , p . 8-11) we read o f one Ogbeide

who had e x c e p t i o n a l knowledge o f m e d i c i n e s .

One day he went to the K i n g ' s

By ' w o r k i n g c l a s s ' i s meant those s p i r i t s who are i n f e r i o r i n p r e s t i g e to the ' g o o d ' s p i r i t s .

- 102 -

p a l a c e and spoke to the K i n g i n t h i s manner.

' 0 king, live

forever!

Osanobua has asked me to g i v e you and your people the f o l l o w i n g commandments.

T h i s i s a t y p i c a l example o f the Edo b e l i e f

t h a t some i n d i v i d u a l s

have s p e c i a l knowledge o f Osanobua.

I n c l u d e d i n Book I i s a s t o r y o f the c r e a t i o n o f man and woman.
The s t o r y seems to f o l l o w the C h r i s t i a n account o f c r e a t i o n e x c e p t i n g
t h a t Osanobua c o n s u l t s h i s c o u n c i l o f s p i r i t s

(Obiemwen and Olokun)

b e f o r e c r e a t i n g man.

Man i s to be c r e a t e d to g l o r i f y and adore Osanobua

even as the s p i r i t s .

Although i t i s d i f f i c u l t

to s e p a r a t e the C h r i s t i a n

i n f l u e n c e s from the s t o r y t h e r e i s a d i s t i n c t l y Edo b e l i e f

A f t e r c r e a t i n g the c r e a t u r e s ,

i n the m y t h .

a l l the s p i r i t s beseech Osanobua:

'They

and t h e i r c h i l d r e n ' s c h i l d r e n must r e v i s i t and r e - i n h a b i t the e a r t h

and a g a i n f o u r t e e n t i m e s .

A t the end o f the s o j o u r n they must r e t u r n

the abode o f the s p i r i t s and s t a y f o r e v e r

the s p i r i t s .

again

i n peace and happiness

to

among

Then they s h a l l become immortal and t a k e t h e i r p o s i t i o n

among the s p i r i t s g l o r i f y i n g me f o r e v e r .

I s h a l l a s s i g n a p l a c e f o r them

i n the abode o f the s p i r i t s a c c o r d i n g to t h e i r good works and degree o f

p u r i t y , h o l i n e s s , e x c e l l e n c e and l o v e f o r me and f o r one another w h i l e
they l i v e d on the e a r t h .

Each g e n e r a t i o n s h a l l b r i n g f o r t h c h i l d r e n ,

who have never v i s i t e d the e a r t h b e f o r e ,

populated f o r e v e r . '

The Edo b e l i e f

so t h a t the w o r l d s h a l l remain

i n r e i n c a r n a t i o n i s found i n t h i s m y t h .

I n Book I I , page 5 we f i n d a s t o r y about Ese who was v e r y h a r s h ,

u n k i n d and u n g r a t e f u l .

In t h i s myth the f o l l o w i n g l i n e s are f o u n d .

'In

those days m o r t a l s used to v i s i t F a t h e r God i n the abode o f S p i r i t s i n

the Great Beyond f o r c o n s u l t a t i o n c o n c e r n i n g t h e i r d i f f i c u l t i e s .
happened t h a t these two men went to the abode o f S p i r i t s i n the

It
Great

- 103 Beyond one day f o r c o n s u l t a t i o n w i t h Osanobua and when they got to

spot where m o r t a l s used t o w a i t on Osanobua, b e h o l d , t h e r e were
h e r e and t h e r e e x c r e m e n t s . . . ' ^ T h i s n u i s a n c e was a t t r i b u t e d
c o r r e s p o n d s w i t h the Edo c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n o f Esu t o d a y .

the

scattered

to E s u .

This

I t i s also to

be noted t h a t the Edo once b e l i e v e d t h a t c e r t a i n i n d i v i d u a l s had the

a b i l i t y t o go i n t o the presence o f Osanobua.

A l t h o u g h t h e r e are none

w i t h t h i s p a r t i c u l a r a b i l i t y i n contemporary Edo c u l t u r e , the

t r a d i t i o n is s t i l l very strong.

It

i s w i d e l y b e l i e v e d i n Edoland t h a t

t h e r e are men w i t h s p e c i a l ' s p i r i t u a l ' i n s i g h t .

by the v a r i o u s

3.

'prophetic'

These men w i l l be

'chosen'

divinities.

Osanobua as He i s Represented i n the Okhauhe Myth

In t h i s p a r t i c u l a r
great king with h i s aids

' h i s t o r y ' o f Okhauhe, Osanobua i s p i c t u r e d as a

(ukeken): O l o k u n , Ogiuwu and Obiemwen.

i s d e p i c t e d as h a v i n g a harem, j u s t as p a s t and p r e s e n t

Osanobua

Obas have many

w i v e s s i g n i f y i n g t h e i r p r e s t i g e , power and p o s i t i o n i n the p o l i t i c a l

Okhauhe i s the one who has supranormal powers and ascends
presence a number o f t i m e s .

Osanobua descends

system.

i n t o Osanobua's

t w i c e i n t h i s myth: once

to E r i e S t r e e t and once to the spot now c l a i m e d as the s i t e o f the

present

Aruosa.

Summary o f Some Themes i n the Edo Mythology

Osanobua i s the c r e a t o r o f the d i v i n i t i e s , who are c o n c e i v e d o f as

h i s c h i l d r e n ; animals and m o r t a l man.

Both man and the d i v i n i t i e s have

- 104 received their l i f e

from Osanobua.

In the Erhamwoisa-myth the p r e s e n t

p o s i t i o n s o f O l o k u n , Ogiuwu and Esu i n the cosmology are r a t i o n a l i z e d .

Olokun has the s p e c i a l p o s i t i o n as the p o w e r f u l and i n f l u e n t i a l son o f
Osanobua, i . e . he i s one who knows Osanobua's ways and n a t u r e b e t t e r
any o t h e r c a t e g o r y o f b e i n g .
rationalized.

E s u ' s c a p r i c i o u s and u n r u l y n a t u r e i s a l s o

We saw, f o r example, t h a t Esu d i d not want t o

w i t h Osanobua and t h a t he was a s s o c i a t e d w i t h excrement.

w i t h our b r i e f

c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f Esu as

associate

This is i n l i n e

' d i r t y , b l a c k and u g l y . '

I n the mythology Osanobua i s i n no way the withdrawn God.

beseeched

at the s t a t e a l t a r where s a c r i f i c e s and p r a y e r s were

A t one time he appeared

than

He was

offered.

to the Edo k i n g Ewaure and from.time to time

d u a l s emerged who had s p e c i a l a b i l i t i e s o f p r o p h e s y i n g o r a s c e n d i n g

e r i m w i n f o r s p e c i a l meetings w i t h Osanobua.

indiviinto

We might i n f e r from these

myths t h a t s i n c e Osanobua descended to e a r t h and man ascended to Osanobua

i n former t i m e s , t h a t i n the p r e s e n t e r a he i s not as approachable o r as
easy to communicate w i t h as he once was.
Edo s o c i a l o r d e r i n another way.

Osanobua i s a l s o r e l a t e d t o

I n the s t o r y o f Ogbeide, we d i s c o v e r e d

t h a t Osanobua gave a number o f commands to the E d o .

These commands

p r i m a r i l y concerned w i t h s e x u a l taboos but t h e r e are a l s o

B.

OSANOBUA AS HE IS REPRESENTED IN THE OSA-NAMES

1.

The Omniscience o f Osanobua

(a)

Osareren.

acceptable

Osanobua i s the u p h o l d e r o f the

order.

Osanobua knows my f e e l i n g s

are

regulations

r e l a t e d to p r o p e r t y r i g h t s , a t t e n d a n c e a t naming ceremonies and

b e h a v i o u r o f y o u t h toward a d u l t s .

the

social

- 105 (b)

Osarenghoe.

Osanobua a l o n e knows our i n n e r m i n d s .

(c)

Osarenvbagharu.

Osanobua a l o n e knows what we w i l l

do.

The C r e a t i v e Power o f Osanobua

(a)

Osagie.

Osanobua has sent t h i s c h i l d t o me.

The name Osareme

a l s o conveys the same i d e a .

(b)

Edosa.

Literally:

I t i s Osanobua's d a y .

The r e f e r e n c e

to

' d a y ' i s to the s p e c i a l day o f c r e a t i o n .

(c)

Osayinmwese.

(d)

Osayi.

(e)

Osaguona.

Osanobua has c r e a t e d me w e l l .

Osanobua c r e a t e s

(particularly children).

Osanobua i s the g r e a t a r c h i t e c t .

wonderful

'Osanobua i s

inasmuch as he i s a b l e to c r e a t e something t h a t

is

a b l e to c r y . '

(f)

Osagiede.

Osanobua governs or chooses the day o f b i r t h .

The Omnipotence o f Osanobua

(a)

Osarodion.

Osanobua i s supreme i n power.

(b)

Osakpolor.

Osanobua i s g r e a t ; above a l l o t h e r s i n b e s t o w i n g

abilities.
(c)

Osaroghiagbon.

(d)

Osaretin.

(e)

Osauyi.

(f)

Osayogie.

Osanobua i s the k i n g above a l l the w o r l d .

Osanobua s
r

strength surpasses a l l

strength.

Osanobua commands h o n o u r .
Osanobua c r e a t e s k i n g s , i . e . Osanobua i s above a l l

earthly kings.

- 106 (g)

Osagioduwa.

Osanobua i s the f o u n d a t i o n f o r a l l

increases

in wealth.
(h)

Osazuwa.

Osanobua i s worthy o f honour and p r a i s e .

(i)

Osawaru.

Osanobua must be o b e y e d .

The I n t e r v e n t i o n o f Osanobua i n the Edo C u l t u r e

(a)

Igbinosa.

Osanobua i s my r e f u g e .

He defends the

defenceless

and p r o t e c t s the l i f e o f anyone who i s t h r e a t e n e d by such as

the

azen.
*

(b)

Osazee.

(c)

Osaigbovo.

Osanobua judges i m p a r t i a l l y .

(d)

Osayomobo.

Osanobua has h e l p e d me g a i n t h i s

(e)

Osamudiamwen.

(f)

Osayemwere.

(g)

Osarenoma.

Osanobua i s i m p a r t i a l .

and what to

give.

(h)

Osanobua has r e c o n c i l e d u s .

Osazemwide.
final

child.

Osanobua stands by my s i d e .
Osanobua has remembered me.
He alone choses to whom

Osanobua d e c i d e s the end o f t h i n g s .

He i s

the

arbiter.

(i)

Osahon.

Osanobua h e a r s my p r a y e r .

(j)

Osawemwegie.

Osanobua has made me to laugh (at what he has

done on my b e h a l f ) .

The S o v e r e i g n t y o f Osanobua

(a)

Osabuohien.

(b)

Nosakhare.

Osanobua i s the f i n a l
Osanobua' s d e c i s i o n i s

judge o f
final.

things.

- 107 (c)

Idahosa.

I ' m w a i t i n g f o r Osanobua's d e c i s i o n .

(d)

Orobosa.

My p l i g h t i s i n Osanobua's

(e)

Osazenaye.

It

hands.

i s Osanobua who p l a c e s me i n a r e s p e c t e d

posi-

tion.
(f)

Osayanmwo.

Osanobua owns the c h i l d

(acknowledgement o f H i s

ownership o f a l l t h i n g s ) .
(g)

Efosasere.

(h)

Osaghae.

(i)

Osakue.

Osanobua 's w e a l t h s u r p a s s e s a l l w e a l t h .
Osanobua i s the f i n a l a r b i t e r

i n our

dispute.

Osanobua has g i v e n consent so t h a t I might have an

issue.

II.

THE MANIFESTATION OF OSANOBUA

The Edo i n t e r p r e t v a r i o u s events w i t h i n t h e i r c u l t u r e as the manif e s t a t i o n o f Osanobua.

S i n c e Osanobua i s b e l i e v e d to be the k i n g o f the

u n i v e r s e and the u p h o l d e r o f the Edo s o c i a l o r d e r , when harmony

and

h e a l t h p r e v a i l i n the n a t i o n ; the Edo v a l u e system i s p r e s e r v e d ;

and

i n d i v i d u a l s g a i n h e l p i n d e s p e r a t e s i t u a t i o n s , Osanobua i s b e l i e v e d to
have m a n i f e s t e d h i m s e l f to the E d o .
reveals

something o f the Edo e x p e r i e n c e o f the presence and m a n i f e s t a t i o n

o f Osanobua i n t h e i r d a i l y

A.

An i n depth e x a m i n a t i o n o f Osa-names

affairs.

PRESERVATION OF THE EDO VALUE SYSTEM

E x c l u d i n g the Edo c o n c e r n w i t h c h i l d r e n which I w i l l c o n s i d e r i n

another s e c t i o n , b a s i c Edo v a l u e s are c e n t r e d i n the f a m i l y .
p l a c e a s t r o n g emphasis on the p a t r i l i n e a g e .

The Edo

Edo f a m i l i e s tend to be

- 108 l a r g e , and a r i g o r o u s r u l e o f p r i m o g e n i t u r e c r e a t e s c o n f l i c t

i n the

family.

This

T h i s c o n f l i c t breeds an i n t e n s e l o n g i n g f o r u n i t y .

on u n i t y and s t r e n g t h

stress

i s seen i n the ogbe ( u n i t y ) and omo ( c h i l d ) names

which g e n e r a l l y emphasize f a m i l y honour and p r e s t i g e .

Other themes p e r -

meating the whole s t r u c t u r e o f Edo names are honour ( u y i ) and p r o s p e r i t y

(uwa).
The name O s a d o l o r means

'Osanobua has s e t t l e d my d i s p u t e . '

The

p a r e n t s who gave t h e i r c h i l d t h i s name must have been q u a r r e l i n g w h i c h

i s a t h r e a t t o ogbe w i t h i n the f a m i l y .

But Osanobua gave them a c h i l d and

i n t h i s g i v i n g cemented the disharmonious r e l a t i o n s h i p .

O s a r e r e n means

A l t h o u g h the name

'Osanobua knows my f e e l i n g s , ' the name can be g i v e n i n a

s i t u a t i o n i n w h i c h the u y i o f an i n d i v i d u a l i s at s t a k e .

I t appears t h a t

the p a t e r had been accused o f some p a r t i c u l a r d i s h o n o u r a b l e a c t , but was

later absolved.

And s i n c e a c h i l d was -born d u r i n g t h a t p e r i o d , t h i s name

was g i v e n t o i n d i c a t e t h a t Osanobua i s the u l t i m a t e p r o t e c t o r of

honour

one's

(uyi).
The name Osaghae i s another name w h i c h i s r e l a t e d to the theme o f

conflict

i n the f a m i l y .

My informant suggested t h a t t h e r e might have

been a s e r i o u s c o n f l i c t o v e r , f o r example, m a t t e r s o f dowry, w h i c h r e s u l t e d

i n serious q u a r r e l i n g .

The name i s g i v e n i n t r i b u t e to Osanobua who i s

b e l i e v e d to have u n i t e d the d i v i d e d p a r t i e s by g i v i n g them the c o v e t e d

gift

of a c h i l d .

A number o f the names i n d i c a t e t h a t a man and woman's

f a i l u r e t o have c h i l d r e n brought them c o n s i d e r a b l e r e p r o a c h .

The name

Osawemwegie, (Osanobua has made me to laugh) r e v e a l s t h a t when a l l hope

had been l o s t Osanobua g r a n t e d a c h i l d and now h i s a c c u s e r s are weeping
and he i s l a u g h i n g .

The p o i n t h e r e i s t h a t a l a c k o f c h i l d r e n i s

the

- 109 a n t i t h e s i s o f what the Edo b e l i e v e i s one v e r y i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t o f a

and p r e s t i g e f u l

B.

full

life.

DESPERATE CIRCUMSTANCES PARTICULARLY RELATED TO THE BIRTH PROCESS

Osanobua m a n i f e s t s H i m s e l f to the Edo p r i m a r i l y i n the b i r t h p r o c e s s .

W i t h o u t u n d e r s t a n d i n g the Edo i d e a c o n c e r n i n g b i r t h ,

i t i s i m p o s s i b l e to

u n d e r s t a n d how the Edo can r e l a t e the b i r t h p r o c e s s to Osanobua.

The Edo b e l i e v e t h a t no b i r t h can t a k e p l a c e w i t h o u t Osanobua' s
consent.

T h i s i s why t h e r e i s a p l e t h o r a o f names w i t h the theme o f

'Osanobua's d a y ; e t c .

A t i n t e r c o u r s e the

the man i n t o the woman who i s the

for
it

f u t u r e development.

( e s a g i e n ) ^ comes from

' c o n t a i n e r ' f o r s t o r i n g the

The woman i s the c a r e t a k e r

d e v e l o p s i n t o a human b e i n g .

because the m i x i n g o f

'blood'

f o r the

'blood'

' b l o o d ' may r e s u l t i n deformed c h i l d r e n .

(esagienerhumwun)

one cannot get t h a t pure

i n t o the woman.

'blood of

W i t h o u t Osanobua's

' b l o o d ' p l a n t e d i n the woman's womb.

o n l y come about at the f u l l

consent
I t can

consent o f Osanobua as the r e s u l t o f p r a y e r .

T h i s i d e a i s i m p o r t a n t f o r obvious r e a s o n s .
then,

until

A c c o r d i n g to the E d o , a d u l t e r y i s immoral

Man i s o n l y the m i d d l e p e r s o n : the one who conveys the

blessing'

'blood'

The a c t u a l c r e a t i v e p r o c e s s ,

i s Osanobua's r e s p o n s i b i l i t y .
I t i s i m p o r t a n t t h a t an Edo woman a v o i d i l l i c i t

sex r e l a t i o n s .

My informant t r a n s l a t e d e s a g i e n as ' b l o o d . '

T h i s i s not to say
t h a t he has i d e n t i f i e d semen w i t h ' b l o o d . '
I m p l i e d i n the n o t i o n o f ' b l o o d '
i s l i f e - g i v i n g f o r c e c l o s e l y r e l a t e d to the p e r p e t u a t i o n o f the l i n e a g e .

- 110 M e n u s t r a t i n g women must t r y and behave r e s p o n s i b l y i n the house and i f

t h e r e has been any q u a r r e l i n g i n the house i t must s u b s i d e .
a f t e r m e n u s t r a t i o n t h a t the
make c e r t a i n the the

' b l o o d o f b l e s s i n g ' can p a s s .

It is only
In o r d e r

'good b l o o d i s c o m i n g , ' the Edo must not

to

quarrel

f o r the e v i l s p i r i t s are always w a t c h i n g ( p a r t i c u l a r l y the azen) .

Edo b e l i e v e t h a t i t i s an o f f e n s e
after

the c o m p l e t i o n o f h e r

f o r a man not to s l e e p w i t h h i s w i f e

menustration.

The l a c k o f c h i l d r e n i s o f t e n a t t r i b u t e d
woman w i l l be s u b j e c t

to a d u l t e r y .

The accused

to i n t e r r o g a t i o n at a f a m i l y f a t h e r i n g .

d i v i n e r may be c o n s u l t e d .
o r the a c t i v i t y o f ' e v i l

The

And a

Other causes f o r b a r r e n n e s s are n a t u r a l

forces.

causes,

C r i p p l e d c h i l d r e n are a p p a r e n t l y

by the m i x t u r e o f the e s a g i e n w i t h another man's

'caused'

semen.

A number of the Edo names acknowledge t h i s c r e a t i v e power o f

Osanobua: Osayamwen. O s a y i and Osareme.

The Edo b e l i e v e t h a t Osanobua

i s c o n t i n u a l l y at work i n agbon as the c r e a t i v e

force.

But now I want t o l o o k at how Osanobua i s b e l i e v e d to

himself

i n a more s p e c i f i c way to Edo who f i n d themselves

manifest

i n a desperate

plight.
The name Osayaede i s g i v e n as p r a i s e to Osanobua f o r H i s g i f t o f
a child.
of b i r t h . '

L i t e r a l l y the name means ' I t

i s Osanobua who c o n t r o l s the day

I n the Ogiamwen household I q u e s t i o n e d one mother who had

g i v e n the name o f Godwin Osayaede to one o f h e r c h i l d r e n .

t h a t when she was pregnant

I discovered

she had had c o n s i d e r a b l e d i f f i c u l t y .

At that

time she had prayed i n d e s p e r a t i o n to Osanobua not to l e t her d i e as

f e a r e d t h a t h e r d e l i v e r y would be a v e r y d i f f i c u l t
d i d d e l i v e r the c h i l d ,

one.

When she

she knew t h a t Osanobua had h e l p e d i n h e r

she

finally

jplight.

- Ill Osanobua spoke to the woman by d e l i v e r i n g her from her f e a r and

difficulty.

Many o t h e r names have the same theme: a person had used up a l l known
resources

and i n d e s p e r a t i o n sought Osanobua.^

The name Osarobo means

'Osanobua i s a d o c t o r above a l l d o c t o r s . '

One woman I i n t e r v i e w e d named h e r c h i l d O l o k u n r o b o .

go b e f o r e any o f the o t h e r d e i t i e s f o r h e l p .
for h e l p .

T h i s woman d i d n ' t

She went to Olokun alone;

Thus when h e r c h i l d was b o r n she gave the name Olokunrobo to

i n d i c a t e t h a t Olokun had heard her p r a y e r s ; t h a t she had r e l i e d on Olokun

a l o n e f o r the success o f her d e l i v e r y .

L i k e w i s e when the name Osarobo i s

g i v e n i t i s g i v e n to i n d i c a t e , not the mere f a c t o f p r a y e r to Osanobua f o r

a c h i l d , but the i n t e n s i t y and degree o f p r a y e r b e f o r e the h i g h g o d .
I n another

case r e c o r d e d i n C h i e f Ogiamwen's compound, one woman

named her c h i l d Susanna O s a r e t i n .

passes a l l s t r e n g t h )

T h i s name (Osanobua's s t r e n g t h

was g i v e n to the c h i l d because by the time the mother

d e l i v e r e d the c h i l d , n o t h i n g had'happened
of d i f f i c u l t i e s

sur-

to h e r .

There were no sicknesses

from any o f the f o r c e s t h a t d i s r u p t a s u c c e s s f u l d e l i v e r y .

T h i s somewhat u n u s u a l event was i n t e r p r e t e d as a m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f Osanobua:

'Osanobua has h e l p e d me o b t a i n a safe d e l i v e r y and has demonstrated

his

care for me.'

There are o t h e r names f a l l i n g

into this general category.

Osayinm-

wese (Osanobua has c r e a t e d me w e l l ) c o u l d be g i v e n i n a s i t u a t i o n where a

c h a l l e n g e had been made to one who seemed i m p o t e n t .

But now he/she has a

I t may seem ' n a t u r a l ' to p l e a d to Osanobua at a b i r t h . A l l Edo

women pray to Osanobua f o r c h i l d r e n . However, they a l s o pray to the o t h e r
divinities.
The p o i n t i s t h a t the l e s s e r d i v i n i t i e s w i l l be approached
w i t h s a c r i f i c e s and g r e a t e r i n t e n s i t y than Osanobua. But i f they f a i l ,
t h e n Osanobua i s approached as the f i n a l c o u r t o f a p p e a l .

- 112 -

c h i l d and- i s p r a i s i n g Osanobua who has

b i r t h o f the c h i l d i s i n t e r p r e t e d
t e d i t s presence

'created him/her w e l l . '

The

s y m b o l i c a l l y : D i v i n i t y has m a n i f e s -

i n r e s o l v i n g a personal predicament.

l a r event r e l a t e d to c h i l d - b i r t h i s i n t e r p r e t e d

Again a p a r t i c u -

as a message

from

Osanobua.
The name Osaigbovo (Osanobua does not e n v y ) c o u l d have been g i v e n
i n a s i t u a t i o n i n w h i c h a man f e l t v e r y unworthy t o r e c e i v e a n y t h i n g from
Osanobua.

But he r e c e i v e d a c h i l d i n h i s u n w o r t h i n e s s .

events--the

man's

Two c o n t i g u o u s

i n n e r s t a t e and the b i r t h o f the c h i l d - - a r e

interpreted

as a s i g n t h a t Osanobua has m a n i f e s t e d h i m s e l f and c o n s i d e r e d him even

though he was not f i t to r e c e i v e a n y t h i n g .

The name Osamudiamwen (Osano-

bua stands by me) a l s o r e v e a l s the same b e l i e f

'speak'

to a man's f o r s a k e n n e s s .

t h a t Osanobua i s a b l e

to

T h i s name i s g i v e n when a p e r s o n i s

c o n s c i o u s o f a g r e a t d e a l o f o p p o s i t i o n from the human and superhuman

levels.

The name i s g i v e n to p r a i s e Osanobua f o r s t a n d i n g by h i m , f o r

i f Osanobua had not stood by h i m , he would f e e l f o r s a k e n by men and the

divinities.

The o p p o s i t i o n from h i s f e l l o w Edo and harassment

azen i s i n t e r p r e t e d

symbolically.

message he has r e c e i v e d .

by the

Osanobua had remembered: t h i s i s

the

A g a i n , one o f my i n f o r m a n t ' s f r i e n d s had been

p r a y i n g f o r y e a r s f o r a c h i l d , but o n l y r e c e n t l y d i d he r e c e i v e a c h i l d .
T h i s l o n g awaited c o n c e p t i o n was a t t r i b u t e d
him i n h i s d e s p e r a t i o n .
(Osanobua a l o n e knows our

t o Osanobua who ' s p o k e '

to

Hence he s e l e c t e d the name Osarenvbagharu

future).

In the Ogiamwen compound one woman gave her c h i l d the name Anthony
Nosakhare.

She was p r e g n a n t ,

but f o r some months the c h i l d would not

- 113 appear.

T h i s happened t h r e e t i m e s .

She had prayed to Osanobua:

g i v e me a c h i l d I w i l l not add any m e d i c a t i o n , i . e . I w i l l

you.'

and the name Nosakhare (Osanobua' s d e c i s i o n

f i n a l ) was g i v e n as a response to the a c t i v i t y and presence o f Osanobua

i n the unexpectedness

C.

solely in

T h i s b a r g a i n r e l i e v e d h e r from any blame i f the c h i l d was ' s p o i l e d . '

She c o n c e i v e d s h o r t l y a f t e r
is

trust

' I f you

o f the

event.

HEALTH AND HARMONY "-IN THE EDO NATION

When t h e r e i s g e n e r a l h e a l t h and harmony i n the Edo kingdom t h i s

is

9
a t t r i b u t e d to the goodness o f Osanobua.
p r o v i n g or d i s p r o v i n g t h i s Edo a s s e r t i o n .

There i s o b v i o u s l y no way o f
Every y e a r a t h a n k s g i v i n g

s a c r i f i c e was g i v e n to Osanobua f o r the g e n e r a l p r o t e c t i o n o f the Edo

nation.
of

I t seems from h i s t o r i c a l examples t h a t when the g e n e r a l w e l f a r e

the kingdom was t h r e a t e n e d

s a c r i f i c e s were o f f e r e d to Osanobua.

times o f s e r i o u s e p i d e m i c s , f o r example, v a r i o u s items were o f f e r e d

Osanobua.

In
to

T h r e a t of a t t a c k o f an enemy c o u l d a l s o have i n i t i a t e d a s a c r i -

f i c e at the o r d e r o f the Oba.

Thus, i f the c o n d i t i o n o f the kingdom improved, t h i s event was
interpreted

s y m b o l i c a l l y to mean t h a t Osanobua had heard man's

ritually

The Edo b e l i e v e t h a t some e v i l f o r c e s can ' h o l d ' the woman's

i n the womb f o r p e r i o d s up t o t h r e e y e a r s .

child

9
In t h i s r e s p e c t i t was i n k e e p i n g w i t h the Edo b e l i e f i n Osanobua's
i n t e r e s t i n the w e l f a r e o f the Edo n a t i o n f o r the Oba to c a n c e l the y e a r l y
t h a n k s g i v i n g ceremony (Igwe) w h i l e N i g e r i a was engaged i n a c i v i l w a r . For
one o f the purposes o f the Igwe i s t o seek Osanobua's g e n e r a l b l e s s i n g .

- 114 communicated message and answered by i n t e r v e n i n g i n t h e i r

affairs.

C h i l d r e n are an i n d e x o f s o c i a l s t a t u s i n the Edo c u l t u r e .

They

are the honour and g l o r y o f an Edo and the f i r s t need o f any man.

An

E d o ' s importance at death i s judged by how l a r g e the crowd i s d u r i n g the

second b u r i a l c e r e m o n i e s .

Osanobua, the supreme k i n g , i s b e l i e v e d to

m a n i f e s t h i m s e l f to the Edo i n the mystery o f the b i r t h - p r o c e s s .

As we

have seen from our a n a l y s i s o f some Osa-names, Osanobua i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r

the g i v i n g and t a k i n g o f l i f e .
process.

i n the

creative

I s u g g e s t , t h e n , t h a t i t i s p r i m a r i l y i n t h i s process

tion/pregnancy/safe
o f Osanobua.
a 'sign'

Man i s o n l y a p a r t n e r

d e l i v e r y ) t h a t the Edo e x p e r i e n c e the

manifestation

Thus every c h i l d t h a t i s b o r n i s a ' m e s s a g e ' ;

t h a t Osanobua i s i n v o l v e d i n Edo a f f a i r s

(concep-

'symbol';

i n agbon, i . e . he i s not

'deus o t i o s u s . '

III.

THE EDO RESPONSE TO OSANOBUA

As the u p h o l d e r o f the Edo s o c i a l o r d e r , Osanobua i s the d i v i n e

p r o t e c t o r o f the Edo n a t i o n .

He i s a l s o the c r e a t i v e or v i t a l

v a s i v e i n the u n i v e r s e ; a l l b i r t h s are a t t r i b u t e d

force per-

to h i s a c t i v i t y .

t o have the most power o f a l l the d i v i n i t i e s , Osanobua i s at l e a s t

t i a l l y a b l e to h e l p i n c r i s i s s i t u a t i o n s .

Believed
poten-

A l l i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h Osanobua

tends t o remain at a v e r y g e n e r a l l e v e l ; to m a i n t a i n the w e l f a r e o f the

Edo n a t i o n .

I t seems t h a t i n d i v i d u a l Edo pray as a m a t t e r o f c o u r s e to

Osanobua f o r g e n e r a l b l e s s i n g .

1 0

T h i s a p p e a l r e c o g n i z e s Osanobua as

the

T h i s i s an example o f a t y p i c a l p r a y e r to Osanobua.
Osanobua no m i o w i a n f a n , erhavban n o r e r i m w i n u y i orwue, i m u e t i n
y a n r u e n , giemwin nagbon mavben, ghe g i e su k e v b i n dan yo mwen khoe, gun
mwento, ne v b i n n i r o b o y i h i a gha dinode men.
Ise.
1 0

- 115 -

ground o f a l l t h i n g s .

For w i t h o u t Osanobua's

t i e s c o u l d not f u l f i l l

their particular functions.

o t h e r d i v i n i t i e s seem to have f a i l e d
w i t h a h i g h e r degree o f

s a n c t i o n the l e s s e r
It

t h a t the Edo w i l l

divini-

i s o n l y when the
a p p e a l to Osanobua

intensity.

The H o l y A r u o s a as Response to Osanobua

The Edo have always had an a l t a r

(aru)

to Osanobua.

I t was p l a c e d

i n a c e n t r a l p l a c e i n the c i t y and c o n s i s t e d o f c h a l k and c o w r i e s .

t h i n g was done i n w h i t e .

A l l t h a t was r e q u i r e d t o r e p r e s e n t Him were

ukhure, uwenrhiontan w i t h a parrot t a i l

containing water,

Every-

feather

the

on one end, a s m a l l pot

c h a l k , a d a , eben, and some p i e c e s o f w h i t e and red c l o t h

(ododo) .
I t was at t h i s a r u t h a t Osanobua was b e l i e v e d to have descended
times p a s t .

in

The ohensa made s a c r i f i c e s under the i n s t r u c t i o n o f the Oba

at the a r u o s a .

The Oba was the s o l e c u s t o d i a n o f the a r u o s a a p p o i n t i n g

the ohensa and s e e i n g about the

sacrifices.

The purpose o f s a c r i f i c e was f o r the g e n e r a l p r o t e c t i o n o f the Edo

nation.

Every year v i a the s a c r i f i c e - m e d i a the ohensa on b e h a l f o f

Edo p e o p l e , communicated the Edo t h a n k f u l n e s s

year.

the

f o r the b l e s s i n g s o f the past

But the s a c r i f i c e had a dual, meaning as the Edo a l s o sought

for

. T r a n s l a t i o n o f Edo p r a y e r i n f o o t n o t e 1 0 , on the p r e v i o u s page.

Osanobua the s a v i o u r , our f a t h e r who r e i g n s i n e r i m w i n . Honour
be to thy name.
I t i s o n l y thee i n whom I put my t r u s t .
L e t me prosper
in a l l worldly things,
Do not a l l o w Esu to p l a n t e v i l i n my m i n d . L e t
me l i v e l o n g . L e t a l l t h a t I hope f o r be f r u i t f u l f o r me. Amen.

- 116 p r o t e c t i o n i n the coming y e a r .

I n times o f s e r i o u s e p i d e m i c the ohensa

would t r y and communicate w i t h Osanobua i n o r d e r to a v e r t the coming

e p i d e m i c w h i c h might have been f o r e t o l d by one o f the Oba's c o u r t d i v i n e r s .
W h i l e i n B e n i n C i t y from September, 1966 to A u g u s t , 1967, t h e r e were a
number o f o c c a s i o n s when d i r e c t i v e s came from the p a l a c e t h a t an epidemic
was coming.

T h i s l e d to the s a c r i f i c e o f a number o f items a t the Ikpoba

River.
The Oba Akenzua I I (Akenzua 1946a: 1) s t a t e s t h a t the o r d e r o f
s e r v i c e at the aruosa was s i m p l e .

p r i e s t p r a y e d , broke k o l a , and

s l a u g h t e r e d a n i m a l s , fowls and so o n .

He smeared the ukhurhe

(staff

r e p r e s e n t i n g the Oba's departed a n c e s t o r s ) w i t h b l o o d o f the animals and

then prepared a f e a s t

c o n s i s t i n g o f b o i l e d meat, soup and pounded yam (eman).

S m a l l b i t s o f these foods were p l a c e d on the a l t a r and w o r s h i p p e r s fed

h a p p i l y on the r e m a i n d e r .
The Oba s t a t e s t h a t everyone had an a l t a r

i n h i s or h e r house where

s a c r i f i c e s were made, b u t the a r t i c l e f o r s a c r i f i c e depended l a r g e l y on

the s o c i a l s t a n d i n g o f the i n d i v i d u a l c o n c e r n e d .

The a r t i c l e s r e q u i r e d

at the S t a t e A l t a r c o u l d be a n y t h i n g from k o l a n u t s to b u l l o c k s , a l t h o u g h
Osanobua d i d not accept a l c o h o l i c d r i n k s .

The name Osaidayon (Osanobua

does not d r i n k ) i n d i c a t e s t h a t d r i n k s were not used v e r y o f t e n as

ficial

items.

sacri-

The symbols r e p r e s e n t i n g the Supreme d i v i n i t y , Obiemwen

and Olokun were u s u a l l y p l a c e d near each o t h e r on the same a l t a r i n p r i v a t e

houses but s e p a r a t e a l t a r s were b u i l t f o r each d i v i n i t y and s e p a r a t e p r i e s t s
a p p o i n t e d to perform ceremonies f o r e a c h .
to Osanobua i n t h e i r homes any l o n g e r .

Few Edo have an a l t a r

(aruosa)

F o r the m a j o r i t y o f Edo, A r u o s a

i s synonymous w i t h the H o l y A r u o s a Church l o c a t e d on Akpavkpava

Street.

- 117 In 1945 the Oba Akenzua I I and the t i t l e d c h i e f s met to

their

forefather's

s i m p l e way o f w o r s h i p p i n g the Supreme d i v i n i t y .

c l a i m e d t h a t Osanobua heard and spoke to the a n c i e n t

C h r i s t i a n way o f w o r s h i p p i n g
m a t i o n to the E d o .
worshipped
stated

re-establish

Edos; t h a t

the

' G o d ' does not r e a l l y b r i n g any new i n f o r -

They a l s o c l a i m e d t h a t the a n c i e n t

'God' before

They

Edos a c t u a l l y

the w h i t e man came i n the manner w h i c h has been

above.
The t r a d i t i o n a l

l e a d e r s o f B e n i n c l a i m e d i n 1945 t h a t the H o l y

A r u o s a o r Edo n a t i o n a l Church o f God began i n the r e i g n o f Oba E s i g i e i n

the e a r l y 1 5 0 0 ' s .

It

i s s a i d t h a t the Portuguese C a t h o l i c s came to B e n i n

i n the r e i g n o f the w a r r i o r Oba, O z o l u a i n 1481.

He r e f u s e d

to a l l o w them

to s t a y .

But i n the r e i g n o f E s i g i e , the C a t h o l i c s were p e r m i t t e d

establish

a ' c h u r c h , ' t r a d i t i o n a l l y b e l i e v e d t o have been at the

s i t e o f the A r u o s a Church on Akpavkpava S t r e e t .

i n the hands o f the n a t i v e r e v e r e n d
i n t r o d u c e d some i n d i g e n o u s p r a c t i c e s
was thus c o r r u p t e d ,

d e c i d e d to r e - r e s t a b l i s h

present

The churches were

f a t h e r s who, as t r a d i t i o n has
i n t o the s e r v i c e s .

left
it,

Roman C a t h o l i c i s m

e v e n t u a l l y b e i n g r e p l a c e d by a s t a t e a l t a r

l o c a t i o n o f the o l d c h u r c h .

to

at

the

On December 1 1 , 1945 Oba Akenzua I I o f B e n i n

the A r u o s a .

In the s m a l l b o o k l e t e n t i t l e d The

Addresses o f the Oba o f B e n i n i n c o n n e x i o n w i t h the A r u o s a , the Oba s t a t e s

the o b j e c t

of r e - e s t a b l i s h i n g

the f o r e f a t h e r ' s

s i m p l e way o f w o r s h i p p i n g

Osanobua.

A c c o r d i n g to Akenzua I I , the Edo have always worshipped

(who i's> i d e n t i f i e d w i t h the C h r i s t i a n God) l o n g b e f o r e

w h i t e man.

Osanobua

the coming o f

the

He s t a t e s t h a t the f o r e f a t h e r ' s way o f a p p r o a c h i n g Osanobua was

i n need o f m o d e r n i z a t i o n .

A c c o r d i n g to Akenzua I I , i t was not the

o f t h e i r b e l i e f i n Osanobua t h a t needed c h a n g i n g , but the r i t u a l

content

approach

- 118 to H i m .

He s a i d t h a t t h e r e was now no need to s a c r i f i c e animals to

the

supreme D i v i n i t y , nor t o r e p r e s e n t Osanobua s y m b o l i c a l l y .

Formerly

Osanobua had been r e p r e s e n t e d

attendants.

by the images o f a k i n g w i t h

My informant t o l d me t h a t the o l d r i t u a l means o f a p p r o a c h i n g Osanobua

by s a c r i f i c e was c h i l d i s h ; the Edo now h a v i n g a ' l a r g e r ' v i e w o f Osanobua.
Osanobua was b e l i e v e d to be above s a c r i f i c e .
The g e n e r a l purposes
are t h r e e f o l d .

f o r the r e - e s t a b l i s h m e n t

o f the H o l y A r u o s a

F i r s t , to w o r s h i p Osanobua i n a s i m p l e , p r a c t i c a l and

undogmatic'''''' way.

S e c o n d l y , to make known to the w o r l d the meaning and

s i g n i f i c a n c e o f Edo n a t i o n a l f e s t i v a l s ; and l a s t l y , to p r e s e r v e Edo customs,

t r a d i t i o n s and t r i b a l i d e n t i t y .

The p o l i t i c a l and r e l i g i o u s

leaders

o b v i o u s l y f e l t t h a t the e x i s t e n c e o f t h e i r own c u l t u r a l h e r i t a g e was b e i n g

threatened.

The Oba concludes one o f h i s addresses by e m p h a s i z i n g t h a t

'he who f i n d s no g l o r y i n the past achievements o f h i s a n c e s t o r s ,

never l e a v e a n y t h i n g i n w h i c h h i s c h i l d r e n may f i n d g l o r y . '

may

The Holy

A r u o s a founders use the C h r i s t i a n churches as models f o r i t s r i t u a l

w o r k , but r e j e c t

the C h r i s t i a n c o n t e n t .

frame-

They have a c h u r c h , an h i e r a r c h i c a l

p r i e s t h o o d , t h e i r own c r e e d , a c a t e c h i s m , s c r i p t u r e s , hymns and a c h o i r .

But the founders have emptied the C h r i s t i a n ' c h u r c h ' o f i t s c o n t e n t
substituted

content

t a k e n from t h e i r own r e l i g i o u s s y s t e m .

and

The H o l y Aruosa

Church i s r e a l l y o n l y a m o d e r n i z a t i o n o f the r i t u a l approach to Osanobua.

The founders were not o r g a n i z i n g a d i s s i d e n t c u l t u s , but were o n l y moderni z i n g the r i t u a l approach to Osanobua: they d i d not ask f o r a r a d i c a l break

By u s i n g the word ' u n d o g m a t i c ' I t h i n k the Oba has i n mind the

' d o g m a t i c ' denominations who c l a i m t h a t o n l y t h e i r way i s r i g h t .

- 119 w i t h the t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o u s s y s t e m .

Thus w o r s h i p at the Aruosa s h r i n e

(church) f a l l s w i t h i n the Edo t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o u s s y s t e m .

The

c h u r c h i s o r g a n i z e d w i t h the p r e s e n t Oba as the p r o p r i e t o r

and s p i r i t u a l h e a d .

N e e d l e s s t o s a y , the impact o f the movement d e r i v e s

from the Oba's p o s i t i o n as the p o l i t i c a l and s p i r i t u a l l e a d e r o f the E d o ,

a l t h o u g h h i s t r a d i t i o n a l p o l i t i c a l power has been c o n s i d e r a b l y e r o d e d .
The Oba's e l d e s t son i s second i n command, f o l l o w e d by the h i g h p r i e s t and
his

assisting priest.

The c o n g r e g a t i o n c o n s i s t s o f a c h o i r w i t h c o n d u c t o r ,

and members, i n c l u d i n g some c h i l d r e n from one o f the H o l y A r u o s a ' s

primary s c h o o l s .

The c h o i r uses the t r a d i t i o n a l n a t i v e beaded

and c h a n t - r e s p o n s e

pattern

five

calabash

i n t h e i r hymn s e l e c t i o n s w h i c h have been drawn

from the o r a l l i t e r a t u r e and t r a d i t i o n a l hymnology o f the E d o .

The c o n -

g r e g a t i o n c o n s i s t s o f a number o f s o c i e t i e s : a r u o s a nokhon, o s a gbevborue,

ohe n o l o b u s e , o s a i k e d e , each o f w h i c h has i t s own f u n c t i o n at

different

o c c a s i o n s p a r t i c u l a r l y a t the y e a r l y H a r v e s t T h a n k s g i v i n g S e r v i c e .
C o n s e c r a t i o n i s n e c e s s a r y t o become an ohen i n the Edo N a t i o n a l
Church o f God.

T h i s i s done i n the presence o f four t r a d i t i o n a l c h i e f s

as w e l l as the H i g h p r i e s t .
dress i n o r d i n a r y c l o t h e s .
the h i g h p r i e s t w i l l

On the day o f o r d i n a t i o n , the n o v i t i a t e w i l l

He w i l l be s e a t e d i n the c o n g r e g a t i o n .

c a l l h i m four t i m e s .

He comes to the a l t a r .

Then
The h i g h

p r i e s t d i r e c t s him to k n e e l down; t h i s he does i n a c h a l k e d c i r c l e ,

a t r a d i t i o n a l n a t i v e lamp.

Four t i t l e d c h i e f s are t h e n c a l l e d to stand

at the c a r d i n a l p o i n t s around the c a n d i d a t e .

each c h i e f

facing

A f t e r he i s c o n s e c r a t e d by

(they move t h e i r hands around the n o v i t i a t e i n a c i r c u l a r

manner w h i l e p r a y i n g ) , the h i g h p r i e s t takes the new ohen and garbs h i m

i n h i s new c e r e m o n i a l garments.

I t i s s a i d t h a t the a n c i e n t ohen d r e s s e d

- 120 in this fashion.

The p r i e s t

i s next given h i s charge:

' Y o u are made a

p r i e s t t o s e r v e the l i v i n g God (Osanobua) f a i t h f u l l y . '

The new p r i e s t

then u t t e r s a few words i n p r a y e r .

After

t h i s i s completed the

congrega-

t i o n l e a d s the p r i e s t home, s i n g i n g songs o f p r a i s e to Osanobua.

On the

f o l l o w i n g Sunday, the new p r i e s t must make a f e a s t , where the Oba and

chiefs w i l l receive their status-alloted portion.

There w i l l be a g r e a t

dance, and drumming; the c e l e b r a t i o n f i n a l l y c l o s i n g i n p r a y e r a f t e r

meal o f r i c e ,
officiate

soup and b e e f .

The p r i e s t

i s now r i t u a l l y s e t a p a r t

a
to

i n the Sunday morning s e r v i c e s .

The H o l y Aruosa i s an i m p r e s s i v e , c a t h e d r a l - l i k e s t r u c t u r e ,
the f l u t i d p a t t e r n o f the Oba's p a l a c e .
symbols o f the Oba, the eben and a d a .

bearing

Above the main e n t r a n c e are

the

The s e r v i c e i s opened w i t h the c h o i r

s i n g i n g as the h i g h p r i e s t p u r i f i e s the c o n g r e g a t i o n by w a l k i n g down the

a i s l e w h i l e waving h i s hand s l o w l y i n f r o n t o f h i m .
f i n i s h e d the ohen s a y s ,

A f t e r the song i s

'When a w i c k e d man t u r n s from h i s w i c k e d way, he

saves a s o u l from d e a t h . '

T h i s i s the c a l l to w o r s h i p .

After ringing a

small b e l l ,

the c h o i r s i n g s a song taken from The Book o f Holy A r u o s a , Book

II.

g i v e a number o f examples o f songs sung b e f o r e the A r u o s a .

I will

1.

No t r e e i s s u p e r i o r to Ikhimmwin,
Osanobua i s

supreme,

Of a l l the s p i r i t s , l a n d and w a t e r ,
Osanobua i s
2.

supreme.

E n t e r thy s h r i n e , my Osanobua,
Accept our o f f e r i n g ,
For

a k i n g d w e l l s always i n h i s

palace.

- 121 3.

L e t us pray t h a t Osanobua may b l e s s t h i s

day,

0 Osanobua, b l e s s t h i s day,
A day to w o r s h i p Osanobua and s e r v e the K i n g now dawns,
0 Osanobua b l e s s t h i s

- ;.

4.

day.

Of a l l s p i r i t s , Osanobua i s

supreme,

Osanobua, my F a t h e r , t h i s i s my t h a n k - o f f e r i n g .
5.

0 Osanobua, g i v e r o f l i f e ' s

necessities,

F o r g e t me n o t , 0 Osanobua.

6.

Osanobua, b l e s s me w i t h c h i l d r e n ,
For young ones igrow p l e n t i f u l l y
Always around an o l d p l a n t a i n t r e e .

7.

To g l o r i f y Thee, Osanobua,
A day I s e t

apart,

Grant me l o n g l i f e ,

0 Osanobua.

As the hymn ends, the p r i e s t goes t o the a l t a r ,

decorated w i t h a

w h i t e c l o t h b e a r i n g the t r a d i t i o n a l Edo s y m b o l s , and prays f o r the whole

n a t i o n with p a r t i c u l a r reference

to the Oba and c h i e f s .

comes down from the a l t a r and r i n g s the b e l l a g a i n .

The p r i e s t

then

The c h o i r s i n g s ,

'Let

us w o r s h i p Osanobua who d i s c r i m i n a t e s a g a i n s t none, but p r o v i d e s f o r a l l .

Another b e l l r i n g s and the f i r s t l e s s o n i s read from The Book o f H o l y

Aruosa.

I have a l r e a d y made r e f e r e n c e

to the c o l l e c t i o n o f s t o r i e s

in

these two b o o k l e t s .

I noted t h a t i n one sermon ohen A i s i e n compared Jesus

C h r i s t to Ogbeide.

Comparing Jesus w i t h Ogbeide (See Mark 8:22) he q u o t e d ,

'And t h e r e was a man c a l l e d E h i e n who had a son c a l l e d O g b e i d e .

When a

- 122 c h i l d , Ogbeide became v e r y v e r s e d i n the knowledge o f the m e d i c i n a l

q u a l i t i e s o f h e r b s , and r o o t s and l e a v e s and b a r k s o f t r e e s on t h i s
H i s knowledge and wisdom was p r o f o u n d ; he went about h e a l i n g s i c k
and h i s fame spread f a r and w i d e . . . '

earth.

persons

I t i s c l e a r t h a t the c o m p i l e r s want

the Edo t o draw l e s s o n s from t h e i r own o r a l t r a d i t i o n .

After

the second l e s s o n , w h i c h i s preceded by a s o n g , the creed

r e c i t e d by a l l the members o f the c o n g r e g a t i o n .

is

is

The substance o f the c r e e d

c o n t a i n e d i n a s m a l l book, p u b l i s h e d by Olowu P r e s s , B e n i n C i t y i n

1946,

e n t i t l e d The C a t e c h i s m o f A r u o s a .

A p o s t l e s ' C r e e d , but the content

The c r e e d i s p a t t e r n e d

after

the

is Edo.

I b e l i e v e i n Osanobua who made Heaven and e a r t h and a l l t h i n g s t h e r e i n .

I b e l i e v e i n the s a n c t i t y o f H i s Holy C o e x i s t e n t s ( O l o k u n , Ogiuwu and
Obiemwen). I b e l i e v e i n the p u r i t y o f H i s Holy Messengers who are
the guides o f human b e i n g s .
I b e l i e v e Osanobua made m o r t a l s and imm o r t a l s to s e r v e H i m , w o r s h i p H i m , l o v e H i m , p r a i s e H i m , adore Him i n
heaven and on e a r t h .
I b e l i e v e I was b o r n h o l y and pure and t h a t the
p i o u s p r i e s t has made me h o l y and pure i n the h o l y name o f Osanobua.
I b e l i e v e I cannot stand b e f o r e the H o l y Throne o f Osanobua, or
become a member o f the H o l y Assembly o f Osanobua i n the l a s t day, i f
I do not l o v e my f e l l o w c r e a t u r e s as m y s e l f , o r do unto them as I
would they do unto me. I b e l i e v e t h a t a l l d i v e r s e ways o f s e r v i n g
Osanobua are a c c e p t a b l e to H i m . I b e l i e v e t h a t prophets e x i s t e d and
w i l l always e x i s t i n t h i s w o r l d through whom Osanobua has r e v e a l e d
and w i l l always r e v e a l H i s m a j e s t y .
I b e l i e v e s i n s are p u n i s h a b l e
i n t h i s l i f e and the h e r e a f t e r .
The. creed emphasizes a number o f Edo c o n c e p t i o n s .
of

the Edo pantheon,

F i r s t , Osanobua i s head

j u s t as the Oba i s the r u l e r o f the s e c u l a r kingdom.

The H o l y C o e x i s t e n t s are Ob iemwen, Olokun and Og i u w u .

fact,

i s an attempt t o o r g a n i z e the Edo d i v i n i t i e s

or p a r t n e r s h i p o f the g o d s .

What we h a v e ,

in

into a kind of t r i n i t y

A l s o note the c l a i m t h a t Osanobua has r e v e a l e d

H i m s e l f to the Edo d i r e c t l y .

This is i n l i n e with Part I , Section A:

Osanobua as he i s r e p r e s e n t e d

i n the m y t h o l o g y .

An e l a b o r a t i o n o f the creed i s c o n t a i n e d i n p a r t

i i o f the b o o k l e t

- 123 The c a t e c h i s m o f A r u o s a .
categories

P s e u d o - C h r i s t i a n language i s used to c r e a t e

o f the s u p e r n a t u r a l w o r l d .

The s p i r i t s a r e c l a s s i f i e d i n t o

f i v e c a t e g o r i e s : h o l y g u a r d i a n a n g e l , h o l y messengers o f Osanobua, h o l y
a t t e n d a n t s o f Osanobua, h o l y angels and the e v i l s p i r i t s .

These

categories

are i n t e r e s t i n g i n t h a t the A r u o s a founders have sought to g i v e a C h r i s t i a n

aura to what i s fundamentally Edo and t r a d i t i o n a l .

The h o l y g u a r d i a n

a n g e l i s the a n g l i c i z e d term ?f or E h i .

An E h i , as we have seen,

i n d i v i d u a l Edo's s p i r i t u a l i z e d other.

The concept i s not r e a l l y e q u i v a l e n t

to the Western i d e a o f g u a r d i a n a n g e l .

is

the

The term f o r h o l y messengers o f

Osanobua i s ukosa w h i c h l i t e r a l l y means 'Those who execute Osanobua' s

purposes.'

The i d e a conveyed i s t h a t t h e s e s p i r i t s are f o l l o w e r s o f

Osanobua, b e i n g c l o s e to H i m , but not e q u a l .

Thus Ogun, Okhauhe, O v i a

and the o t h e r h e r o - d i v i n i t i e s are c o n s i d e r e d as u k o s a .

has been t r a n s l a t e d

as h o l y a t t e n d a n t s .

the word ikuekuen connotes

class of b e i n g .

There i s some c o n f u s i o n h e r e f o r

the o f f i c e o f the ukosa r a t h e r than a s e p a r a t e

Odibo i s the Edo word f o r h o l y a n g e l s .

the p e r s o n a l s e r v a n t s

o f Osanobua.

Osanobua one might s a y :

The word ikuekuen

The o d i b o are

For example, i n o f f e r i n g p r a y e r

to

. . .

' O d i b ' o s a l a h o ghetueyimwen nokho u b e g u s a s . '

This

means ' S e r v a n t s o f Osanobua do not say any word t h a t w i l l b i a s Osanobua

against u s . '
Erimwin dan i s the e x p r e s s i o n f o r the
of

'bad s p i r i t s . '

e r i m w i n i s b a s i c to an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f Edo r e l i g i o n .

An u n d e r s t a n d i n g

Erimwin i s

s p i r i t u a l w o r l d as opposed to agbon, the e x t e r n a l l y v i s i b l e w o r l d .

departed

All

s p i r i t s go to e r i m w i n but i f one has l i v e d a good l i f e he w i l l

to erimwin e s i .
Esu

the

go

A bad l i f e earns one erimwin d a n , the p l a c e o f the w i c k e d .

i s b e l i e v e d to be the head o f e r i m w i n dan w h i c h c o n s i s t s o f the azen and

- 124 the d e p a r t e d s p i r i t s o f the w i c k e d .

And E h i , u k o s a and o d i b o s a a r e sub-

sumed under the g e n e r a l c a t e g o r y o f the H o l y Assembly o f Osanobua w h i c h

i n c l u d e s the H o l y C o e x i s t e n t s as w e l l .

I f one has l i v e d an a c c e p t a b l e

l i f e w h i l e on e a r t h , he may become a member o f the H o l y Assembly upon h i s

death.

Thus the ed i o n a r e not e x c l u d e d e n t i r e l y from the Aruosa c a t e c h i s m .

After

secretary.

the r e a d i n g o f the c r e e d , announcements are made by the c h u r c h

T h i s i s f o l l o w e d by a b r i e f

or

the c h u r c h s e c r e t a r y .

is

given.

sermon by e i t h e r the o h e n s a , ohen

A f t e r he has f i n i s h e d p r e a c h i n g , the b e n e d i c t i o n

The most important s p e c i a l days i n the Holy A r u o s a are the H a r v e s t

and

Baptismal days.

The H a r v e s t S e r v i c e corresponds to the y e a r l y t h a n k s -

g i v i n g o f f e r i n g w h i c h was g i v e n to Osanobua f o r h i s p r o t e c t i o n and goodness

over the p a s t y e a r .
b e f o r e the a l t a r .

V a r i o u s g i f t s are b r o u g h t to the A r u o s a and p l a c e d

These f o o d - i t e m s a r e f u n c t i o n a l s u b s t i t u t e s

for animal

offerings.
The

e l d e s t group i n the Aruosa c u l t i s c a l l e d e d i o n .

s i m p l e ceremony upon i n i t i a t i o n i n t o t h i s g r o u p .
them:

There i s a

The ohen w i l l pray over

' F o r y o u r l o v e f o r Osanobua, l o v e f o r your k i n g and c o u n t r y , you are

c o n s e c r a t e d an ed i o n ,

r i g h t e o u s e l d e r o f the H o l y C h u r c h . ' There are two

o t h e r s h o r t ceremonies a s s o c i a t e d w i t h b a p t i s m and a naming ceremony.

On

b a p t i s m a l day the c h i l d w i l l be brought to the Aruosa where the ohen w i l l

put n a t i v e c h a l k on the c a n d i d a t e s forehead and n e c k .
that is c a l l e d

The p r i e s t t o l d me

' w h i t e w a s h i n g the c a n d i d a t e i n the h o l y name of Osanobua.'

When a new c h i l d i s b o r n the babe w i l l be brought to the A r u o s a .

will

take the c h i l d ,

take i t b e f o r e the a l t a r , and p r a y :

Osanobua, f o r g i v i n g t h i s c h i l d to t h e m . '

The ohen

'We thank t h e e , 0

He then hands the c h i l d to

its

- 125 mother and t u r n s t o the A r u o s a .

f o r the Edo naming ceremony;
mony .

T h i s ceremony i s i n no way a s u b s t i t u t e

i t i s kind of d e d i c a t i o n - o f - t h e - c h i l d

cere-

- 126 -

Olokun

O
O

o
o
o

Dome S T I C
Olokun
aru

Imaqe
of
olokun
(oba-figure]
3

Image of Chief I q of
Uwvangue
Osanobua
(Olokun's assistant;
,_
Image of native
m a

Shrine

MAIN

Ukhontie

. 9 .
i

*lgbaron \

image

Orpmo image

Altarto
obiemwen

ALTAR

Decorated wi+h mirrors ond

Image ^ numerous
pieces of white cholkamada
(sword iearen
Qy|

\Q Image of

Shango r\
aru

Domestic
Olokun
aru

Domestic
( Olokun

amada

(sword bearer)

Image of
Esogbon
(Olokun's advisor)

ft

Domes+icO
Olokun.-^

Domes+icCD
Olokun /^~\
aru
{J

Uko image

UUg image
(messenqer of Olokun)

(messenger of Olokun)

'

Circle of white
chal^^

aru

Domesf ic Olokvin Shango

o o b
aru

Entrance
Image o f Ogun
hold ing iron bells

Note:

Image of Esu

" I g b a r o n and Oromo a r e h e r o - d i v i n i t i e s .

this

i s a model o f one Olokun

It

s h o u l d a l s o be noted

shrine--others vary

Diagram 3

in detail.

that

CHAPTER V

OLOKUN: THE POWERFUL SON OF OSANOBUA

Olokun i s b e l i e v e d by the Edo to be the p o w e r f u l son o f Osanobua

to whom has been d e l e g a t e d

the s u p e r v i s i o n o f w e a l t h , h e a l t h and

fertility.

Olokun can b;e viewed as the r e p o s i t o r y o f b l e s s i n g , s e r v i n g as the

of

source

such f o r those o p e r a t i n g w i t h i n the Edo t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o u s s y s t e m .

S i n c e Olokun i s s e r v e d by a p r i e s t who i s b e l i e v e d to be i n c l o s e

or

s p e c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p to h i m , I spent c o n s i d e r a b l e time w i t h a number

o f ohenOlokun d i s c u s s i n g the n a t u r e o f t h e i r d i v i n i t y .

One soon

learns

t h a t t h e r e i s a body o f knowledge, a t h e o l o g y i f you w i l l , o f O l o k u n .

I t i s a l s o p o s s i b l e to c r o s s c h e c k the e l i c i t e d i n f o r m a t i o n .
if

For example,

an Edo says t h a t Olokun i s o f t e n approached by a b a r r e n woman f o r a

c h i l d and I d i s c o v e r t h a t numerous s a c r i f i c e s have been made to Olokun f o r

these purposes,

then I can assume t h a t the i n f o r m a t i o n e l i c i t e d from the

ohenOlokun i s not

spurious.

Another means o f s t u d y i n g the Edo r e p r e s e n t a t i o n

a n a l y z e the m y t h o l o g y .
Erhamwoisa m y t h ) .
discovering

I f o l l o w e d t h i s p a t t e r n w i t h Osanobua (See

However, t h i s by no means exhausts

'truths'

o f Olokun i s

about O l o k u n .

sung b e f o r e the. a r u O l o k u n .

to

the

the p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f

There are a number o f songs t h a t

are

These songs suggest t h a t t h e r e i s a s o p h i s -

t i c a t e d body o f knowledge about the d i v i n i t y .

I would even suggest t h a t

t h e s e songs be viewed as o r a l t h e o l o g y , s e r v i n g as r e c o r d s o f the n a t u r e

and w o r k i n g s o f the

divinity.

I.

A.

128 -

THE EDO REPRESENTATION OF OLOKUN

OLOKUN AS HE IS REPRESENTED IN THE MYTHOLOGY

In the Erhamwoisa myth t h i s theme emerges: Olokun i s the favoured

son o f Osanobua who i s b e l i e v e d to have superseded
be approached i n o r d e r t o o b t a i n f a v o u r s from the
The

the F a t h e r and who can

Father.

f o l l o w i n g myth was r e l a t e d to me by a l e a d i n g ohenOlokun.

A t f i r s t the whole w o r l d was r i v e r . Only Osanobua was a l o n e i n the

w o r l d . Osanobua then d e c i d e d t h a t he wanted to make ' i m a g e s ' i n h i s
own l i k e n e s s . So he d e c i d e d to make 201 ' i m a g e s . ' A f t e r the ' i m a g e s '
were made they a l l d i s a p p e a r e d . A f t e r s i x d a y s , Osanobua d e c i d e d
t h a t he must c r e a t e an i n s p e c t o r to guard the ' i m a g e s . '
Osanobua
t h e n made f u r t h e r images. The f i r s t ' i m a g e ' he made was the d e v i l
(Esu) h o l d i n g a t h o r n - s t i c k i n h i s h a n d .
In the n i g h t he sent Esu
to guard the ' i m a g e s . '
The f i r s t ' i m a g e ' Esu d e t e c t e d t r y i n g to
s t e a l an ' i m a g e , ' swallowed h i m . F o r t u n a t e l y Esu was a b l e to escape
through the s p i r i t ' s r e c t u m . So Esu went t o Osanobua and t o l d h i m
t h a t the p e r s o n he d e t e c t e d was i m p o s s i b l e to g u a r d . So Osanobua
h i m s e l f d e c i d e d to c o n t i n u e to guard those ' i m a g e s . '
Then Osanobua
began t o watch over those ' i m a g e s . '
l i e (Yoruba f o r e a r t h ) appeared,
and t r i e d t o swallow Osanobua. Then Osanobua knocked l i e w i t h the
t a i l o f an a n i m a l . Osanobua asked the s p i r i t h i s name and the s p i r i t
s a i d , ' l i e . ' l i e confessed t h a t the reason he s t o l e was t h a t he was
h u n g r y . Osanobua t o l d l i e t h a t from t h i s day h e n c e f o r t h he would
never go h u n g r y . A l l l i v i n g t h i n g s would be g i v e n to him f o r f o o d .
l i e was not s a t i s f i e d . Osanobua then asked l i e to be the l a n d (Oto
i n E d o ) . Osanobua t u r n e d l i e i n t o the l a n d . T h i s i s the r e a s o n we
are b u r i e d i n the ground: Osanobua i s g i v i n g l i e f o o d .
The ground
i s never s a t i s f i e d . And a f t e r c r e a t i n g the l a n d , Osanobua c r e a t e d
O l o k u n . Osanobua c r e a t e d Olokun to be the f i r s t c h i l d to h i m s e l f .
Osanobua c o n f e r r e d power upon h i m . 'As I have power, so w i l l y o u . '
Olokun w i l l not l a b o u r but w i l l have food at a l l t i m e s . Osanobua
c r e a t e d Ogun to h e l p O l o k u n .
I t i s o n l y Ogun who k i l l s ; Olokun
never k i l l s .
The

f o l l o w i n g themes a r e found i n t h i s

creation-myth.

1.

Olokun i s the s p e c i a l son o f Osanobua.

2.

All

3.

Olokun i s o f a g e n t l e n a t u r e and i s neyer a s s o c i a t e d w i t h

the d i v i n i t i e s are under O l o k u n ' s

w i t h anything e v i l or d e s t r u c t i v e

suzerainty.

(Olokun never

kills).

- 129 B.

OLOKUN AS H E J S ; REPRESENTED BY THE OHENOLOKUN

In an i n t e r v i e w w i t h a female ohenOlokun, M r s . U . 0 . ,
t h a t Olokun i s the god o f the s e a ; the k i n g o f the w a t e r s .

she

stressed

She s a i d t h a t

j u s t as a k i n g has h i s p a l a c e , t h a t i s how Olokun i s on the e a r t h .

She

s a i d t h a t Osanobua had c r e a t e d Olokun and t h a t Olokun has been g i v e n c e r t a i n d u t i e s , one o f them b e i n g t o c o n t r o l a l l the o t h e r d i v i n i t i e s on
earth.
She s a i d t h a t by s e r v i n g Olokun one f i n d s l i f e
ful

and e n j o y a b l e .

to be more s u c c e s s -

She a d m i t t e d t h a t Ogun i s p o w e r f u l but she

t h a t Olokun supersedes and c o n t r o l s Ogun.

stressed

She emphasized t h a t Osanobua

has g i v e n Olokun the c o n t r o l o f w e a l t h , good h e a l t h and f e r t i l i t y .

'When

somebody i s r e f e r r e d t o Olokun a l l t h a t h e / s h e w i l l need w i l l r e a c h h i m .

She a s s o c i a t e d Olokun w i t h good, a l t h o u g h i n cases o f
Olokun has the power to make t h a t p e r s o n
The

stubbornness

suffer.

l e a d i n g ohenOlokun i n B e n i n C i t y t o l d me t h a t the o n l y power

Olokun has i s

' t o make t h i n g s good and not b a d . '

He does n o t have power

to d e s t r o y .

T h i s theme i s predominant i n the o r a l l i t e r a t u r e and hymnology

of

A p p a r e n t l y , the o n l y way Olokun d e s t r o y s

lot

the E d o .
o f money.

The r e c i p i e n t w i l l

u s i n g the newly a c q u i r e d w e a l t h .

i s to g i v e an Edo a

t h e n proceed to d e s t r o y h i m s e l f by m i s The head p r i e s t t o l d me t h a t Olokun i s

the f a v o u r i t e son o f Osanobua; t h a t Olokun has the power to g i v e c h i l d r e n

d i r e c t l y t o men.
The p r i e s t s a i d t h a t Olokun has many names.
Osanughegbe
sea).

Among them a r e :

( R e f l e c t s l i k e g l a s s ) , and Orimwianme (One who comes from the

S i n c e he i s a g r e a t k i n g , he has many t i t l e s .

These t i t l e s

used i n p r a y e r i n which O l o k u n ' s power and k i n g s h i p are emphasized.

are

- 130 -

C.

OLOKUN AS HE IS REPRESENTED IN THE OLOKUN-SONGS

In t h i s a n a l y s i s o f Edo O l o k u n - s o n g s , we w i l l
c o n t a i n i n f o r m a t i o n about the d i v i n i t y .
Olokun-cult w i l l
done f o r the E d o .

see t h a t these songs

A newly i n i t i a t e d member o f any

soon know p r e c i s e l y who Olokun i s , what he can do and has

I propose to a n a l y z e a number o f Olokun-songs under

following general categories:

p r a i s e , v o t i v e and d i d a c t i c .

It

is

the

diffi-

c u l t t o c a t e g o r i z e t h e s e songs p r e c i s e l y as some o f them c o n t a i n elements

o f each c a t e g o r y .

A f t e r g i v i n g each song w i t h i t s t r a n s l a t i o n ,

I will

suggest the p r a c t i c a l s i t u a t i o n i n w h i c h each song would be sung and

i n f o r m a t i o n r e v e a l e d about the
I.

the

divinity.

P r a i s e Songs
1.

Uwu g h i gbe mwen; emiamwen g h i gbe mwen;

d o , o r i m w i a n , o r i m w i a n do!
Death w i l l not k i l l me, s i c k n e s s w i l l not k i l l me.
Hail,

one who comes from the sea ( O l o k u n ) !

Confidence i s b e i n g e x p r e s s e d

i n Olokun.

S u p p l i c a n t s have f a i t h t h a t

can be d e l i v e r e d from bad s p i r i t s because o f O l o k u n ' s

they

goodness.

I n f o r m a t i o n about the d i v i n i t y : Olokun i s a b l e to d e l i v e r one from i l l

health.
2.

Okun mwen m ' l e l e , a gha l e l e o g i e a i g h i v i o o y a .

I f o l l o w O l o k u n , f o r you cannot f o l l o w a k i n g and be s l i g h t e d .

The s i t u a t i o n i s one o f t h a n k s g i v i n g .

The s i n g e r

i s t e l l i n g Olokun t h a t

s i n c e he has f o l l o w e d h i m he has never been d i s a p p o i n t e d .

The s i n g e r

a l s o i n v i t i n g o t h e r members to become c o n s t a n t w o r s h i p p e r s of O l o k u n .

is

- 131 -

I n f o r m a t i o n about the d i v i n i t y : Here we see the h i g h r e g a r d Edo have f o r

Olokun.

He i s thought o f as a k i n g , a b e i n g o f g r e a t
3.

power.

Ese ne Olokun r u me, ona r e ese ne g h i fo v b ' o t o .

I w i l l always remember what Olokun has done f o r me.

T h i s song i s o f f e r e d

i n p r a i s e o f Olokun f o r what he has done f o r

the

s inger.
I n f o r m a t i o n about the d i v i n i t y :

Olokun i s the source o f b l e s s i n g f o r

the

Edo.

4.

I ya nomo, do; l y a hehehe, I y a nomo, do!

Olokun g i v e r o f c h i l d r e n , I s a l u t e y o u , I s a l u t e y o u !
T h i s song i s sung i n p r a i s e o f Olokun f o r p e r f o r m i n g t h i s

particular

f u n c t i o n f o r man.
I n f o r m a t i o n about the d i v i n i t y : Olokun i s the source o f c h i l d r e n .
5.

G i ma d ' u g i O l o k u n , oghogho ma ye
Let us c e l e b r a t e the f e s t i v a l o f Olokun f o r we are i n a b s o l u t e
gladness of mind.

We are a l l happy.

T h i s song i s sung d u r i n g an u g i O l o k u n t h e weekly t h a n k s g i v i n g r i t u a l at

shrine of Olokun.
This successfulness

There have been no s e t b a c k s ;

is attributed

I n f o r m a t i o n about the d i v i n i t y :

a l l has been

successful.

to the a c t i o n o f O l o k u n .
Olokun i s worthy o f b e i n g served because

he has r a i n e d w e a l t h , b l e s s i n g and c h i l d r e n upon the E d o .

II.

D i d a c t i c Songs

1.

A gha l e l e okhuo, a dee

If

one f o l l o w s the d i c t a t e s o f a woman, the end w i l l always be

the

- 132 -

downfall.
The man making a p r a y e r b e f o r e Olokun must have been t e l l i n g Olokun about
some problem r e l a t e d to h i s f a m i l i a l
upon the p r i e s t ,

situation.

When Olokun descended

i t was r e v e a l e d t h a t t h i s man was too dependent

on women.

A c c o r d i n g to my i n f o r m a n t , the l e s s o n h e r e i s t h a t women s h o u l d not be

trusted completely.
I n f o r m a t i o n about the d i v i n i t y : Olokun has s u p e r n a t u r a l
n a t u r e o f Edo p r o b l e m s .

the

He i s a l s o a b l e to s o l v e problems through h i s

chosen media o f communication, the

2.

insight into

priest.

I vbare, I vbare, I vbare, edionikaro.

I meet,

I meet those who go b e f o r e me.

T h i s song i s sung i n remembrance o f those who have departed and who were
r e s p o n s i b l e f o r the p r i e s t ' s membership i n the Olokun c u l t .
present

p r i e s t served Olokun, others

served b e f o r e h i m .

( e d i o n i k a r o ) s e r v e d Olokun f a i t h f u l l y .

B e f o r e the

Those gone b e f o r e

The most i m p o r t a n t l e s s o n O l o k u n ' s

f o l l o w e r s l e a r n i s t h a t t h e d i v i n i t y ' s s e r v i c e must be u p h e l d by those

whom he

chooses.

I n f o r m a t i o n about the d i v i n i t y :

O l o k u n ' s o r d e r s must be c a r r i e d out

o b e d i e n t l y so t h a t h i s name w i l l c o n t i n u e to be w e l l

3.

praised.

U gha r u n ' u w a , ghe mian mian mwen.

If

I Olokun b l e s s y o u , do not f o r g e t me.

T h i s i s a w a r n i n g to man from O l o k u n .
I n f o r m a t i o n about the d i v i n i t y :

Olokun does not g i v e t h i n g s

Olokun responds

'gratis.'

to the E d o ' s c r y f o r h e l p ,

but he must be remembered by s a c r i f i c e and by obedience to the moral

i n s t r u c t i o n g i v e n through O l o k u n ' s media o f communication, the

priest.

- 133 -

A gha h ' u w a , uhumwun gua urorame'

4.

a gha mie ne i k i n e g b e gua

onurho.
When you are s e e k i n g f o r f o r t u n e , you s h o u l d p r e p a r e t o undergo
any c o n d i t i o n , even p a s s i n g through a s m a l l h o l d .
have a t t a i n e d y o u r o b j e c t

then you become so f a t

w i l l be too narrow f o r you to pass

When you
t h a t the door

through.

T h i s song w i l l be sung i n o r d e r to emphasize t h a t the Edo have

r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s and r e q u i r e m e n t s

to f u l f i l l

certain

b e f o r e Olokun w i l l h e l p them.

And now t h a t someone i s i n n e e d , he s h o u l d be o b e d i e n t to the d i c t a t e s

Olokun.

When Olokun g r a n t s a r e q u e s t he must not be

I n f o r m a t i o n about the d i v i n i t y :
Olokun.

of

forgotten.

Be prepared to c a r r y out the d i c t a t e s

The Edo b e l i e v e t h a t Olokun i s a b l e to make one f o r g e t

of

past

sufferings.

III.

V o t i v e Songs
1.

Ya y a y a o , y a y 'uwa r e o , y a y a y a o .
O l o k u n , p l e a s e b r i n g f o r t u n e to me.

T h i s song w i l l be sung when a man i s b e f o r e Olokun p l e a d i n g w i t h

d i v i n i t y to r a i n f o r t u n e upon h i m .

the

Fortune here includes c h i l d r e n , wealth

and p r o t e c t i o n .
I n f o r m a t i o n about the d i v i n i t y :
He i s i n t e r e s t e d
2.

Olokun i s a source o f b l e s s i n g f o r man.

i n the w e l f a r e o f the E d o .

Olokun aweru, ere eve ukpon I v i e ; emwen omo oda mwenOgbomwankan

ma I yo eguaosa.
I t i s Olokun who I have been t o l d to w o r s h i p .

I'm worshipping

Olokun not t o get c l o t h e s , nor w e a l t h , I ' m b a d l y i n need o f a

- 135 child.

Anybody who laughs at me because I have no c h i l d was

never t h e r e when Osanobua c r e a t e d me.

The s u p p l i c a n t i s i n s e r i o u s need o f a c h i l d and i s e a r n e s t l y b e s e e c h i n g
Olokun.
I n f o r m a t i o n about the d i v i n i t y :

T h i s song r e v e a l s an i n t e r e s t i n g

o f O l o k u n ' s i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h the E d o .

aspect

Olokun i s h e r e shown to be concerned

w i t h a problem on the human l e v e l t h a t n o ' o n e e l s e i s concerned a b o u t .

A l t h o u g h no one e l s e understands

a p e r s o n ' s p l i g h t , Olokun d o e s , and i s

w i l l i n g t o h e l p the p e r s o n .

II.

THE MANIFESTATION OF OLOKUN

Something o f the Edo e x p e r i e n c e o f Olokun i s s t o r e d i n t h e i r

songs.

These songs make i t v e r y c l e a r t h a t Olokun i s i n no way h i d d e n from the E d o .

He i s a s p e a k i n g and a c t i n g d i v i n i t y ; f a r more a c t i v e than Osanobua, and
not as r e m o t e .

There are b a s i c a l l y four ways i n w h i c h Olokun i s

inter-

p r e t e d as m a n i f e s t i n g h i m s e l f to the Edo: through the d r e a m - e x p e r i e n c e ,

t h r o u g h the p o s s e s s i o n - e x p e r i e n c e , through d i v i n a t i o n , and through p a r t i c u l a r events.

A people must be c u l t u r a l l y p r e d i s p o s e d to i n t e r p r e t

random events o f l i f e as the m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f d i v i n i t y .

this,

they must know what a p a r t i c u l a r d i v i n i t y

In o r d e r to do

i s capable o f .

As w e l l

as t h i s , they must be p r e p a r e d to i n t e r p r e t s u b j e c t i v e e x p e r i e n c e s as
manifestation of d i v i n i t y .

W i t h t h e s e p r i n c i p l e s as an

the

the

interpretative

b a s i s , the complex i n t e r a c t i o n o f p e r s o n a l n e e d , s u b j e c t i v e e x p e r i e n c e and

u n p r e d i c t a b l e event become the s t u f f

o f the communication p r o c e s s .

- 136 -

A.

THE DREAM-EXPERIENCE AS A MANIFESTATION OF OLOKUN

The dream-experience i s a means o f f a c i l i t a t i n g

between s p i r i t and man.
man's u n c o n s c i o u s .
symbolically.

' e a s y ' communication

D u r i n g s l e e p , say the E d o , Olokun can invade a

The r e c i p i e n t o f the dream w i l l e x p e r i e n c e Olokun

For i t i s the symbol t h a t communicates and i s a x i a l i n the

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the dream's c o n t e n t .

There appear t o be two means

whereby Olokun speaks to a man i n the dream: i n the w h i t e - s y m b o l i s m to

the ohen and i n the garb o f the ohen t o a f o l l o w e r o f O l o k u n .
of

The c o n t e n t

the dream must be decoded by e i t h e r an a k p e l e or ogwega d i v i n e r .

common man does not have the s p e c i a l knowledge o f dreams.

He i s aware

t h a t d i v i n i t y i s s p e a k i n g b u t u n t i l the d i v i n e r decodes i t , the

i s not c l e a r .

The

message

An ohen h a v i n g a dream does not always have to have the

message decoded.

The p r i e s t ' s d e c i s i o n to c o n s u l t a d i v i n e r seems

to

depend upon the c o m p l e x i t y o f the dream.

Case 1

One n i g h t an ohen r e c e i v e d ' s i g n s ' through O l o k u n .

saw Olokun appear a l o n g w i t h a s t r a n g e r .
f o r e i g n language.

She

i n o r d e r t o determine what the man i n the dream

She d i s c o v e r e d t h a t somebody was g o i n g t o v i s i t h e r i n the

following

day.
A l t h o u g h she was scheduled to appear a t a meeting t h a t morning at
t e n , she awoke and went d i r e c t l y to the s h r i n e house to w a i t f o r
stranger.

she

The s t r a n g e r was s p e a k i n g a

He i m p l o r e d h e r to t e a c h him some ' m e d i c i n e . '

employed an i n t e r p r e t e r
wanted.

While asleep

the

As soon as she e n t e r e d the s h r i n e , the c h i l d r e n s a i d t h a t a

- 137 woman had come s e e k i n g h e l p and had been w a i t i n g f o r some time f o r

priestess

to

the

appear.

I n f o r m a t i o n r e v e a l e d : Olokun has spoken through the dream-experience and

g i v e n the p r i e s t e s s

foreknowledge.

Case 2

M r s . 0 . was f o r m e r l y a t r a d e r

in cloth.

One time she was g o i n g t o

L a g o s , the c a p i t a l c i t y , about 200 m i l e s from B e n i n C i t y .

Olokun appeared and i n s t r u c t e d h e r to s a c r i f i c e a c o c k .
cock w i t h o u t k i l l i n g i t .
cloth.

She bought

wrote a l e t t e r

L a t e r she went t o the market and bought some

When she a r r i v e d home she q u i c k l y k i l l e d

the cock and

to the woman e n c l o s i n g a s h e l l from Esango (Edo f o r Shango,

the Yoruba d i v i n i t y o f t h u n d e r ) .

The e n c l o s i n g o f t h i s s h e l l

the message to the woman t h a t i f she f a i l s

be c u r s e d i n the name o f Esango.

communicates

t o r e t u r n the money she w i l l

The woman q u i c k l y sent the money.

' I f you do what Olokun a s k s , t h i n g s w i l l always go w e l l .

Information revealed:

Mrs.

Olokun communicates i n s t r u c t i o n s to h i s f o l l o w e r s .

Note how v a r i o u s events are a s s o c i a t e d .

She i s t o l d t o s a c r i f i c e a cock

i n the dream and then e x p e r i e n c e s a m i s f o r t u n e i n the m a r k e t .

After

s a c r i f i c i n g to Olokun as she was supposed t o , the woman r e t u r n e d

money.

the

She f o r g o t to t a k e h e r change from the c l o t h s e l l e r , an amount

o f t h r e e pounds.

0 said:

In the n i g h t

These c o n t i g u o u s events

the

l e d t o the acknowledgement by M r s . 0 o f

O l o k u n ' s power.

Case 3

M r s . 0 was a s l e e p and began to f e e l p a i n i n the n e c k .

p l a c e d h e r head a g a i n s t the w a l l .

She then

I n t h i s dream Olokun commanded her

to

- 138 stop c a r r y i n g l o a d s on her h e a d .

market.

O l o k u n , a l s o t o l d h e r to stop g o i n g to

A t f i r s t she d i d not obey, but every time she a r r i v e d at

market she had v e r y l i t t l e success w i t h her

the

the

customers.

I t seems t h a t Olokun a g a i n t o l d her t h a t she s h o u l d not c a r r y any

l o a d s on her h e a d .

The r e a s o n g i v e n f o r t h i s by the p r i e s t e s s was t h a t

the s p i r i t o f Olokun uses her head f o r h i s d w e l l i n g p l a c e .

A t the time

o f i n t e r v i e w the p r i e s t e s s had not gone to the market f o r four y e a r s .

She now l i v e s on the d o n a t i o n s r e c e i v e d from the v a r i o u s p e o p l e who seek
her

assistance.

Information revealed:

The content o f t h i s dream i s p r i m a r i l y d i d a c t i c .

Olokun spoke to h e r i n the dream, the message b e i n g r e i n f o r c e d by the p a i n

i n her n e c k .

A t f i r s t she d i s o b e y e d the s p i r i t , but t h i s r e s u l t e d i n a

l a c k o f success i n her b u s i n e s s .
success as f u r t h e r

T h i s l e d M r s . 0 t o i n t e r p r e t her l a c k o f

i n f o r m a t i o n from O l o k u n .

She then changed h e r b e h a v i o u r .

She now appears to be q u i t e s u c c e s s f u l i n her new r o l e as

priestess.

Case 4
One p r i e s t t o l d me t h a t Olokun o f t e n wakes h i m up i n the

night.

Whenever Olokun t a l k s t o him he w i l l know by the n a t u r e o f O l o k u n ' s dress

p l u s the presence o f O l o k u n ' s two sword-bearers

(omada).

One might the p r i e s t dreamed o f an i n d i v i d u a l who was g o i n g to be

sick.

The p r i e s t a c t e d on the i n f o r m a t i o n g i v e n him and t o l d t h a t person

t o perform c e r t a i n s a c r i f i c e s .
and l a t e r became s i c k .

The p e r s o n f a i l e d to o f f e r the

sacrifices

The p r i e s t c l a i m e d t h a t i f the man had performed (j

the ceremony he would not have f a l l e n i l l .

Information revealed:

Olokun i s communicating h i s concern f o r a p a r t i c u l a r

- 139 p e r s o n and i s f o r e t e l l i n g an e v e n t .
to t h e p r i e s t through

The content o f t h e message i s r e v e a l e d

t h e dream-experience.

The subsequent f a i l u r e t o

s a c r i f i c e i s linked w i t h the f o r e t o l d s i c k n e s s .

The p r i e s t ' s a s s o c i a t i o n

o f t h e s u b j e c t i v e e x p e r i e n c e and e x t e r n a l events c o n f i r m s Olokun's o r i g i n a l

message.

Case 5

One n i g h t a p r i e s t dreamt o f Olokun w i t h h i s omada.

These two

k n e e l e d b e f o r e t h e p r i e s t t e l l i n g h i m t h a t he must t r a v e l t o U r h o n i g b e ,
the h e a d q u a r t e r s

o f Olokun a f t e r making a s a c r i f i c e .

Information revealed:

This the p r i e s t d i d .

Olokun n o t o n l y r e v e a l s h i s own 'needs' t o man, b u t

gives advice to the p r i e s t .

Case 6
One c u l t member saw t h e p r i e s t i n h i s dream.
and t a l k t o t h e ' p r i e s t .
p r i e s t was s i c k .

T h i s he d i d .

Olokun t o l d him t o go

To h i s s u r p r i s e he found t h a t t h e

He then sought o u t a d i v i n e r and was t o l d t o s a c r i f i c e a

number o f itemsQto Olokun.

The p r i e s t got w e l l a f t e r t h e s a c r i f i c e was

offered.
Information revealed:

Olokun demonstrates h i s concern

forh i sfollowers'

h e a l t h by m a n i f e s t i n g h i m s e l f i n t h e i r dreams.

B.

THE POSSESSION-EXPERIENCE AS A MANIFESTATION OF OLOKUN

Every f i v e days (eken) t h e c u l t s o f Olokun congregate b e f o r e t h e

a r u O l o k u n.

T h i s ceremony i s c a l l e d t h e u ^ i O l o k u n .

The main focus o f t h i s

- 140 ceremony i s the h o p e d - f o r descent o f Olokun upon h i s chosen c h a n n e l o f

communication, the p r i e s t .

Accompanied by d a n c i n g , drumming and the

p l a y i n g o f gongs and beaded c a l a b a s h e s ,

to d e s c e n d .

the song appears to a s s i s t

The s i n g i n g and d a n c i n g are p r e l i m i n a r y t o the d e s i r e d pos-

session-experience,

f o r i t i s then t h a t the people can hear t h e i r

speak, a l b e i t i n d i r e c t l y .

D u r i n g the s p i r i t ' s descent upon the

The E d o , as w e l l as many o t h e r p e o p l e s , b e l i e v e t h a t the

t i e s o f the p r i e s t have been t a k e n over by the d i v i n i t y .

of the p o s s e s s i o n - e x p e r i e n c e ,

divinity

priest,

the p r i e s t w i l l u t t e r words w h i c h w i l l bear upon the l i v e s o f the

members.

Olokun

cult
facul-

A t the h e i g h t

the p r i e s t w i l l not know what i s happening

or what sounds he i s u t t e r i n g .

The p r i e s t ' s

'unconscious' state i n t e n s i -

f i e s the c u l t ' s c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f the presence o f d i v i n i t y .

It

i s d u r i n g the u g i O l o k u n t h a t the channel o f communication between

Olokun and man i s most o p e n .

The p r i e s t f u n c t i o n s as the c h a n n e l o f com-

m u n i c a t i o n at t h a t p a r t i c u l a r moment when d i v i n i t y d e s c e n d s .
therefore,

The ohen,

i s n o t the decoder o f the message w h i c h has t r a v e l l e d from

Olokun through the p r i e s t - c h a n n e l to the people who must a c t upon the

i n f o r m a t i o n r e v e a l e d by the
O l o k u n ' s descent

priest.

i s not p r e d i c t a b l e .

c o n t r o l l e d manner the c u l t t r i e s
for

the d i v i n i t y ' s d e s c e n t .

going to descend.

By s i n g i n g and d a n c i n g i n a

t o set a r i t u a l l y c o n d u c i v e atmosphere

But they never know when o r i f Olokun i s

I n o r d e r t o be r e c e p t i v e t o the d i v i n i t y ' s

the p r i e s t must undergo a number o f p u r i f i c a t i o n r i t u a l s .

b e l i e v e s t h a t the p r i e s t
and profound way.

'feels'

presence,

Thus the c u l t

the e x i s t e n c e o f Olokun i n a m y s t e r i o u s

Because o f the p r i e s t ' s

s p e c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p to O l o k u n ,

he i s chosen as the c h a n n e l o f the d i v i n i t y ' s

messages.

- 141 The p o s s e s s i o n - e x p e r i e n c e has another meaning o u t s i d e the u g i 01okun.

them.

The Edo b e l i e v e t h a t Olokun chooses h i s ohen by d e s c e n d i n g upon

Thus t h i s

priesthood.

'descent

from d i v i n i t y '

i s a p r e r e q u i s i t e for

An Edo c o u l d be descended upon a t any t i m e .

the

A g a i n the

ele-

ment o f u n p r e d i c t a b i l i t y r e i n f o r c e s the d i v i n i t y ' s s u p e r i o r i t y over man,

for

man cannot manage or c o n t r o l these e x p e r i e n c e s .

The p r i e s t h o o d may

i n some cases be h e r e d i t a r y , but each p r i e s t must n e v e r t h e l e s s be s p e c i a l l y

chosen by the d i v i n i t y .

U n l i k e the u g i O l o k u n where p o s s e s s i o n

manifests

i n g l o s s o l a l i a , when Olokun i s c h o o s i n g a p r i e s t o t h e r phenomena may be

present

as w e l l .

D u r i n g the d i v i n i t y ' s descent

p r e d i c t i o n which w i l l

l a t e r be seen t o have been a c c u r a t e .

d i v i n i t y may a l s o r e s u l t
six

the c a n d i d a t e may u t t e r a

i n speechlessness.

P o s s e s s i o n by

One p r i e s t t o l d me t h a t on

o c c a s i o n s known t o him Olokun rendered a p e r s o n s p e e c h l e s s .

a s i g n to the p r i e s t t h a t Olokun was s p e a k i n g .

He then prepared some l e a v e s

known as O l o k u n - l e a v e s (eboOlokun) and bathed the v i c t i m .

they became w e l l and are now s e r v i n g O l o k u n .
possession-experience
became lame.

i s lameness.

Shortly after

Another m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f the

One housewife a p r i e s t knew suddenly

She c o n s u l t e d a d i v i n e r and performed the n e c e s s a r y

She i s now q u i t e w e l l and i s a l s o a p r i e s t e s s .

of the d i v i n i t y ' s descent
Olokun's

'descent

i s temporary

A further

insanity.

i n o r d e r to choose an ohen' can r e s u l t ,

experience.

It

instantaneity

ceremony.

manifestation

i n g l o s s o l a l i a , dumbness, lameness and temporary i n s a n i t y .

these u n u s u a l happenings

T h i s was

then,

In a l l o f

i s the p r e v a i l i n g element i n the

i s not j u s t any s i c k n e s s o r lameness t h a t i n d i c a t e s

d i v i n i t y i s speaking.

The c o n t e n t

that

( e g . lameness) o f the e x p e r i e n c e does

not communicate i r r e v o c a b l y t h a t Olokun has chosen an ohen.

Lameness may

have a m e a n i n g i t i s the d i v i n e r who w i l l determine the n a t u r e and

- 142 s i g n i f i c a n c e o f the

C.

experience.

DIVINATION AS A MANIFESTATION OF OLOKUN

The

d i v i n e r i s a x i a l i n the Edo r e l i g i o u s s y s t e m .

It is

the

d i v i n e r ' s f u n c t i o n to d i s c o v e r the p a t t e r n s and meaning i n sensory

e x p e r i e n c e and random e v e n t s .

In the dream-experiences

w i l l be sought f o r the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the c o n t e n t .

w i l l be i n t e r p r e t e d ,
The

o f the Edo, he
D i f f e r e n t symbols

as we have s e e n , as the m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f d i v i n i t y .

c o m p l e x i t y o f the i n t e r p r e t a t i v e p r o c e s s must be e m p h a s i z e d .

particular divinity)

If

(a

i s ( b e l i e v e d t o be) s p e a k i n g through the dream-media,

c e r t a i n symbols (The presence o f the s e a , w h i t e n e s s

i n any form,

the

presence o f the ohen) w i l l r e v e a l t o tfhejdiviner w h i c h d i v i n i t y i s s p e a k i n g .

F u r t h e r d e t a i l s i n the dream j u x t a p o s e d w i t h the p a t t e r n i n g o f the
divination w i l l

actual

i n d i c a t e what i s the p r e c i s e n a t u r e o f the message.

The

ogwega and a k p e l e d i v i n e r s are c o n s u l t e d p r i m a r i l y by the commoner and not

the p r i e s t ,

although i n a d i f f i c u l t

dream the p r i e s t would c o n s u l t a

d i v i n e r - , who i s w o r k i n g c l o s e l y w i t h h i m .
In the p o s s e s s i o n - e x p e r i e n c e the ohen f u n c t i o n s as the channel and
source o f the d i v i n i t y ' s p r e s e n c e .

The d i v i n e r i s not needed to decode

t h e message because the c u l t r e a d 01okun-words through the o h e n .

the d i v i n e r ' s a b i l i t y to decode i s needed when O l o k u n ' s descent
itself

i n lameness,
The

However,
manifests

etc.

ohen use a minor form o f d i v i n a t i o n to determine what Olokun

*

is

saying.

D u r i n g the s a c r i f i c i a l

the f o u r - s i d e d k o l a .

o f f e r i n g to O l o k u n , the ohen w i l l

By b r e a k i n g the k o l a i n t o four p i e c e s and then

'play'

- 143 throwing
has

it

received

simple

a key

role

being

being.

events

these

event
does

not

to

At

the

next

here

be

as

likewise.

a s c e r t a i n whether
of

section,

the

the

or

kola will

not

Olokun

indicate

sacrifice.

as w e l l .

It

it
is

should
the

diviner's

be

event

role

is

noted
which

to

that
is

give

the
mani-

significance

evil

and

is

reveal

man's

example,

the

the

problem

or

Olokun

should

of

to

Olokun

manifestation

to

a response
may

to

have

man
is

of

and what

taking
he

in

not

to

the

should

do

health,
his

be

the

Olokun

form of
about

to

event

tautological

Olokun
with

priest
advice,

i t .

have

particular

religious

the

the

wealth

experience

believed

may

true

associated

The

Osanobua,

be

Olokun.

within

come

to

this

possess ion-experience

divinity,

be

For

a truck,

argument

those

as

influence:

speaks

The

particular

capabilities.

k i l l e d by

nature.

a manner

if

is

from

such

spheres

therefore,

someone
the

in

then,

a person
as

messages

nature

comprehensible

Through
from

an

Olokun's

example,

a message
of

cite

as

itself

level,

Olokun,

Osa-naxnes
For

divinity's

conceptualized

To

but

OLOKUN

interpreted

general

to

OF

manifest

interpreted

problem.

nature

the

his

do w i t h

observer,

received

the

correspond

insoluble

the

the

are

can only

blessings.

Just
do

to

blessing.

cannot

the

to

presence;

which

within

general

anything

to

events

correspond

spiritual

of

Olokun's

to

to

patterning

EVENT AS A MANIFESTATION

divinity

and

The

able

event.

THE

with

is

response

plays

the

its

'no'

on

of

he

message.

going

The

to

or

ground,

Before

festation

D.

the

the

'yes'

diviner

to

on

system.
songs

seemingly
may

have

revealing

Conversely,

- 144 -

someone may
the

have r e c e i v e d a b l e s s i n g from Olokun which has r e s u l t e d i n

c o m p o s i t i o n o f a song o f p r a i s e or t h a n k s g i v i n g .

songs have r i s e n out o f the Edo

in experiences of l i f e

how

These songs c o u l d , moreover, be thought o f

man's attempt to communicate

two-way p r o c e s s .

i n t e r a c t i o n and communication w i t h Olokun

r e l a t e d to h i s sphere o f power: the g i v i n g o f

h e a l t h , w e a l t h and c h i l d r e n .
as

E s s e n t i a l l y these

to Olokun: communication i s a dynamic,

But I want t o comment b r i e f l y on the song as showing

Olokun speaks to the Edo.

In

the p r a i s e songs, i t can be seen that Olokun i s b e l i e v e d

spoken to the Edo through the g i v i n g o f c e r t a i n b l e s s i n g s .

the
is

song:

'I f o l l o w Olokun, f o r you cannot f o l l o w a k i n g and be

children

as

(Olokun, g i v e r o f c h i l d r e n , I s a l u t e you, I s a l u t e y o u ! ) ;

woman, the end w i l l

( I f one f o l l o w s the d i c t a t e s o f a

always be d o w n f a l l ) ; and c o n t r i b u t i n g to the g e n e r a l

w e l f a r e of one's l i f e

(I w i l l

always remember Olokun f o r what he has done

me) .

III.

A.

slighted'

Olokun i s a l s o p r a i s e d i n other songs f o r g i v i n g

r e v e a l i n g the n a t u r e o f one's problems

for

example,

i n d i c a t i v e o f the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f v a r i o u s events i n one's l i f e

messages from d i v i n i t y .
of

For

to have

THE EDO RESPONSE TO OLOKUN

THE INDIVIDUAL APPROACH TO OLOKUN

The Edo b e l i e v e t h a t p r a y e r can be o f f e r e d at any time to Olokun.

But

p r a y e r i s always more f a v o u r a b l y r e c e i v e d by Olokun b e f o r e the a r u .

Edo say that they cannot come b e f o r e Olokun emptyhanded.

I f an

The

individual

- 145 is

p r a y i n g to Olokun he w i l l b r i n g such n o n - b l o o d items as w h i t e c h a l k ,

k o l a , c o w r i e s and w h i t e c l o t h and p l a c e them on the a r u .

Every a r u has

numberous banana shaped p i e c e s o f w h i t e c h a l k which have been p l a c e d on

the a r u w h i l e p r a y e r was o f f e r e d b e f o r e the s h r i n e .
O l o k u n , c h a l k i s p l a c e d on the
The

B e f o r e p r a y i n g to

shrine.

p r i e s t a l s o p r a y s to Olokun at n o n - c e r e m o n i a l t i m e s .

the p r i e s t has a s p e c i a l day when h e / s h e s i t s i n the s h r i n e .

The p r a y e r s

b e f o r e the s h r i n e , i f no immediate need i s p r e s s i n g are o f f e r e d

general

B.

However,

for

purposes.
1.

That harmony w i l l p r e v a i l i n the

family.

2.

That o n e ' s w e a l t h w i l l

3.

That o n e ' s f a m i l y w i l l remain w e l l and i n c r e a s e i n number.

increase.

THE CULTIC APPROACH TO OLOKUN

The u g i O l o k u n has been a l l u d e d to a number o f t i m e s .

In t h i s

par-

t i c u l a r ceremony t h e r e are a number o f ends sought by the members o f O l o k u n .

A t the s p e c i f i c l e v e l ,

i n d i v i d u a l members have needs w h i c h are

b e f o r e the c o n g r e g a t i o n .
bring their s a c r i f i c i a l

I t Is at t h i s time t h a t c e r t a i n i n d i v i d u a l s w i l l
items to the p r i e s t .

(The Edo b e l i e v e t h a t

u g i O l o k u n p r o v i d e s the proper s e t t i n g f o r s a c r i f i c e ) .
more g e n e r a l p u r p o s e .

brought

the

The u g i O l o k u n has a

Each o f the elements o f the ceremony e x c l u d i n g the

possession-experiencegeneral

p r a y e r , d a n c i n g , drumming and s i n g i n g com-

b i n e to communicate a g e n e r a l message o f p r a i s e and t h a n k s g i v i n g to O l o k u n .

The

ceremony b e g i n s at d u s k , f o r i t i s s a i d t h a t i s when a l l s p i r i t s

are r e t i r i n g from t h e i r l a b o u r .

The Edo b e l i e v e t h a t Olokun i s t r a v e l l i n g

- 146 around c a r r y i n g out h i s f u n c t i o n s .

P r a y e r and s a c r i f i c e a r e i n t i m a t e l y r e l a t e d i n t h e u g i O l o k u n .
When t h e r e i s t o be a s l a u g h t e r o f some s a c r i f i c i a l
gregates before the s h r i n e .

con-

Everybody puts t h e i r hands over t h e i r mouths

and r e p e a t s the word Oraho seven t i m e s .

Olokun.

item, the c u l t

This i s the formal greeting to

Olokun i s next c a l l e d by h i s v a r i o u s t i t l e s .
(a)

Oba noso b a h i a (Olokun, k i n g o f a l l k i n g s ) .

(b)

Ogie nomwen i y a g h i g h o (Olokun, t h e k i n g who has p l e n t y o f

money).

(c)

Oba no rame nose noroke (Olokun, t h e k i n g who l i v e s i n t h e s e a

and surpasses he who l i v e s i n t h e l a n d ) .

A f t e r i n v o k i n g Olokun,

t h e p r i e s t and c u l t r e p e a t t h e f o l l o w i n g p r a y e r :

Ugbolu, a t e t e were
Ghegun mwen wu
Ghegun mwen khuomwin
Gbaro ghe omo kevbe amwen ne
Gun mwen to,'nevbe kpe
K i e odigho me, igho aya r u e vbodo mwan.
Translation:
Don't l e t me d i e , don't l e t me f a l l s i c k ,
Look a f t e r my c h i l d r e n and my w i f e ,
L e t me l i v e l o n g , open up t h e road o f money f o r me,
For i t i s money one uses i n d o i n g
Whatever one d e s i r e s .
The p r i e s t then takes t h e k o l a nuts and t h e c h a l k brought by t h e person
who i s o f f e r i n g a s a c r i f i c e t o Olokun.

He f i r s t touches h i s ) own head and

and t h e b r e a s t o f the woman on whose b e h a l f he i s s a c r i f i c i n g w i t h w h i t e

chalk.

I f i t i s a male s a c r i f i c i n g , t h e p r i e s t w i l l t o u c h h i s head o n l y .

He then breaks t h e k o l a , d i v i n e s and shares i t w i t h t h e members b e f o r e

slaughtering the s a c r i f i c i a l

items.

The a c t u a l s a c r i f i c e i s v e r y s i m p l e .

The s a c r i f i c i a l

item i s held

- 147 by the p r i e s t ' s

assistant

(a s e n i o r woman member o f the c u l t ) and i t s

t h r o a t i s c u t by the p r i e s t .
w i l l be u t t e r i n g a p r a y e r :
brought t h i s i t e m .

W h i l e the p r i e s t

i s s p r i n k l i n g the b l o o d he

'0 O l o k u n , b l e s s t h i s woman or man who has

B l e s s them through t h e i r u n d e r t a k i n g . '

He p l a c e s

some o f the b l o o d on the head o f the k n e e l i n g woman/man and on the members.

the

U n l i k e the s a c r i f i c e b e f o r e o t h e r a r u , the b l o o d must not touch

' f a c e ' o f the a l t a r .

sacred.

One p r i e s t t o l d me t h a t the a l t a r i s c o n s i d e r e d

The b l o o d , t h e r e f o r e ,

i s s p i l l e d o n l y i n f r o n t o f the s h r i n e .

The head o f the s a c r i f i c i a l a n i m a l i s thrown to the r i g h t o f the

and

the d e c a p i t a t e d body i n t o the p r e c o u r t .

but t h i s d o e s n ' t
complete.

I t w i l l p r o b a b l y be eaten

seem to be important to the E d o .

The s a c r i f i c e i s now

There are b a s i c a l l y two types o f s a c r i f i c e :

supplication.

shrine

t h a n k s g i v i n g and

The t h a n k s g i v i n g s a c r i f i c e i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o us at

this

p o i n t because i t i s a response to what i s i n t e r p r e t e d as the i n t e r v e n t i o n

o f d i v i n i t y i n the a f f a i r s o f the E d o .
out o f the b e l i e f

The t h a n k s g i v i n g s a c r i f i c e flows

t h a t Olokun has heard and responded to r e q u e s t s .

In

the f o l l o w i n g s a c r i f i c e s , the purpose o f the s a c r i f i c e i s t h a t which has

been g i v e n by the a c t o r s w i t h i n the t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o u s s y s t e m .

1.

Thanksgiving S a c r i f i c e s

Case 1
Mrs.

0. 0. o f E k i a d o l o r v i l l a g e made a s a c r i f i c e to Olokun w.ith one

T h i s i s not to s a y , however, t h a t the o n l y i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f s a c r i f i c e i s as g i f t , or as a p a r t of the Edo appeal to d i v i n i t y f o r some p a r t i c u l a r end.

- 148 s h e - g o a t , one w h i t e p i g e o n , one w h i t e c o c k , a q u a n t i t y o f

c o w r i e s , c h a l k , ododo, k o l a n u t s and w i n e .
for f u l f i l l i n g
but succeeded

him promise to h e r .
i n bearing a c h i l d .

cocoanut,

Her purpose was to thank him

She had been d e c l a r e d a b a r r e n woman

She had a l r e a d y made one s a c r i f i c e

to

Olokun to o b t a i n her end and promised t o make another i f Olokun responded

to her

request.

Case 2
M r s . 0 . I . o f Eka V i l l a g e made a s a c r i f i c e to Olokun w i t h one g o a t ,
one p i g e o n , some w h i t e c h a l k , ododo and c o w r i e s .

Her purpose was to

thank

Olokun f o r e n a b l i n g her to c o n c e i v e and d e l i v e r a male c h i l d s a f e l y ,

after

she had t r i e d a l l the o t h e r d i v i n i t i e s .

Case 3
M r s . I . 0 . o f I g i u y e V i l l a g e made a s a c r i f i c e to Olokun wi'tfP one
;

w h i t e c o c k , one w h i t e g o a t , ododo, k o l a n u t s , c o w r i e s and w h i t e c h a l k .

Her

purpose was to thank him f o r a s s i s t i n g her to c o n c e i v e and d e l i v e r a male

child after

she had sought a i d from o t h e r d i v i n i t i e s .

circumstances

It

i s under

these

t h a t an Edo c o u l d g i v e the c h i l d the name O l o k u n r o b o .

Case 4
M r s . 0 . A . o f B e n i n C i t y made a s a c r i f i c e to Olokun w i t h one g u i n e a
f o w l , one w h i t e c o c k , ododo, k o l a n u t s and c o w r i e s .

Her purpose was to

thank Olokun f o r the safe d e l i v e r y o f her c h i l d w h i c h the azen had been

t r y i n g to k i l l

i n her womb.

prayer for assistance against

T h i s woman had appealed to Olokun through

the a z e n .

When she d e l i v e r e d s a f e l y

t h e s e adverse c o n d i t i o n s she knew t h a t Olokun had a c t e d on her

under

behalf.

- 149 Case 5
M r s . A . I . o f Ukhegie Q u a r t e r s , B e n i n C i t y made a s a c r i f i c e
Olokun o f one w h i t e p i g e o n and one w h i t e s h e - g o a t .

Her purpose was to

thank Olokun f o r her c o n c e p t i o n and s u c c e s s f u l d e l i v e r y o f a male

A l l her o t h e r e f f o r t s

to

child.

to get pregnant had f a i l e d .

Case 6
Mrs. A . U . of Uselu Quarters,
w i t h one g u i n e a f o w l ,

some cocoanuts

B e n i n C i t y made a s a c r i f i c e to Olokun
and k o l a n u t s .

thank Olokun f o r a l l o w i n g her t r a d e t o p r o s p e r .

l e d her to seek O l o k u n ' s

Her purpose was to

A d i m i n i s h i n g t r a d e had

assistance.

Case 7
M r s . 0 . E . of S i l u k o Quarters,

B e n i n C i t y made a s a c r i f i c e w i t h one

w h i t e g u i n e a f o w l , one w h i t e c o c k , some cocoanuts

to O l o k u n .

and one w h i t e she-goat

Her purpose was t o thank Olokun f o r g i v i n g her a c h i l d .

had prayed to Olokun f o r a c h i l d and when she f i n a l l y

She

c o n c e i v e d and d e l i -

v e r e d , t h e r e was a g r e a t merriment among the f o l l o w e r s o f Olokun because

t h i s woman, whose f i r s t name i s O l o k u n r o b o , was r a i s e d as an Olokun worshipper.

Constant p r a y e r s

o f Olokun
was

and promises had been made b e f o r e the

shrine

Now t h a t she had d e l i v e r e d s a f e l y , t h i s t h a n k s g i v i n g s a c r i f i c e

offered.

Case 8
M r s . A . U . o f Ugbine V i l l a g e near B e n i n C i t y made a s a c r i f i c e
Olokun w i t h one w h i t e g u i n e a f o w l ,
one c o c o a n u t ,

21 c o w r i e s , t h r e e lumps o f c h a l k

a p i e c e o f ododo and a p i e c e o f w h i t e d r i l l

pose was to thank Olokun f o r h e l p i n g her t r a d e t o p r o s p e r .

cloth.

to
(orhue),

Her p u r -

T h i s was not a

promised s a c r i f i c e ;

150 -

she came out o f her own f r e e w i l l

i n response

to

O l o k u n ' s a c t i v i t y on h e r b e h a l f .
Case 9
M r s . 0 . U . o f O l i h a Q u a r t e r s , B e n i n C i t y made a s a c r i f i c e to Olokun
w i t h one w h i t e g o a t , one w h i t e c o c k , c o c o a n u t s , c o w r i e s and a p a r r o t
feather.

Her purpose was to thank Olokun f o r her d a u g h t e r ' s

conception

and safe d e l i v e r y o f a c h i l d though she had h e r e t o f o r e been unable to conceive .

Case 10
M r s . I . 0 . o f Utoka V i l l a g e made a s a c r i f i c e to ..Olokun w i t h a w h i t e
p i g e o n , w h i t e c o c k , w h i t e g o a t , k o l a n u t s and a c o c o a n u t .
to thank Olokun f o r her d a u g h t e r ' s

Her purpose was

safe d e l i v e r y o f a c h i l d .

sought the a i d o f Olokun on b e h a l f o f her d a u g h t e r .

She had

The c h i l d was named

Olokunrobo (Olokun has p l a y e d the r o l e o f s a v i o u r ) .

2.

Votive S a c r i f i c e s

Case 1
Upon v i s i t i n g an ohenOlokun to a t t e n d the u g i O l o k u n , I found t h a t
the ceremony had been c a n c e l l e d .

The reason g i v e n was t h a t a w i f e o f one

o f the c u l t members was u n d e r g o i n g a v e r y d i f f i c u l t

f i c e had been made to O l o k u n .

labour.

Thus a s a c r i -

I t was assumed t h a t bad s p i r i t s were the

cause o f the woman's t r o u b l e and t h a t Olokun was q u i t e c a p a b l e o f

a g a i n s t them.

fighting

The u g i O l o k u n was c a n c e l l e d because to invoke the s p i r i t by

d a n c i n g would o b s t r u c t h i s m i s s i o n .
merriment u n t i l success was a c h i e v e d .

I was t o l d t h a t t h e r e c o u l d be no

- 151 -

Case 2
M r s . I . E . o f B e n i n C i t y made a s a c r i f i c e to Olokun w i t h one egg, a
broom, a t h r e e - s i d e d k o l a and a p i e c e o f m e t a l .

T h i s s a c r i f i c e was made

on b e h a l f o f a son who was i n the motor t r a n s p o r t b u s i n e s s .

items were o f f e r e d

The named

to Olokun to enable M r . I . E . ' s s o n ' s t r a d e to f l o u r i s h

w i t h o u t impediment.

These items are seldom o f f e r e d

to Olokun but

broom may s y m b o l i z e the Edo d e s i r e to have e v i l i n f l u e n c e s

'swept

and the m e t a l may s y m b o l i z e the l o r r y w h i c h i s c e n t r a l to the

the
away'

son's

business.
Case 3
M r s . 1.0.

o f Idumurvbioto Q u a r t e r s ,

B e n i n C i t y made a s a c r i f i c e

to Olokun w i t h one w h i t e p i g e o n , one w h i t e c o c k , one y a r d o f w h i t e c l o t h ,

k o l a - n u t s and c o w r i e s .
child.

Her purpose was t o enable her daughter to have a

She a l s o promised t h a t she would make a f u r t h e r

g r a n t e d her r e q u e s t .
the aforementioned
seems n e c e s s a r y

s a c r i f i c e i f Olokun

The d i v i n e r t o l d t h i s woman to approach Olokun w i t h

items to c l e a r away the o b s t a c l e s .

i n major

A double

sacrifice

cases.

Case 4
M r s . O . E . o f Ugbague Q u a r t e r s ,

B e n i n C i t y made a s a c r i f i c e

Olokun w i t h one s h e - g o a t , one w h i t e g u i n e a f o w l ,

nuts.

to

a cocoanut and some k o l a

Her purpose was to o b t a i n a c h i l d from O l o k u n .

Case 5
A woman i n the Eghobamien household i n B e n i n C i t y made a s a c r i f i c e
to Olokun w i t h one g u i n e a f o w l .
s a f e l y to L a g o s .

Her purpose was to enable her to

travel

152

Case 6
A woman i n the Eghobamien household i n B e n i n C i t y made a s a c r i f i c e
to Olokun o f one w h i t e s h e - g o a t .
for

a visit.

An a k p e l e d i v i n e r came to the household

At t h i s time he broke k o l a and d i v i n e d w i t h i t .

I t was

through the k o l a - d i v i n a t i o n t h a t he warned the woman o f impending danger

to her s o n .

The s a c r i f i c e was made to Olokun to ward o f f t h i s impending

danger; p r o b a b l y t h a t o f s i c k n e s s .
There i s another ceremony which takes p l a c e when an Edo r e c e i v e s a
domestic s h r i n e .

The ukOlokun i s a seven day ceremony which g i v e s an Edo

the r i g h t to have a s h r i n e at which i t

i s b e l i e v e d Olokun w i l l

presence

himself.
In o r d e r to o b t a i n a ' p a r t '
be ' c h o s e n . '

Olokun must m a n i f e s t h i s d e s i r e to the chosen one by c a u s i n g

s i c k n e s s , by d i s t u r b i n g h i s dreams
dizziness.
who w i l l

(domestic a l t a r ) o f O l o k u n , an[,Edo must

(or speaking i n them) and by i n d u c i n g

These e x p e r i e n c e s w i l l m o t i v a t e the r e c i p i e n t to see a d i v i n e r

decode these e x p e r i e n c e s .

He w i l l p r e d i c t t h a t Olokun i s speaking

and c h o o s i n g him to have h i s own domestic s h r i n e .

After
The

l e a v i n g the d i v i n e r the i n i t i a t e w i l l

c o n s u l t the ohenOlokun.

p r i e s t arranges f o r the s p e c i a l ceremony to take p l a c e at the member's

house.

The f i r s t s t e p i n r e c e i v i n g a domestic s h r i n e i s the u n d e r g o i n g o f

a f o u r t e e n day p u r i f i c a t i o n ceremony.
l a t i o n o f the s h r i n e .

T h i s precedes the a c t u a l i n s t a l -

D u r i n g t h i s two week p e r i o d the i n i t i a t e must

from s e x u a l i n t e r c o u r s e , manual l a b o u r and s o l i d f o o d .

abstain

The i n i t i a t e w i l l

a l s o r e c e i v e c e r t a i n i n s t r u c t i o n s as to the proper method o f p r a y e r

before

the domestic a r u and the method o f s a c r i f i c e .

After

t h i s two week p e r i o d i s over a l l o f the Olokun c u l t g a t h e r s

at t h e i n i t i a t e ' s house.
The

153 -

A dance takes p l a c e b e f o r e the a c t u a l ceremony.

o l d people p r e s e n t t h e k o l a and wine t o t h e new member who w i l l be

clothed i n white.

The body w i l l a l s o be rubbed w i t h w h i t e c h a l k and a

parrot feather placed i n the h a i r .

f i c i a l animals.

The i n i t i a t e

then produces t h e s a c r i -

Some l e a v e s and c h a l k w i l l be p l a c e d i n a c e r t a i n spot i n

the c o r n e r o f t h e house.

The ohenOlokun, b e f o r e k i l l i n g t h e s a c r i f i c i a l

a n i m a l , invokes t h e s p i r i t o f Olokun t o t h e a l t a r : Olokun dore Olokun dore

'0 come down Olokun, hear and p a r t a k e o f t h e s a c r i f i c e . '
c a t i o n , the s a c r i f i c e

i s made.

members o f t h i s p a r t i c u l a r

A f t e r the i n v o -

T h i s i s f o l l o w e d by a f e a s t o f a l l t h e

Olokun c u l t .

T h i s ceremony i s a response t o

the m a n i f e s t a t i o n and t h e ' p r e s e n c i n g ' o f Olokun a t the domestic s h r i n e .

The

s a c r i f i c e , t h e n , r e l e a s e s 'part o f the s p i r i t o f Olokun' f o r r e s i d e n c e

at t h e domestic a r u .
The

ehukpo i s t h e y e a r l y f e s t i v a l o f t h a n k s g i v i n g t o Olokun.

Edo d i v i n i t y must have a y e a r l y f e s t i v a l .

And Olokun i s no e x c e p t i o n . A l l

members o f Olokun must pay t h e i r y e a r l y t r i b u t e .

pattern of the ugiOlokun.

Every

The ceremony f o l l o w s the

CHAPTER V I

OGUN: THE ARBITER OF JUSTICE

I.

THE EDO REPRESENTATION OF OGUN

Ogun i s the d i v i n i t y o f i r o n .

A l t h o u g h Ogun i s served by a l l Edo

o p e r a t i n g w i t h i n the t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o u s ; s y s t e m , he i s s e r v e d e s p e c i a l l y
by i r o n and b r a s s - s m i t h s

and, i n the o l d d a y s , was the s p e c i a l p a t r o n o f

w a r r i o r s and s p e c i a l i s t h u n t e r s .

Ogun i s a l s o the focus o f s p e c i a l c u l t s

who s e r v e him p r i m a r i l y but not e x c l u s i v e l y .

A.

OGUN AS HE IS REPRESENTED IN THE MYTHOLOGY

T h i s p a r t i c u l a r myth was r e l a t e d to me i n an i n t e r v i e w w i t h an
ohenOgun.
Ogun i s above a l l d i v i n i t i e s . Without Ogun the o t h e r d i v i n i t i e s cannot
eat.
He o c c u p i e s a conspicuous p l a c e among a l l o t h e r d i v i n i t i e s .
That
i s why when any o t h e r s a c r i f i c e i s made t h a t Ogun must have the f i r s t
p a r t o f the o f f e r i n g .
Osanobua has c r e a t e d a l l s p i r i t s and one day he b u i l t a c e r t a i n
e n c l a v e f o r them to l i v e i n . A t t h a t time Ogun was the s m a l l e s t c h i l d
among the d i v i n i t i e s .
Osanobua t e s t e d them a l l by suddenly p l a n t i n g
a v e r y b i g t r e e i n a l a r g e e n c l a v e . Osanobua s a i d , 'Who among a l l the
d i v i n i t i e s w i l l be the f i r s t to hew the t r e e down?' A l l the d i v i n i t i e s
attempted but f a i l e d .
Ogun then d e c i d e d to t r y , g o i n g w i t h the a i d o f
a heavy wind*. Ogun used the wind because he knew what was needed to
' d e f e a t the t r e e .
L a t e r Ogun was h u n g r y . The heavy wind s a i d , ' D o n ' t
be i n h a s t e , I w i l l h e l p y o u . ' The wind s a t i s f i e d Ogun by b l o w i n g the
t r e e down. And Ogun threw the wind i n t o a nearby s e a .
A f t e r t h i s Osanobua was s a t i s f i e d t h a t Ogun was a b l e to meet h i s
demands.
From t h a t day h e n c e f o r t h Ogun was honoured because a l l o f the
o t h e r d i v i n i t i e s had f a i l e d .
Those d i v i n i t i e s p r e s e n t at the c o n t e s t
were O v i a , Okhauha, I g b a r o n , Orhomo, Ikhokho, E r e d o , A k e , O d i g g i ,
Obiemwen, Erevbu and Imene.
1

- 155 The main theme emerging from t h i s myth i s t h a t Ogun i s b e l i e v e d

be the k i n g o f a l l d i v i n i t i e s under Osanobua and O l o k u n .

Upon a s k i n g

to
the

ohen where Esu was d u r i n g the c o n t e s t , he r e p l i e d t h a t i t was t h r o u g h E s u ' s

influence

t h a t Ogun was a b l e to

' g a i n s u c c e s s ' over t h a t p a r t i c u l a r

Esu and Ogun had worked hand i n hand to a c h i e v e the

B.

tree.

success.

OGUN AS HE IS REPRESENTED IN THE OGUN SONGS

1.

Ogun o n i r e Ogun n i z i d e
Ogun ayagboro, Ogun o r h i e v b a r e no mwanre.
Ogun who h a i l s

from

Ire,

W i t h Ogun one makes a farm,

From whence one
T h i s song i s sung to i n s p i r e
Information

feeds.

the s p i r i t o f ibgun to be p r e s e n t at the

about the d i v i n i t y : Ogun has h i s o r i g i n i n I r e .

who i s p r i m a r i l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r the
to farm w i t h o u t u s i n g a c u t l a s s .
c o u l d not

survive without

The Edo b e l i e v e ,

for

He i s the
i t is

therefore,

one

impossible

t h a t they

Ogun's a s s i s t a n c e .

2.

food the Edo e a t ,

aru.

"

Ogun o r o d i o n

Edionikaro,

Ogun o r o d i o n

kevbe,

Olokun ya

muebohia.

Ogun o r o d i o n agahadukpon
^Aghabowa Ogun o r o d i o n .
Ogun i s the f i r s t .

Our a n c e s t o r s know Ogun i s the

of a l l d i v i n i t i e s .

Ogun supersedes O l o k u n .

first

Without Ogun

one cannot buy c l o t h , n e i t h e r can one b u i l d a h o u s e .

- 156 -

T h i s song i s sung as a p r a i s e song to encourage Ogun to

descend.

I n f o r m a t i o n about the d i v i n i t y : Ogun i s b e i n g e x a l t e d above a l l

divinities-

even O l o k u n .

is with

The Edo dependence on Ogun i s a g a i n a s s e r t e d .

It

money t h a t the Edo buy the c l o t h t h a t c l o t h e s them as w e l l as the z i n c f o r

their roofing.

The phrase 'our a n c e s t o r s

know t h a t Ogun i s the

a s s e r t s t h a t Ogun has been served by past g e n e r a t i o n s

first'

and t h e r e f o r e

should

not be n e g l e c t e d now.

3.

Iyaowa, Ogun o r i o d i o n itemwen avben Ogun orieme

Ogun rue s e .

omwan.

E t e g h a r i e a g h i y o b a l o r e omoregbe

Irogbe agan nomabie Ogun rue

Ogun i s f o r e m o s t .
It

se.

I had no w i f e nor c h i l d p r e v i o u s l y .

i s Ogun who has h e l p e d me to have them.

you Ogun f o r a l l these g i f t s .

One w i l l not

0 I

thank

totally

remember the p a i n endured when one has had a sore

i s now h e a l e d .

It

that

i s a c h i l d t h a t i s the crown o f

A c h i l d l e s s person i s loaded up w i t h p a i n f u l

life.

thoughts.

I thank you a g a i n Ogun. .

T h i s song has a r i s e n out o f p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e , and i s sung t o

induce

newcomers to f o l l o w Ogun.
I n f o r m a t i o n about the d i v i n i t y :
what he has done f o r h i m .

In t h i s song the ohen i s p r a i s i n g Ogun f o r

Ogun has h e l p e d him i n d e s p e r a t e ( c i r c u m s t a n c e s .

I n the past he had s u f f e r e d g r e a t l y ; now he has f o r g o t t e n the p a s t and i s

enjoying l i f e .

Ogun i s b e i n g p r a i s e d f o r h e l p i n g him o b t a i n c h i l d r e n .
4.

Vbawogun ruSeloghogun ikpon i y e v b e n kevbe erhamwen.

Ogun o l e ghimwen omo kevbe avben.

There i s no assignment

g i v e n to Ogun-.that he cannot

- 157 discharge without success.

N o t h i n g i s i m p o s s i b l e w i t h Ogun.

I thank my mother and f a t h e r - - i t

f o r me to have

i s Ogun who made i s p o s s i b l e

issues.

I n f o r m a t i o n about the d i v i n i t y : Ogun i s b e l i e v e d to have power to

the Edo i n v a r i o u s w a y s .
way to s u c c e s s .

assist

But he must be t r u s t e d b e f o r e he w i l l c l e a r

The s i n g e r o f t h i s song a t t r i b u t e s

the

the c h i l d r e n he has

to Ogun ' s power.

5.

Urese Ogun.
i t o gun.
omo.

01 i r e Obo n i s i o k h e r h e obo me n i gha r o

Ikedogha man o t e b a k u a .

Me a t i e r e Oviarobo Ogun rue

I g h i t e vben avben r a
se.

I thank you Ogun who comes from I r e .

I t was one n a t i v e

d o c t o r who i s a c e l e b r a t e d man by the name o f O b o n i s i o k h e r e

who p r e d i c t e d t h a t u n t i l I became a p r i e s t o f Ogun t h a t
my d e s i r e s would not be g r a n t e d .
a p r i e s t o f Ogun t h a t I s t a r t e d

I t was a f t e r becoming
t o have i s s u e s .

then I was l i v i n g a woeful l i f e .

Before

My name i s O v i a r o b o .

T h i s song r e f l e c t s a p a r t i c u l a r e x p e r i e n c e o f one i n d i v i d u a l .

I n f o r m a t i o n about the d i v i n i t y : T h i s song r e v e a l s the c l o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p

t h a t e x i s t s between the d i v i n e r and the p r i e s t .
called

The d i v i n e r ( a l s o p o p u l a r l y

' n a t i v e d o c t o r ) r e v e a l e d t h a t Ogun wanted him to be a p r i e s t .

1

song a l s o shows t h a t Ogun has power and t h a t h i s d i c t a t e s

This

cannot be i g n o r e d .

There i s an i r o n i c note i n t h i s s o n g , f o r h i s f a t h e r worshipped O v i a and

though O v i a ' s i n s t r u m e n t a l i t y h i s f a t h e r
now?

The p r i e s t

gained h i m .

i s p r e s e n t l y s e r v i n g Ogun.

But where i s O v i a

- 158 6.

Kpenogun, Ogun o l i r e .

Obagha to k p e r e , Ewuakpe

n o r i o b a emwen omo evben avben Ogun o r h i iyobone

ighoghore i g h o g h o r e .

0! beat the drums f o r Ogun o f I r e .

forever.

May the k i n g r e i g n

K i n g Ewuakpe^of B e n i n once has no w i f e o r

issue.

I t was Ogun who made i t p o s s i b l e f o r him to have them.

Beat the drum f o r Ogun!

I am g l a d , I am g l a d .

T h i s p a r t i c u l a r song i s sung i n remembrance o f a p a r t i c u l a r event

in history.

The p r i e s t t o l d me t h a t e v e r y ohen i s r e q u i r e d to t e l l the h i s t o r i c a l background o f h i s

divinity.

I n f o r m a t i o n about the d i v i n i t y : The purpose o f t h i s song i s to show t h a t

s i n c e Ogun h e l p e d an Oba when he was d e s p e r a t e , how much more w i l l he be
l i k e l y to h e l p the commoner s o l v e h i s p r o b l e m s .

7.

Kobo kobo nibadanuwa

No ba nobo nogbe.
I s a l u t e a l l n a t i v e d o c t o r s and d i v i n e r s .
fails

to r e s p e c t

Anyone who

and obey n a t i v e d o c t o r s and d i v i n e r s -

may they be s h o r t l i v e d .

P r a i s e be to n a t i v e

doctors

and d i v i n e r s f o r any s i c k person must c o n s u l t them ( i n

o r d e r to be h e a l e d ) .
T h i s i s p r a i s e song: w h i l e we are p r a i s i n g Ogun, l e t us not f o r g e t
native-doctor.

the

They p l a y a s i g n i f i c a n t r o l e i n d i r e c t i n g needy people to

Ogun.
I n f o r m a t i o n about the d i v i n i t y : A l t h o u g h n o t h i n g s p e c i f i c i s s a i d about Ogun,
it

i s u n d e r s t o o d t h a t Ogun and the n a t i v e d o c t o r and d i v i n e r work t o g e t h e r .

K i n g Ewuakpe came t o the Edo throne i n 1700 (Bradbury(^1967: 2 ) .

- 159 8.

U z e v b i v b i nakpenogun kpema no Ogun.

Ogun agbamu.

Gie g i r akpemogun.
Beat the drum q u i c k l y f o r Ogun.
divinity.

Ogun the

fearless

Beat the drums q u i c k l y f o r Ogun, f o r Ogun

needs q u i c k a c t i o n .
T h i s song i s sung to i n s p i r e the drummers t o keep on drumming.

Ogun's

descent depends to a l a r g e e x t e n t on the b e a t i n g o f the drums,

therefore

the drummers are encouraged to c o n t i n u e u n t i l the d i v i n i t y

descends.

I n f o r m a t i o n about the d i v i n i t y : A v e r y i m p o r t a n t aspect o f Ogun's n a t u r e

is revealed i n t h i s song.
divinity.

Ogun i s b e l i e v e d to be a f u r i o u s ,

temperamental

Not o n l y does he descent q u i c k l y but he a c t s q u i c k l y .

e v e r y t h i n g t h a t i s done b e f o r e the s h r i n e must be done i n h a s t e .

not want any ' s l o w n e s s ' ; o n l y q u i c k a c t i o n i s

9.

I r e r e nogunye.
-

Wado ikpeme.

Therefore,
Ogun does

acceptable.

I r e r e nogunye I tuwaya n o t o t a .

Iyare i y a r e .

I thank a l l who a r e p r e s e n t here i n c l u d i n g the drummers.

May you a l l l i v e l o n g .

In the name o f Ogun o f I r e ,

thank a l l o f y o u .
T h i s song was c r e a t e d e s p e c i a l l y f o r my v i s i t

to the

I n f o r m a t i o n about the d i v i n i t y : N o t h i n g s p e c i f i c
The p r i e s t

i s conveyed about Ogun.

i s t h a n k f u l to the drummers and d i s m i s s e s the c o n g r e g a t i o n i n

the name o f Ogun.

C.

shrine.

OGUN AS HE IS REPRESENTED BY THE OHENOGUN

- 160 -

1.

Ogun's C o n t r o l over M e t a l

One ohenOgun informed me t h a t w i t h o u t Ogun, the Edo ' c o u l d not pass

through any r o a d . '

'Money i s needed to pave o n e ' s way i n l i f e - - a n d Ogun

i s the d i v i n i t y who d e c i d e s t h i s . '

cannot m a i n t a i n a c h i l d .
assist

The ohen went on to say t h a t Ogun c o n t i n u e s

a man r i g h t to h i s l a s t d a y s .

is buried.'

He a l s o added t h a t w i t h o u t money one

to

' F o r i t i s w i t h a s h o v e l t h a t man

Summing u p , Ogun p l a y s a v e r y i m p o r t a n t p a r t

i n the l i v e s o f

the Edo as the g u a r d i a n o f m e t a l .

2.

Ogun's Power to H e a l

A p a r t from the i r o n - a s s o c i a t i o n , Ogun has power to h e a l v a r i o u s

kinds of sicknesses:

l u n a c y , e p i l e p s y and o t h e r d i s e a s e s .

One ohen

informed me t h a t many b a r r e n women had come to him and through the a c t i o n

o f Ogun were a b l e to c o n c e i v e .

One o f the l e a d i n g ohenOgun i n B e n i n C i t y

r a n a m a t e r n i t y c l i n i c through the s p i r i t o f Ogun.

F u r t h e r , he c l a i m e d

t h a t many l u n a t i c s had been h e a l e d through Ogun' s power, p a r t i c u l a r l y

if

the cause o f the l u n a c y was the e v i l s p i r i t s .

way.

W i t h h i s o b j e c t o f c r e a t i o n (the c u t l a s s ) ,

h e l p the s i c k p a t i e n t .
w i t h a metal instrument.
ments as

3.

Ogun h e l p s i n another
l e a v e s are o b t a i n e d

to

Even the i n j e c t i o n s g i v e n i n h o s p i t a l s are made

Ogun, t h e r e f o r e ,

has a p a r t i n modern t r e a t -

well.

Ogun's Power to A d m i n i s t e r Vengeance

A number o f ohen s a i d t h a t Ogun's g r e a t e s t power i s h i s a b i l i t y

to

- 161 a d m i n i s t e r vengeance.

In a robbery c a s e ,

to

One case r e l a t e d to me by my informant

'go and f i n d o u t . '

this particular belief

about Ogun's n a t u r e .

ago h i s w i f e l e f t h i m .

illustrates

My informant s a i d t h a t 22 y e a r s

A t t h a t time the dowry was not p a i d b a c k .

meantime the woman m a r r i e d a g a i n .

The

f o r example, Ogun w i l l be sought

In the

She bore f o u r c h i l d r e n but they a l l d i e d .

deaths o f her c h i l d r e n l e d her to c o n s u l t the d i v i n e r who s a i d t h a t her

problem was a t t r i b u t a b l e

t o Ogun.

The d i v i n e r informed the woman t h a t her

t r o u b l e was r e l a t e d to her f a i l u r e to pay back the dowry so many y e a r s

She was t o l d t h a t she had to b r i n g a t o r t o i s e ,

cock and a hen to her

h u s b a n d ' s house, make a s a c r i f i c e and r e t u r n the money.

thanked Ogun f o r b r i n g i n g back h i s p r o p e r t y a f t e r

ago.

former

My informant

so many y e a r s .

T h i s p a r t i c u l a r case was g i v e n as p r o o f t h a t Ogun r e a l l y ' w o r k s ' on

one; s b e h a l f .
;

his

Twenty-two y e a r s ago he had c o n s u l t e d Ogun i n o r d e r to r e g a i n

lost property.

As the y e a r s went by he had g i v e n up a l l hope o f r e -

g a i n i n g the s t o l e n i t e m s .

He h a d n ' t

seen the woman f o r many y e a r s .

But

the d i v i n e r was a b l e to l i n k h i s former w i f e ' s problem to the d i s r u p t i v e

a c t i v i t y o f Ogun--and t h i s f i n a l l y

l e d her to r e t u r n the dowry.

Commenting

on t h i s c a s e , my informant s a i d t h a t Ogun had a c t u a l l y s h i e l d e d t h i s woman

from f u t u r e

evil.

A c c o r d i n g t o n a t i v e p r a c t i c e when Ogun wants to demonstrate

g u i l t , he causes the g u i l t y p a r t y to become s i c k .

someone's

The q u i l t y one w i l l

then

confess by w a l k i n g about the market banging an i r o n gong (egogo) i n o r d e r

to r e v e a l h i s / h e r g u i l t i n e s s .

I haven't

seen any cases o f t h i s i n B e n i n .

In the case o f a motor a c c i d e n t where some people are saved and one
man l o s t ,

i t w i l l be known t h a t Ogun has c l a i m e d t h a t p e r s o n ' s

o t h e r times people w i l l

commit an o f f e n s e .

w i l l be approached to p u n i s h the

offender.

life.

At

Ogun w i l l be d i s p l e a s e d and

- 162 -

We can now make a number o f g e n e r a l statements about the Edo

r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f Ogun.

L i k e the o t h e r d i v i n i t i e s , Ogun has r e c e i v e d h i s

power d i r e c t l y from Osanobua.

Next to Olokun i n power and a u t h o r i t y , Ogun's

p r i m a r y sphere o f i n f l u e n c e i s to a c t as the a r b i t e r o f j u s t i c e i n the Edo

kingdom.

H i s secondary f u n c t i o n i s to s e r v e as a p i o n e e r d i v i n i t y

to

remove o b s t a c l e s and open up the way f o r m a t e r i a l and s p i r i t u a l p r o s p e r i t y

for h i s worshippers.

We have a l s o seen t h a t a n y t h i n g a c h i e v e d through

i n s t r u m e n t a l i t y o f m e t a l implements o r o b j e c t s

i s a t t r i b u t e d to Ogun.

Ogun i s b e l i e v e d to be a f u r i o u s d i v i n i t y capable o f
acts.

I f Ogun i s n o t heeded,

He i s the c h i l d o f Osanobua who i s b o l d , f e a r l e s s

and o u t s p o k e n .

Ogun i s b e l i e v e d to be o m n i p r e s e n t .
i n Edoland.

Other

An Edo p r o v e r b

'Any d i v i n i t y who d e s p i s e s Ogun, grass w i l l grow on h i s

a t the v a r i o u s s h r i n e s

'wild.'

I t i s Ogun who makes the way smooth f o r

the d i v i n i t i e s i n t h e i r s p i r i t u a l encounters w i t h men.

says:

destructive

i t i s b e l i e v e d t h a t he can be v e r y

d i v i n i t i e s are dependent upon h i m .

the

face.'

However, he l o c a l i z e s h i m s e l f

As one informant s u c c i n c t l y put

'Ogun d o e s n ' t hear you i n the open s p a c e . '

And another

' A war g e n e r a l needs a p l a c e to g a t h e r h i s a r m y . '

it:

informant s a i d :

Ogun i s such a g e n e r a l

and he r e c e i v e s the p r a i s e and s u p p l i c a t i o n s o f the Edo b e f o r e the v a r i o u s

aru scattered

throughout the Edo k i n g d o m .

Numerous ohen s e r v e Ogun.

priests

There d o e s n ' t

seem to be a h i e r a r c h y o f

i n the M i d - W e s t , a l t h o u g h some ohen e a r n r e c o g n i t i o n as

and p o w e r f u l p r i e s t s .
s i m i l a r to O l o k u n .

outstanding

An ohen i s s e l e c t e d by the d i v i n i t y i n a manner

Once he i s chosen by the d i v i n i t y , he must undergo some

i n s t r u c t i o n by t r a i n e d o h e n .

The ohenOgun may Jalso have a knowledge o f

h e r b s , m e d i c i n a l charms o f b o t h a d e s t r u c t i v e and p r o t e c t i v e n a t u r e :

to

- 163 -

p r e v e n t gun wounds, c u r s e an enemy, w i n a l o v e r , e t c .

(native doctors)

i n Edoland may be second c l a s s ohenOgun.

b i d d e n to be ohen o f Ogun.
gentle d i v i n i t y

Some o f the obo

Women are

for-

The o n l y women ohen are those s e r v i n g the

Olokun.

There are two types o f aruOgun: domestic and communal.

Most

t r a d i t i o n a l households have a domestic a r u ( p a r t i c u l a r l y i f one o f the

residents

o f the h o u s e h o l d i s a member o f Ogun) where p r a y e r s are

from time to t i m e .
implements.

These a r u c o n s i s t o f a mud a l t a r adorned w i t h

In c o n t r a s t

offered
iron

to the domestic s h r i n e s are the communal s h r i n e s .

The a r u i s e n c l o s e d i n a s m a l l hut c o n t a i n i n g m e d i c i n a l p o t s , s k u l l s o f
p r e v i o u s l y s a c r i f i c e d animals suspended over the a l t a r .
a c r o s s the o u t s i d e o f the s h r i n e house to demarcate the
There are a number o f moral r e q u i r e m e n t s

Rafia is
shrine.

f o r any f o l l o w e r o f Ogun.

They must safeguard a g a i n s t s t e a l i n g , a v o i d a d u l t e r y , and a v o i d

any d i s t u r b a n c e to community s e c u r i t y .

strung

creating

I f t h e r e are any d i f f e r e n c e s

members, the ohen w i l l s i t i n judgment over the m a t t e r .

among

Bearing false

w i t n e s s a g a i n s t f e l l o w members o f Ogun i s a l s o f o r b i d d e n .

II.

A.

THE MANIFESTATION OF OGUN

THE DREAM-EXPERIENCE AS A MANIFESTATION OF OGUN

The

symbols w h i c h appear i n the dream-experience o f the Edo and

r e v e a l t h a t Ogun i s t r y i n g to break i n t o t h e i r c o n s c i o u s n e s s are

b u r n i n g f i r e and m e t a l o b j e c t s .

two-fold:

The appearance o f these symbols w i l l

l e a d the s u b j e c t o f the dream t o c o n s u l t a d i v i n e r who w i l l i n t e r p r e t

then
the

meaning o f the symbols and t e l l h i s c l i e n t what a c t i o n i s demanded o f h i m .

- 164 Case 1
C M . dreamt t h a t he saw a t r a i n c o n t a i n i n g many s o l d i e r s coming
a l o n g the t r a c k .

The t r a i n was suddenly e n g u l f e d i n f i r e .

the d i v i n e r s e e k i n g an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n

C M . went

o f t h i s u n u s u a l dream.

to

The d i v i n e r

s a i d t h a t Ogun war w a r n i n g him t h a t he s h o u l d s a c r i f i c e to Ogun i n o r d e r

to a v o i d an

B.

accident.

THE POSSESSION-EXPERIENCE

AS A MANIFESTATION OF OGUN

What f o l l o w s i s a d e s c r i p t i o n o f the u g i O g u n .

S i n c e the main focus

o f the u g i O g u n , as w i t h the u g i O l o k u n , i s the d e s c e n t o f the d i v i n i t y upon

the ohen, I have chosen to i n c l u d e the d e s c r i p t i o n o f the ugiOgun i n t h i s
s e c t i o n on the m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f Ogun.

I t s h o u l d be n o t e d , however, t h a t a

number o f elements i n the ceremony seek to communicate v a r i o u s messages

t o Ogun.

For example, i f Ogun ' n e e d s ' a s a c r i f i c e i t w i l l

d u r i n g the u g i O g u n .
dynamic

Thus the ceremony i t s e l f

f i n d s a c t o r and d i v i n i t y

interrelationship.
Ogun S h r i n e and C e r e m o n i a l A r e a

O Sword
bearer

Inner
Courfya rd

Shrine

women >->.
usinq+he ^
ukuse O

oo

Diagram 4

be'Joffered
in

- 165 The ceremony b e g i n s w i t h the ohen seated at the f r o n t o f the

h o l d i n g the eben.
another.

shrine

Two women dance i n f r o n t o f the s h r i n e , f a c i n g one

The purpose o f the p r e l i m i n a r y d a n c i n g and drumming i s to

Ogun down on the o h e n .

A t f i r s t the p r i e s t

call

i s s i t t i n g calmly i n front of

the s h r i n e , but s l o w l y he b e g i n s to sway back and f o r t h w i t h the drumming

continuing.

He b e g i n s t o bob up and down as the women c o n t i n u e to dance

b e f o r e the ohen.

Gongs are handed to him w h i l e h i s a s s i s t a n t s ,

seated

b e s i d e h i m , hand h i m m e t a l gongs (egogo) and s p r i n k l e n a t i v e c h a l k around

the s h r i n e .

Some c h a l k i s a l s o rubbed on the face o f the o h e n .

Suddenly the d a n c i n g s t o p s .
has descended upon the o h e n .

A t t h i s p o i n t i t i s b e l i e v e d t h a t Ogun

The ohen now speaks to h i s c o n g r e g a t i o n

t e l l i n g them t h a t Ogun d o e s n ' t want any c h i l d r e n to be s i c k nor does he

want any p i c t u r e s t a k e n .
way f o r p r o g r e s s .

He t e l l s the c o n g r e g a t i o n t h a t Ogun paves

the

W i t h o u t h i m , the b u i l d i n g o f homes i s i m p o s s i b l e .

Going o n , the ohenOgun s t a t e s t h a t Ogun i s the i n v e n t o r o f a l l m a c h i n e s .

He r e a s s u r e s the c u l t t h a t when the azen e a t ,

Ogun feeds

them ( i n o t h e r

w o r d s , t h e r e i s no need to f e a r them i f you are s e r v i n g Ogun).

He c o n -

c l u d e s by s a y i n g t h a t i f any r i v e r i s too deep,' Ogun makes i t easy to

and t h a t whenever t h e r e i s a w a r , Ogun i s the cause o f

cross

it.

A f t e r making these s t a t e m e n t s , the ohen g r e e t s the p e o p l e : Wakoyo.

He says t h a t i f anyone i s too poor o r too r i c h i t i s through Ogun.
Speaking to the e l d e r s , the ohen e x h o r t s them t o be a t t e n t i v e

because

Osanobua has empowered Ogun to be the l e a d e r o f a l l d i v i n i t i e s .

The ohen

backs up h i s command to the e l d e r s by n o t i n g t h a t i t i s Ogun who causes

death through the d r i v e r s o f v a r i o u s

cars.

Next the ohen b e g i n s to s i n g : Daghome, daghome.

T h i s i s a war song

166

sung by the members o f the F e d e r a l Army.

s i n g i n g of t h i s p a r t i c u l a r song.
h i s head, o c c a s i o n a l l y s m i l i n g .
you w i s h the Ighede d r u m . '

As he s i n g s the ohen b e g i n s to shake

He then s a y s : Iyeghede tuwa.

'I

salute

The ohen then r a i s e s h i s hand to stop

dance, s t a t i n g t h a t he has r e s p e c t
nomaduaogunnugungbe.

A l l o f the members j o i n i n the

the

f o r a l l ohen: Kobonimade nuwa,

'Ogun must be r e c o g n i z e d by a l l d i v i n e r s .

Any d i v i n e r

who does not r e c o g n i z e Ogun w i l l be k i l l e d . '

The ohen r i s e s and s t a t e s :
Ogun.

'No o t h e r power has a w i d e r chest

than

Even the w i z a r d s and w i t c h e s are under h i m because he feeds them a l l .

Ogun uses h i s chest i n b e a t i n g the d r u m s . '

This p a r t i c u l a r

statement

p r a i s e s Ogun f o r h i s b o l d n e s s , the Edo i d i o m f o r b o l d n e s s b e i n g 'wide c h e s t . '

After

these statements o f d o c t r i n e , the ohen c i r c l e s the f l o o r as

drums c o n t i n u e to b e a t .
the o h e n .

The s p i r i t o f Ogun has now f u l l y descended upon

Jumping up and down, he h i t s h i s chest f a s t e r

and f a s t e r ;

he

h i t s h i s head w i t h the egogo, not a p p e a r i n g to f e e l the e f f e c t o f t h i s .

Suddenly he stops w i t h h i s head b o b b i n g s l i g h t l y , a l t h o u g h the drumming
and s i n g i n g c o n t i n u e s .

A l l pause momentarily to p r a i s e Ogun.

ohen s e l e c t s one boy from the c o n g r e g a t i o n .

Next

It is believed that

the

the

s p i r i t o f Ogun has now t a k e n c o n t r o l o f the- o h e n ' s f a c u l t i e s ; t h a t i t

is

the d i v i n i t y s p e a k i n g to the assembled members o f Ogun.

The ohen t e l l s the boy t h a t he s h o u l d s a c r i f i c e a cocoanut and a
h a l f - c o o k e d yam to Esu because
the b o y .

'bad s p i r i t s ' have been p l o t t i n g to

kill

The ohen informs the c u l t t h a t i n seven days the boy would have

been k i l l e d .
g i v e n to E s u .

The yam s h o u l d o n l y be h a l f - c o o k e d and p a r t o f i t s h o u l d be

A t t h i s p r e c i s e moment a woman s t e p s out from the

and c o n f i r m s the whole i n c i d e n t .

dancers

She says t h a t s i x days ago her husband

the

- 167 had c o n s u l t e d the d i v i n e r and was o r d e r e d to k i l l t h r e e goats to the

spirits'

i n o r d e r to dismember the c h i l d r e n .

'bad

The ohen r e p l i e s t e l l i n g

the

woman t h a t Ogun w i l l waive a l l o f t h i s .

After

t h i s event,

the ohen paces around the f l o o r and informs

the

c u l t t h a t 201 s p i r i t s came to him but o n l y 100 were a b l e t o dance w i t h h i m .

He then conveys f u r t h e r

i n f o r m a t i o n about Ogun to the c u l t .

a p e r s o n who i s underfed w i l l not work v e r y w e l l .

cannot o b t a i n f o o d .

He says

that

Without h a r d work, one

A c c o r d i n g to the ohen, Europeans know the v a l u e o f

Ogun because they have p i l o t s and many e n g i n e e r s and are thus l i f t e d

above

A f r i c a n s by Ogun.
The ohen shakes h i s gong i n the d i r e c t i o n o f one o f the women p r e s e n t
at the ceremony.

She s t e p s out o f the l i n e and k n e e l s down.

The i n f o r -

m a t i o n conveyed to h e r i s t h a t she s h o u l d not be too q u i c k i n a c q u i r i n g

wealth.

Then the ohen a g a i n b e g i n s to knock h i s head w i t h the gongs

b e a t i n g h i s c h e s t w h i l e jumping up and down.

and the ohen speaks to another woman.

The drumming s t a r t s a g a i n

He t u r n s

to the drummers and t e l l s

them to beat the drums c o n t i n u o u s l y .

At t h i s p o i n t i n the u g i O g u n , a man comes to the back o f the
y a r d and the p r i e s t wants t o know the r e a s o n f o r h i s c o m i n g .
t h a t he has come t o seek r e d r e s s .

Before t u r n i n g h i s f u l l

t h i s man, the ohen dances a g a i n a f t e r

of

the c o u r t y a r d a s h i l l i n g .

court-

The man says

attention

c h a r g i n g an o l d man up near the

Money i s a l s o demanded o f me.

to
front

There i s

g e n e r a l d a n c i n g as the money i s t a k e n to the ohen who i s now s w i r l i n g

round and r o u n d , h o p p i n g on one f o o t as w e l l as h i t t i n g h i s head w i t h

the

egogo.
A l l o f the c u l t r i s e to dance w i t h the ohen.

T h i s appeared to me

- 168 -

t o be the most e c s t a t i c moment i n the whole ceremony.

h o l d i n g the ukuse (beaded c a l a b a s h )

The woman

stood and moved i n around the o h e n .

Word was brought to me t h a t Ogun had accepted my g i f t .

The ohen t u r n e d

to

me and informed me t h a t I s h o u l d take p r e c a u t i o n as t h i s i s a time o f year

when many t h i e v e s are l o o s e .

He then t o l d me t h a t Ogun goes

and has power to go through the ohen fo f o r e c a s t

A f t e r t h i s c o n v e r s a t i o n w i t h me, h i s f u l l
the man who had j u s t e n t e r e d the room.

everywhere

anything.
a t t e n t i o n was t u r n e d

to

T h i s aspect o f the ceremony i s

i m p o r t a n t because the ohen gave the i m p r e s s i o n t h a t Ogun had g i v e n h i m

supernatural
first

i n s i g h t i n t o the n a t u r e o f the man's p r e d i c a m e n t .

The ohen

t e l l s the man t h a t he has come on b e h a l f o f h i s son who had been

a f f e c t e d m e n t a l l y due to the e v i l a c t i o n o f h i s second w i f e .

Apparently

the man's second w i f e wanted to have h e r own son t o be the s o l e i n h e r i t o r

of

the f a t h e r ' s

property.

The ohen p r e d i c t e d t h a t i t was h i s second w i f e

who was the cause o f the p r o b l e m ; t h a t he had l o s t h i s b i c y c l e and o t h e r

b e l o n g i n g s ; t h a t the s t r a n g e r was h e r e because the d i v i n e r t o l d him to
come.
The
'god

stranger

c o n f i r m s the ohen's statements and k n e e l s b e g g i n g the

of i r o n ' to help h i m .

The ohen informs the s t r a n g e r

t h a t Ogun w i l l

h e l p him a l t h o u g h Ogun i s annoyed w i t h the man f o r l e a v i n g h i s case so

long.

He s h o u l d have come to Ogun e a r l i e r .

The ohen then t e l l s the man

t h a t i t i s the azen who have been h i n d e r i n g h i s p r o g r e s s .

But Ogun i s

g o i n g to r e l e a s e h i m s i n c e Ogun can r e l e a s e those t i e d by e v i l

The

ohen a d v i s e s the man t h a t Ogun i s o n l y i n t e r e s t e d

brave.

spirits.

i n those who are

Ogun does not l i k e l a z i n e s s o r d i s o b e d i e n c e and i s annoyed w i t h

him f o r h i s l a t e a r r i v a l b e f o r e the s h r i n e .

But Ogun w i l l h e l p h i m .

- 169 Ogun i s b e l i e v e d t o be s p e a k i n g to t h i s man through the ohen.

The second w i f e has been used by the azen as the c h a n n e l o f e v i l a c t i o n .
And i n o r d e r t o a l l e v i a t e h i s situation:"'he s h o u l d make a s a c r i f i c e t o Esu
o f one h e - g o a t ,

an empty sack c o n t a i n i n g some e d i b l e t h i n g s and an e g g .

These items were to be dumped i n the r i v e r near an a n t h i l l c l o s e to

stream on the man's p r o p e r t y .

the

My i n f o r m a n t t o l d me t h a t the ohen had

never seen the man's p r o p e r t y , but had been g i v e n t h i s s u p e r n a t u r a l i n s i g h t through Ogun.

The ohen a l s o a d v i s e s the man to go to a mango t r e e on h i s farm
and pray t h e r e to Ogun.

The man was a s s u r e d by the ohen t h a t Ogun would

p u n i s h the woman, but he was warned t h a t he s h o u l d not t a k e any

'bad

money,' d r i n k any palm w i n e , t a k e any k o l a or smoke a c i g a r e t t e

offered

to h i m by any persons from the door n e x t t o h i m .

the ohen was t h a t the enemy wants to
him.'

The r e a s o n g i v e n by

'pass through a f r i e n d n e x t door to

F i n a l l y a g e n e r a l song i s sung and the ceremony was o v e r .

Summarizing some o f the elements o f t h i s ceremony, we can f i r s t

say

t h a t the a c t o r s b e l i e v e t h a t the main purpose o f the ceremony i s to p e r suade Ogun to d e s c e n d .

T h i s i s induced by the drumming and d a n c i n g o f the

members who are p a r t i c i p a t i n g a c t i v e l y i n the ceremony.

When Ogun des-

c e n d s , the ohen then becomes the media o f communication between

and man.

P r e v i o u s to the d e s c e n t ,

divinity

the ohen had conveyed i n f o r m a t i o n to

the c u l t but i t was i n f o r m a t i o n o f a d o c t r i n a l n a t u r e and not i n f o r m a t i o n

r e l a t e d to the l i f e - s i t u a t i o n s o f the members.

I t s h o u l d be noted t h a t

the ohen spoke to a number o f the c u l t , e x h o r t i n g and w a r n i n g o f danger

to come.

The i n f o r m a t i o n r e v e a l e d was o f a p r o p h e t i c n a t u r e ,

ohen warned o f impending d a n g e r .

i.e.

In one c a s e , the woman seemed to

the
confirm

- 170 the o h e n ' s p r e d i c t i o n .

The case o f the s t r a n g e r

i s an i n t e r e s t i n g one

because i t i l l u s t r a t e s a common Edo b e l i e f : t h a t the ohen and d i v i n e r have

the a b i l i t y to

'see i n t o the f u t u r e . '

There i s s c a r c e l y an Edo who would

deny t h a t they have t h e s e s p e c i a l a b i l i t i e s .

L i k e the o t h e r d i v i n i t i e s , Ogun i s a l s o honoured i n a y e a r l y ehukpo.
The g e n e r a l p a t t e r n o f the ehukpo i s s i m i l a r to the u g i O g u n ; the main
d i f f e r e n c e b e i n g t h a t a s a c r i f i c e i s always o f f e r e d at the ehukpo whereas
t h i s i s n o t the case at the u g i O g u n .

C.

THE EVENT AS A MANIFESTATION OF OGUN

A l t h o u g h I have a l r e a d y touched on some o f the events w h i c h are

i n t e r p r e t e d as the m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f Ogun, I w i l l t r y to summarize them
briefly.

When we are c o n s i d e r i n g j u s t how Ogun m a n i f e s t s h i m s e l f

various events,

i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o s t a t e once a g a i n t h a t the d i v i n e r i s

the one who w i l l i n t e r p r e t

f

Ogun.

through

the v a r i o u s events as b e i n g the m a n i f e s t a t i o n

L i k e a l l d i v i n i t i e s Ogun

v a r i o u s types o f s i c k n e s s .

manifests himself

to the Edo by c a u s i n g

The most common event a s s o c i a t e d w i t h Ogun i s

the a c c i d e n t - - p a r t i c u l a r l y those a c c i d e n t s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h m e t a l : motor

accidents, shootings, k n i f i n g s ,
is

annoyed w i t h the E d o .

etc.

A n y t h i n g t h a t i s used by the Edo to do v i o l e n c e

i s r e l a t e d t o the i n f l u e n c e o f Ogun.
difficulty

T h i s type o f a c c i d e n t shows t h a t Ogun

One informant e x p l a i n e d the

present

i n N i g e r i a i n terms o f Ogun' s anger and unhappiness w i t h

c o r r u p t i o n i n the

the

country.

III.

THE EDO RESPONSE TO OGUN

There are a number o f f a c t o r s m o t i v a t i n g the Edo i n t h e i r

response

- 171 to Ogun.

The Edo know what Ogun i s c a p a b l e o f d o i n g f o r them and he i s

used i n s t r u m e n t a l l y to a c h i e v e p a r t i c u l a r e n d s .

However, t h i s

i s not a

o n e - s i d e d r e l a t i o n s h i p because the Edo know t h a t Ogun a c t s f u r i o u s l y and

t h a t i f he i s not s a t i s f i e d by s a c r i f i c e and proper b e h a v i o u r , h i s

fury

may be d i r e c t e d upon them.

I n d i v i d u a l Edo come b e f o r e Ogun to have him d e s t r o y or c r e a t e
confusion i n t h e i r detractors

o r to cause a 'bad s i t u a t i o n ' f o r

enemy who has s t o l e n some o f t h e i r p r o p e r t y .

the a c t o r

In s i t u a t i o n s

their

such as t h e s e ,

i s c o n s c i o u s o f l o s s and s t a t e s e x p l i c i t l y what he wants Ogun

to a c h i e v e .

I was t o l d by one informant t h a t one must not l i e to any

d i v i n i t y o r o n e ' s d e s i r e f o r revenge w i l l b a c k f i r e .

The Edo b e l i e v e

t h a t Ogun, due to h i s ^ i m p a r t i a l i t y , makes a thorough i n v e s t i g a t i o n b e f o r e

seeking

revenge.
A n o t h e r f a c t o r m o t i v a t i n g the Edo to approach Ogun i s t h e i r

to know the r e a s o n f o r t h e i r d i s t r e s s f u l c o n d i t i o n .

desire

For example, a woman

who has been h a v i n g c o n s i d e r a b l e problems w i t h her c o n c e p t i o n might

Ogun's p r o t e c t i o n o r a s s i s t a n c e ,

p a r t i c u l a r l y i f the woman's problem has

been d i v i n e d as the r e s u l t o f the a c t i v i t y o f Esu o r the a z e n .

distressful

seek

s i t u a t i o n s might be a d e c l i n i n g tirade o r t r o u b l e d

Other
dreams.

C o l l e c t i v e l y , the Edo come b e f o r e Ogun to p r a i s e h i m f o r a c t i v i t y

on t h e i r b e h a l f .
t h e i r thankfulness

The ugiOgun p r o v i d e s them w i t h the o p p o r t u n i t y to

express

i n a f o r m a l , r i t u a l i z e d manner.

In c o n c l u s i o n , t h e n , whether or not the i n d i v i d u a l Edo knows e x a c t l y

what the source o f h i s problem i s m a t t e r s l i t t l e .

Ogun i s the a r b i t e r o f

j u s t i c e who i s communicated w i t h i n o r d e r to c l e a r away o b s t a c l e s

are b e l i e v e d to be b l o c k i n g a f u l l ,

satisfactory

life.

which

- 172 . A.

SACRIFICE AS RESPONSE TO OGUN

The

e s s e n t i a l means o f communication w i t h Ogun i s through s a c r i f i c e .

Other elements such as d a n c i n g and p r a y e r w i l l be commented on l a t e r .

the o t h e r d i v i n i t i e s , Ogun p r e f e r s
is

the d o g .

certain animals.

In Ogun's c a s e ,

Like
it

One ohenOgun informed me t h a t i f one wants to get a message

through to Ogun q u i c k l y , the b e s t means o f d o i n g i t i s to o f f e r Ogun a

dog.

There- are o t h e r

items used i n s a c r i f i c e to Ogun: t o r t o i s e ,

cock,

s n a i l , obobo, o i l and i r o n i m p l e m e n t s .
S a c r i f i c e to Ogun f o l l o w s a v e r y s t r i c t p a t t e r n .

The ohen e n t e r s

the a r u and s p r i n k l e s c h a l k on the i n s i d e o f the s h r i n e and r i n g s

gongs to g a i n the a t t e n t i o n o f the d i v i n i t y .

the

He then p r a y s :

Ogun o n i r e , t u o r e n u d o r i e v b a y e , Ido rue bavbengbemwen

Kevbe omo odigho vbe odo mo me

Simwin emwanhia no dogun mwen d u g i e r u e .
Ogun who h a i l s from I r e , descend t o take the o f f e r i n g I ' m
making to y o u .

I come to o f f e r t h i s s a c r i f i c e to you on

b e h a l f o f m y s e l f and c h i l d r e n .
c h i l d r e n f o r me.

Open the gate o f money and

Safeguard the l i f e o f the people

to h e l p me d u r i n g t h i s

celebration.

T h i s p r a y e r v a r i e s a c c o r d i n g t o the s u p p l i c a n t ' s n e e d .
a l s o be noted t h a t the ohen w i l l
the n a t u r e o f the s a c r i f i c i a l

gathered

s a c r i f i c e on b e h a l f o f the

I t should

supplicant,

items v a r y i n g a c c o r d i n g to the d i v i n e r ' s

recommendations.
A f t e r t h i s p r a y e r , the ohen s p r i n k l e s some more c h a l k around the
shrine.

Four k o l a n u t s are p l a c e d on a p l a t e , and then t a k e n and h e l d over

- 173 the s h r i n e .

Some f e a t h e r s

o f the s h r i n e .

are t a k e n from the cock and p l a c e d at the

The f e e t o f the cock are u n t i e d , the k o l a n u t s t a k e n and

b r o k e n i n t o four p i e c e s b e f o r e b e i n g d i s p l a y e d .
the k o l a s a y i n g :

The ohen d i v i n e s w i t h

'The k o l a must speak f o r what he asks to be d o n e . '

k o l a i s d i s p l a y e d seven times on the f l o o r o f the s h r i n e .

is

foot

The

Another p r a y e r

offered:
Ogun zevbe rue

re.

Ogun, take y o u r k o l a and accept what o f f e r i n g I ' m making

to y o u .
I f the K o l a says
f i n d i n g another

' n o , ' t h e r e must be something added.

T h i s c o u l d mean

i t e m to o f f e r to Ogun b e s i d e s the p r e s e n t

one.

The c o r e o f the k o l a i s p l a c e d on the a l t a r w h i c h i s s a i d by the

priest

to be f o r Osanobua.

ohen's a s s i s t a n t s

Then the b r o k e n K o l a i s passed to each o f

who p a r t a k e o f i t .

the

Another p r a y e r i s made and the

r e m a i n i n g b i t s o f k o l a are thrown on the s h r i n e by the a s s i s t a n t s

o f the

ohen.
At t h i s p o i n t a h o r n i s blown i n v o k i n g the d i v i n i t y .
t a k e n i n hand by the o h e n .

F i r s t he throws some o f the c o c k ' s

around the s h r i n e , t h e n he k i l l s
the neck w i t h h i s h a n d .

feathers

the cock w i t h o u t a c u t l a s s , b r e a k i n g

B l o o d i s s p r i n k l e d on the a r u .

It

t h a t the cock be k i l l e d q u i c k l y as Ogun demands q u i c k a c t i o n .

t h a t p a r t of the o h e n ' s

The cock i s

i s imperative
I was t o l d

t r a i n i n g i s l e a r n i n g how to w r i n g the c o c k ' s neck

quickly.
The s p r i n k l i n g o f the b l o o d i s the focus o f the s a c r i f i c e .
t h i s i s c o m p l e t e d , the ceremony i s almost f i n i s h e d .

After

More c h a l k i s s p r i n k -

l e d around the s h r i n e and kaila nuts are d i s t r i b u t e d to those who have

- 174 -

gathered

o u t s i d e the s h r i n e .

and a p r a y e r r e p e a t e d

A l i b a t i o n o f g i n i s s p i l l e d on the

(a r e p e t i t i o n o f the f i r s t p r a y e r o f f e r e d

altar

to Ogun).

When asked why he poured g i n on the s h r i n e , the ohen t o l d me t h a t i t

Ogun's d r i n k .

is

T h e c " c e r e m o n y ; i s brought to a c l o s e w i t h a l i b a t i o n to Esu

who i s commonly b e l i e v e d to work hand i n hand w i t h Ogun.

Case S t u d i e s

i n S a c r i f i c e s made t o Ogun

For a n a l y t i c a l purposes I have d i v i d e d the s a c r i f i c e s

categories:

1.

into three

v o t i v e , t h a n k s g i v i n g and p r o p i t i a t i o n .

Votive S a c r i f i c e s

Case 1
M r . I . 0 . o f E v b o r i a r i e V i l l a g e made a s a c r i f i c e to Ogun w i t h one
2
tortoise,

and one c o c k .

Hisypurpose was to persuade Ogun to o b s t r u c t

w i t c h who had been d i s t u r b i n g h i s s l e e p every n i g h t .

for,

g e n e r a l l y he i s a remover o f

the

Ogun can do t h i s

obstacles.

Case 2
M r . I . 0 . o f Ugbogui V i l l a g e made a s a c r i f i c e to Ogun w i t h one
c o c k , some

c o w r i e s , r o a s t e d yam, o i l and one t o r t o i s e .

t o persuade Ogun to o b s t r u c t

violent

H i s purpose was

the w i t c h who was d i s t u r b i n g h i s

One o f the ways Ogun o b s t r u c t s

murder.

sleep.

the a c t i v i t y o f a w i t c h i s

through

- 175 Case 3
M r . E . I . o f I g u o s a l a V i l l a g e made a s a c r i f i c e to Ogun w i t h one
d o g , one t o r t o i s e , some k o l a n u t s and c o w r i e s .

H i s purpose was to

persuade

Ogun to o b s t r u c t the w i t c h who had caused the abnormal development o f h i s

wife's

foetus.

Case 4
M r . I . 0 . o f Ugbogui made a s a c r i f i c e to Ogun w i t h c o w r i e s , o i l ,
r o a s t e d yam, t o r t o i s e and a c o c k .

H i s p u r p o s e was to persuade Ogun to

o b s t r u c t the w i t c h who f r e q u e n t l y caused h i s w i f e to undergo i r r e g u l a r

menstruation.

M r . T. 0 . f i r s t approached the d i v i n e r who r e l a t e d

woman's problem to w i t c h c r a f t a c t i v i t y .

the

The d i v i n e r then t o l d M r . I .

0.

t o approach Ogun to c l e a r away t h i s p a r t i c u l a r t r o u b l e .

Case 5
M r . I . 0 . o f Ogbesasa S t r e e t

i n B e n i n C i t y made a s a c r i f i c e to

Ogun w i t h one cock and one t o r t o i s e .

w i t c h who had caused h i s t r a n s p o r t

H i s purpose was to o b s t r u c t

t r a d e to d e c r e a s e .

He promised to

g i v e Ogun one ram and a dog i f h i s d e s i r e was g r a n t e d .

I . 0 . f a c e d here was the l o s s i n h i s t r a n s p o r t b u s i n e s s .

The o b s t a c l e M r .
He approached a

d i v i n e r who t o l d h i m t h a t he was a v i c t i m o f w i t c h c r a f t a c t i v i t y .
d e v i n e d t h a t Ogun s h o u l d be approached f o r a s s i s t a n c e .
first

o f f e r i n g to be f o l l o w e d by a f u r t h e r

granted.
painful

the

He

He was to make a

s a c r i f i c e i f h i s w i s h was

My informant t o l d me t h a t the w i t c h confessed and d i e d a v e r y

death on a bush p a t h .

I d o n ' t know i f the b u s i n e s s r e c o v e r e d .

Case 6
M r . 0 . U . o f B e n i n C i t y made a s a c r i f i c e to Ogun w i t h one dog and

- 176 one t o r t o i s e .

H i s purpose was to persuade Ogun to k i l l

the man who had

committed a d u l t e r y w i t h h i s w i f e , but had r e f u s e d to p e r f o r m the t r a d i t i o n a l ceremony o f appeasing h i s d e p a r t e d f a t h e r ' s

and some k o l a n u t s .

s p i r i t w i t h one goat

M r . 0 . U . had approached the g u i l t y p a r t y

t h a t he perform the ceremony.

requesting

The a d u l t e r e r r e f u s e d and t h i s l e d 0 . U .

to seek the a i d o f Ogun f o r r e t r i b u t i v e

purposes.

Case 7
M r . 0 . E . o f B e n i n C i t y made a s a c r i f i c e to Ogun w i t h one b l a c k
c h i c k e n , one r o a s t e d yam and o i l .

H i s purpose was to k i l l

the t h i e f who

s t o l e h i s goat w h i c h he had t i e d i n h i s compound i n t e n d i n g to o f f e r

to h i s e r h a d u r i n g the ,-Eho f e s t i v a l .

it

He approached Ogun w i t h o u t c o n -

s u l t i n g a d i v i n e r as he was a member o f the Ogun c u l t .

2.

Thanksgiving S a c r i f i c e s

Case 8
Mr.

I . E . o f Ova V i l l a g e near B e n i n made a s a c r i f i c e to Ogun w i t h

one ram, one c o c k , a t o r t o i s e , a dog, obobo, some c o w r i e s and r o a s t e d yam

mixed w i t h o i l .

H i s purpose was to thank Ogun f o r d e t e c t i n g and k i l l i n g

the azen who had been d i v i n e d as r e s p o n s i b l e f o r the frequent

of h i s w i f e .

miscarriages

The w i t c h confessed b e f o r e h e r death t h a t Ogun was g o i n g to

k i l l h e r s i n c e she was r e s p o n s i b l e f o r p r e v e n t i n g the man's w i f e

from

conceiving.
Case 9
M r . E . E . o f Evbokuden V i l l a g e made a s a c r i f i c e to Ogun o f one c o c k ,
some c o w r i e s , one t o r t o i s e , o i l , k o l a n u t s and one d o g .

H i s purpose was to

- 177 -

thank Ogun f o r e n a b l i n g h i s son to w i n a case o f t h e f t w h i c h had

him i n the m a g i s t r a t e ' s c o u r t .
behalf

The f a t h e r made the s a c r i f i c e on the

as the f u l f i l l m e n t o f a p r o m i s e .

t o Ogun i s through p r a y e r .
sacrifice

landed

In c o u r t c a s e s , the f i r s t

I f the w i s h i s g r a n t e d , then a

son's

appeal

thanksgiving

i s made t o Ogun.

Case 10
M r . 0 . U . o f Ubine V i l l a g e s a c r i f i c e d t o Ogun w i t h one dog,
t o r t o i s e , some c o w r i e s , c h a l k and a p i e c e o f red c l o t h .
to thank Ogun f o r h e l p i n g him r e c o v e r

H i s purpose was

from the c l u t c h e s o f a w i t c h who

had been undermining h i s p r o g r e s s i n h i s t r a d e .

The w i t c h confessed

her death t h a t Ogun was g o i n g to k i l l her f o r her w i c k e d n e s s .

o b s t a c l e to s u c c e s s f u l

one

at

Mr. 0. U . ' s

l i v i n g was h i s d e c l i n i n g t r a d e .

Case 11
M r . 0 . I . o f Utekon V i l l a g e s a c r i f i c e d to Ogun w i t h a dog,
and some k o l a n u t s .

tortoise

H i s purpose was to thank Ogun d u r i n g the y e a r l y

sacri-

f i c e t o Ogun.

3.

Propitiation

Sacrifices

Case 12
M r . 0 . U . o f B e n i n made a s a c r i f i c e
r o a s t e d yam, o i l and some c o w r i e s .

t o Ogun w i t h one dog,

one

H i s purpose was t o ward o f f any dan-

ger on h i s way to Lagos as he was a t r a d e r who had g r e a t d i s t a n c e s

travel.

H i s problem was t h a t he had been i n v o l v e d i n s e v e r a l

accidents.

T h i s l e d h i m to c o n s u l t

appease Ogun.

to

motor

the d i v i n e r who s a i d t h a t he

should

- 178 -

Case 13
M r s . 0 . E . made a s a c r i f i c e to Ogun w i t h one c o c k .
was to save her sons from any motor a c c i d e n t .
some members o f the f a m i l y had been i n j u r e d .
o f the a c c i d e n t s ,

P r e v i o u s to the

sacrifice

D e s i r i n g to know the cause

she d i s c o v e r e d through the d i v i n e r t h a t Ogun needed

something from h e r .

B.

Her purpose

Other s a c r i f i c e s were a l s o made t o O r u n m i l a and E s u .

ELEMENTS IN THE UGIOGUN VIEWED AS RESPONSE TO OGUN

I have mentioned t h a t t h e r e are o t h e r elements

as a response

t o Ogun's m a n i f e s t a t i o n and p r e s e n c e .

Ogun r e g u l a r l y by h i s f o l l o w e r s .

t h a t c o u l d be viewed
Prayer is offered

to

I f an Edo i s a member o f the Ogun c u l t ,

t h e n he w i l l pray every morning b e f o r e h i s d o m e s t i c s h r i n e , a s k i n g f o r

g e n e r a l p r o t e c t i o n throughout

the day, and b l e s s i n g upon h i s f a m i l y .

When

an Edo i s c o n s c i o u s w i t h i n h i m s e l f o f a s p e c i a l need, he w i l l come b e f o r e

Ogun to h e l p him overcome h i s p r o b l e m .

I n case 9 , f o r example, we saw how

M r . E . E . f i r s t prayed f o r a p a r t i c u l a r end and a f t e r

offered a thanksgiving s a c r i f i c e .

i t was

granted,

However, the s a c r i f i c e to Ogun i s

u s u a l l y m o t i v a t e d by a t r i p to the d i v i n e r who i n d i c a t e s what Ogun i s i n

need o f i n o r d e r t o get h i m to a c t on o n e ' s b e h a l f .

And i t i s common f o r

the s u p p l i c a n t to o f f e r one s a c r i f i c e w i t h the promise o f another

if

the r e q u e s t i s g r a n t e d .

to

follow

We have a l s o seen t h a t p r a y e r i s an i n t e g r a l

p a r t o f the a c t u a l s a c r i f i c i a l p r o c e s s .

The.ohen o f f e r i n g the p r a y e r does

not adopt what Western man b e l i e v e s i s a p r a y e r f u l p o s t u r e , but u t t e r s

words to Ogun i n the course o f h i s r i t u a l d u t i e s .

W i t h s i n g i n g the Edo

honour Ogun; w i t h the dance and drumming they communicate t h e i r d e s i r e

to

- 179 i n v i t e him i n t o t h e i r m i d s t .

F i n a l l y , by c a r r y i n g out the d i c t a t e s o f

ohen, b e l i e v e d by Ogun's f o l l o w e r s to be the mouthpiece

respons to Ogun by o b e y i n g moral r u l e s ,
the purposes o f the

divinity.

the

o f Ogun, the Edo

c o n c e i v e d o f as o r i g i n a t i n g i n

CHAPTER V I I

ESU: THE DESTRUCTIVE ENEMY OF OSANOBUA AND MAN

I.

A.

THE EDO REPRESENTATION OF ESU

ESU AS HE IS REPRESENTED IN THE MYTHOLOGY

A c c o r d i n g to the v e n e r a b l e Edo h i s t o r i a n J . E g h a r e v b a ,

Esu i s

the p r e m i e r o f the next w o r l d ( e r i m w i n ) ; w i t h power e q u a l to Osanobua,

creator.

the

Erimwin and agbon were d i v i d e d between Osanobua and Esu and

because o f t h i s c o n f u s i o n Esu caused people to f e a r h i m more than Osanobua .

A c c o r d i n g to Egharevba, Esu i s e v i l ,

c a u s i n g death and w a r .

Mr.

egharevba r e l a t e d the f o l l o w i n g m y t h .
Orunmila had a s l a v e who was v e r y poor at a c e r t a i n t i m e . He
t r i e d h i s b e s t and bought a s l a v e to h e l p h i m . He d i d not t e l l Esu
who remained, q u i e t .
Esu went i n the n i g h t and k i l l e d the s l a v e . The
n e x t morning O r u n m i l a began to lament b i t t e r l y over the death o f h i s
s l a v e . He had no one to h e l p him a l t h o u g h people d i d come to c o n s o l e
h i m . F i n a l l y O r u n m i l a spoke to Esu and found out t h a t he wanted a
goat.
Esu took the dead s l a v e o f O r u n m i l a and dressed h i m up as a man.
He made the s l a v e s i t on a s t o o l . Every market person who passed
s a l u t e d the s l a v e not r e a l i z i n g t h a t he was d e a d . A f t e r some time one
v e r y r i c h woman named Ighu came by c a r r y i n g many g o a t s .
Ighu s a l u t e d
the s l a v e and began t o beg Esu f o r the a s s i s t a n c e o f the s l a v e . Esu
agreed to c a r r y the dead s l a v e f o r h e r , but the woman i n s i s t e d on
c a r r y i n g him h e r s e l f .
She f i n a l l y won and c a r r i e d the s l a v e to Orun
m i l a who saw the woman and asked h e r to marry h i m . O r u n m i l a thanked
Esu warmly f o r h i s k i n d n e s s and n o b l e d e e d . Ever s i n c e Esu has never
f a i l e d to c o n s u l t O r u n m i l a on any p o i n t .

Press,

See J . E g h a r e v b a .
1953.

A Short H i s t o r y o f B e n i n .

Ibadan: U n i v e r s i t y

- 181 -

A comment on O r u n m i l a i s n e c e s s a r y h e r e .
God i n Yoruba B e l i e f

(1962: 80)

Idowu w r i t i n g i n Olodumare,

states:

The b a b a ' l a w o ( p r i e s t s ) u s u a l l y h o l d the v i e w t h a t Esu was c r e a t e d to

be the r i g h t - h a n d d i v i n i t y to O r u n m i l a . I t i s h i s duty to r u n e r r a n d s
f o r O r u n m i l a ; he must be always i n a t t e n d a n c e upon him and act under
h i s o r d e r s . . . i t i s the duty o f Esu to b r i n g some c a l a m i t y by way o f
punishment upon the r e c a l c i t r a n t .
The Edo do not b e l i e v e t h a t Esu was c r e a t e d to be the r i g h t - h a n d
o f Orunmila'.

A l t h o u g h the Edo b e l i e f

divinity

i n Esu p a r a l l e l s the Yoruba b e l i e f

on some p o i n t s t h e r e i s a d i s t i n c t i v e n e s s to the Edo c o n c e p t .

The Edo

c o n c e p t u a l i z e Esu l e s s as a t r i c k s t e r and more as the arch-enemy o f Osanobua.

However, s i n c e the Edo t r a c e t h e i r o r i g i n to I f e and have a deep sense o f
c u l t u r a l a f f i n i t y w i t h the Y o r u b a , i t i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t Egharevba
makes r e f e r e n c e

to O r u n m i l a i n t h i s m y t h .

He i s s i m p l y e x p r e s s i n g t h a t

a s p e c t o f E s u ' s c h a r a c t e r w h i c h i s h e l d i n common by b o t h the Yoruba and

Edo.

The Erhamwoisa Myth

In t h i s myth Esu i s d e s c r i b e d as b e i n g w i c k e d j a n d t r o u b l e s o m e .

In

the myth t h e r e i s a c o n t e s t between the d i v i n i t i e s Og iuwu, O l o k u n , E h i and

Esu w i t h Olokun w i n n i n g .

Esu i s e x t r e m e l y annoyed at O l o k u n ' s

T h i s l e a d s to h i s estrangement from Osanobua.

success.

Subsequently whenever

Osanobua c a l l e d a meeting o f h i s c h i l d r e n Esu would adamantly r e f u s e

to

attend,

this

c h o o s i n g to remain on the o u t s i d e i n s t e a d .

i s the r e a s o n f o r the presence

compounds.

The Edo say t h a t

o f aruEsu o u t s i d e the main e n t r a n c e to

their

- 182 B.

ESU AS HE IS GENERALLY REPRESENTED BY THE EDO

The
for

Edo b e l i e v e t h a t Osanobua has c r e a t e d Esu to d e c l a r e war and"

general destructive duty.

t h e s i s o f goodness.

He i s the a r c h enemy o f Osanobua, the a n t i -

The Edo s a y :

'Esu w a n i r e n y a ghare o t o t o Osanobua

renghiyadierimwin erhenya. '

' E s u chooses to be i n ' h e l l ' r a t h e r

than

s e r v e Osanobua. '
Esu
restless

i s b e l i e v e d to be v e r y b l a c k and u g l y .

and d e s t r u c t i v e .

He wanders up and down,

An i l l u s t r a t i o n o f E s u ' s d e s t r u c t i v e

o c c u r r e d d u r i n g my o b s e r v a t i o n o f

the u g i O g u n .

nature

The ohenOgun, d u r i n g h i s

p o s s e s s i o n by d i v i n i t y , t o l d one woman t h a t Esu was g o i n g to k i l l

her

c h i l d ; t h a t u n l e s s she made a s a c r i f i c e to Esu w i t h i n seven days h e r

child

would d i e .
S i n c e Osanobua's a c t i o n s are above blame, Esu i s b e l i e v e d to be one
of

the causes o f e v i l ,

a l o n g w i t h Ogun and the a z e n .

The main d i f f e r e n c e

between the a c t i o n s o f Esu and Ogun i s t h a t Ogun u s u a l l y d e s t r o y s w i t h a

purpose (vengeance f o r an u n j u s t a c t ) , whereas Esu d e s t r o y s because he
enjoys d o i n g t h i s , i . e . e v i l f o r i t s own s a k e .
t h a t Esu i s not approached f o r j u s t ends
doesn't
say:

However, t h i s does not mean

(see the v o t i v e s a c r i f i c e s ) . ) E s u ;

seem to have power to cause harm to a t o t a l community.

' E s u kosua vbohoho.

The Edo

' E s u cannot have i n f l u e n c e over the whole p e o p l e . '

He has power to harm o n l y one p e r s o n at a t i m e .

Esu

i s i n league w i t h a l l the o t h e r e v i l b e i n g s .

One n o t e s ,

for

example, the presence o f Ogun and Esu a l t a r s a t the e n t r a n c e o f the

aruOlokun (see diagram 3 ) .

F o r example, any s a c r i f i c i a l o f f e r i n g to Ogun

must be shared i n p a r t by E s u .

Esu i s a l s o c l o s e l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h

the

- 183 a z e n , who are b e l i e v e d t o f e a r E s u .

As I have a l r e a d y m e n t i o n e d , the aruEsu i s found at the f r o n t o f
main e n t r a n c e to Edo compounds.

The a l t a r

i s p a i n t e d b l a c k and i s adorned

by t h o r n s t i c k s or r o u g h l y hewn wooden d o l l s .

There are no ohenEsu;

i n d i v i d u a l s u p p l i c a n t s o f f e r s a c r i f i c e s b e f o r e the s h r i n e w i t h o u t
assistance

of

II.

A.

the

the

priests.

THE MANIFESTATION OF ESU

Sudden d r a s t i c changes

i n behaviour or p h y s i c a l h e a l t h

are

attributed

to Esu who i s capable o f d i s r u p t i n g normal b e h a v i o u r

patterns.

For example, i f w i t h o u t good r e a s o n a p e r s o n takes a

s t i c k and s t a r t s c h a s i n g a dog around the compound, the Edo

might s a y : Esu s u a r e .
B.

Insane^behaviour,
attributed

to E s u .

'Esu i s p u s h i n g y o u .

p o p u l a r l y termed

'madness'

by the Edo, i s

Many o f the madmen roaming the s t r e e t s o f

B e n i n are b e l i e v e d to have bad headsthe v i c t i m s o f Esu 's

tructive activity.
Esu,
C.

Not a l l cases o f madness are a t t r i b u t e d

f o r the azen can cause madness as

Esu m a n i f e s t s h i m s e l f i n response
through the s a c r i f i c e m e d i a .

well.

P a r t i c u l a r problems w i l l

(eg. a t h i e f is k i l l e d ,

lead

I f the s u p p l i c a n t ' s

desire

a w i t c h i s d e s t r o y e d or an

enemy e l i m i n a t e d ) t h e i r deaths are i n t e r p r e t e d

f e s t a t i o n o f E s u ' s power and

to

to messages sent to him

the s u p p l i c a n t to s a c r i f i c e to E s u .
is granted

des-

presence.

as the mani-

- 184 I I I . THE EDO RESPONSE TO ESU

Esu i s not worshipped by the E d o .

c a l l any i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h Esu as
with reference
distance.

Some people are i n c l i n e d

'devil worship.'

This is hardly

to
accurate

t o the Edo who through r i t u a l means t r y to keep Esu a t a

The presence o f the aruEsu o u t s i d e the door o f Edo compounds

i s s y m b o l i c o f t h i s f a c t : Esu i s not one to be honoured or p r a i s e d , nor

i s he a b e i n g to be n e g l e c t e d .

U n l i k e the o t h e r d i v i n i t i e s , Esu i s not

approached f o r g e n e r a l b l e s s i n g .
The fundamental means o f i n t e r a c t i n g w i t h Esu i s through s a c r i f i c e .
The r i t u a l s a c r i f i c e i s s e t
r e c i p i e n t of prayer.

i n m o t i o n through the d i v i n e r .

Esu i s n o t

the

Esu i s b e l i e v e d to have h i s favoured items and they

are c o n s i s t e n t w i t h E s u ' s n a t u r e .

Esu i s d i r t y , b l a c k and u g l y and a

number o f s a c r i f i c e s c o r r e s p o n d t o h i s n a t u r e .
i s o f f e r e d to Esu i t w i l l be b l a c k .

For example, i f a c h i c k e n

T h i s c o u l d be c o n t r a s t e d w i t h

c h i c k e n s o f f e r e d to Olokun w h i c h are always w h i t e .

w i t h e v i l and w h i t e w i t h goodness

Blackness is

i n the Edo symbol s y s t e m .

g i v e n a yam, then i t must be b u r n t .

the

associated

I f Esu i s

S i n c e Esu i s opposed t o the E d o ' s

2

p r o g r e s s and i s the a n t i t h e s i s o f the Edo modal p e r s o n a l i t y , the b u r n t yam

s y m b o l i z e s the d i s t a n c e and o p p o s i t i o n o f man and E s u .
There are t h r e e types o f s a c r i f i c e o f f e r e d t o E s u : p r o p i t i a t i o n ,
v o t i v e and t h a n k s g i v i n g .

The f i r s t type o f s a c r i f i c e i s o f f e r e d t o Esu

i n o r d e r to p l a c a t e h i m .

The second i s c o n t r a c t u a l - - t o persuade

The Edo would never eat a b u r n t yam.

the

185 -

d i v i n i t y to c a r r y out a p a r t i c u l a r j o b .
also contractual
completed.

i n nature,

And the t h i r d type o f s a c r i f i c e ,

is given i n gratitude

after

the job has been

The thank o f f e r i n g has elements o f g r a t i t u d e ;

however, i t may

be analogous t o h i r i n g a gunman to do a n a s t y j o b .

He i s h i r e d to do a

job w i t h the promise t h a t i f he s u c c e e d s , more w i l l

come.

The s a c r i f i c e

t o Esu may f l o w out o f a g r a t e f u l h e a r t , but c e r t a i n l y not a l o v i n g one.

A.

VOTIVE SACRIFICES

Case 1
Mr.

I . 0 . o f B e n i n C i t y made a s a c r i f i c e to Esu o f a b l a c k c h i c k e n ,

one t h o r n - s t i c k and a b u r n t yam.

H i s purpose was to persuade Esu to

the man who had s t o l e n h i s g o a t .

He had gone to the d i v i n e r and was t o l d

t o a p p e a l t o Esu to b r i n g r e t r i b u t i o n upon the

kill

thief.

Case 2
M r . E . U . o f Awo S t r e e t

i n B e n i n C i t y s a c r i f i c e d to Esu w i t h one
3

h e - g o a t , t h o r n - s t i c k , some r o a s t e d c o r n mixed w i t h o i l
His

purpose was to persuade Esu to k i l l

and a r o a s t e d yam.

the w i t c h whom the d i v i n e r had t o l d

him was r e s p o n s i b l e f o r the sudden r u i n o f h i s t r a d e as a t r a n s p o r t e r .

He

had s u s t a i n e d c o n s i d e r a b l e l o s s o f money as h i s v e h i c l e was damaged beyond

repair.

In t h i s s t a t e he appealed to E s u .

Idowu has an i n t e r e s t i n g comment on o i l i n the Yoruba s a c r i f i c e .

He s t a t e s t h a t Esu does not l i k e o i l and 'anyone who b r i n g s i t near him
i s t h e r e f o r e a s k i n g f o r t r o u b l e upon h i m s e l f o f anyone e l s e ' ( 1 9 6 2 : 1 1 8 ) .

- 186 -

Case 3
M r s . I . 0 . o f Evbimaa V i l l a g e made a s a c r i f i c e to Esu w i t h one
thorn-stick,

one r o a s t e d

cob o f c o r n , one egg, and a b l a c k c h i c k e n .

Her

purpose was to f i n d the t h i e f who had s t o l e n the bags o f r i c e and onions

she had prepared

f o r s a l e i n the m a r k e t .

This p a r t i c u l a r

s a c r i f i c e was

made to urge Esu to q u i c k a c t i o n .

Case 4
M r . I . E . o f Iguosa V i l l a g e s a c r i f i c e d to Esu w i t h on he-goat and
one b u r n t cob o f c o r n w i t h some o i l .
kill

H i s purpose was to persuade Esu to

the man who had committed a d u l t e r y w i t h h i s

wife.

Case 5
M r . E . A . o f B e n i n C i t y made a s a c r i f i c e to Esu w i t h one b l a c k
c h i c k e n , one t h o r n - s t i c k and some c o w r i e s .

H i s purpose was t o cause a

l o r r y o f h i s r i v a l t r a n s p o r t e r to c o l l i d e on the r o a d .
'thank'

Esu w i t h one goat i f he s u c c e e d e d .

He promised

My i n f o r m a n t ,

to

commenting on

t h i s p a r t i c u l a r s a c r i f i c e , s a i d t h a t n o t h i n g more than s p i t e was i n v o l v e d

here.
Case 6
M r . I . E . o f B e n i n made a s a c r i f i c e to Esu w i t h a b l a c k c h i c k e n ,
one t h o r n - s t i c k ,

one egg and one b u r n t yam.

H i s purpose was t o ask Esu

to cause t h e f ^ u i d k death o f a t h i e f who e n t e r e d h i s shop i n the n i g h t and

l o o t e d him o f h i s w a r e s .
the t h i e f was

destroyed.

He promised to o f f e r one b i g he-goat t o Esu when

- 187 Case 7
Mr. T . 0. of Benin s a c r i f i c e d

t o Esu w i t h a h e - g o a t .

was t o a v e r t an impending a t t a c k from an e v i l man.

H i s purpose

The s a c r i f i c e r had

seen something s t r a n g e i n a dream w h i c h l e d him t o seek the d i v i n e r ' s

interpretation.

The d i v i n e r s a i d t h a t Esu needed a goat i n o r d e r to

p r e v e n t t h i s man from a t t a c k i n g h i m .

T h i s s a c r i f i c e was p a r t o f

three

s a c r i f i c e s made c o n c e r n i n g t h i s p a r t i c u l a r p r o b l e m .

Case 8
M r . J . E . o f B e n i n s a c r i f i c e d t o Esu w i t h a h e - g o a t .
was to a l l e v i a t e what was t r o u b l i n g h i s s o n .
a series.

H i s purpose

T h i s s a c r i f i c e was p a r t o f

One s a c r i f i c e was o f f e r e d to O r u n m i l a to save the boy from

s i c k n e s s , as b l o o d was found i n h i s u r i n e .

Esu was s a c r i f i c e d t o i n o r d e r

t o d r i v e away the cause o f the s i c k n e s s , w h i c h might have been due t o azen

activity.

B.

PROPITIATORY SACRIFICES

Case 9
M r s . J . E . o f B e n i n s a c r i f i c e d to Esu w i t h a g o a t .

Her purpose

was to p l a c a t e Esu who was d i v i n e d to be the cause o f her s o n ' s

w i t h another member o f the

conflict

family.

Case 10
M r . J . E . o f B e n i n s a c r i f i c e d t o Esu w i t h one h e - g o a t .
was to p r e v e n t any bad p e o p l e from j o i n i n g him at h i s j o b .

H i s purpose

S i n c e i t was

d i v i n e d t h a t Esu might t r o u b l e J . E . a t h i s job as n a t i v e m a g i s t r a t e , Esu

was p r o p i t i a t e d j i . ' e . g i v e n something t o keep h i m at a d i s t a n c e .

- 188 -

C.

THANKSGIVING SACRIFICES

Case 11
M r . A . I . o f I t e V i l l a g e near B e n i n made a s a c r i f i c e to Esu w i t h
one h e - g o a t , one s n a i l , one t h o r n - s t i c k ,
s m a l l r o a s t e d yam.

palm o i l , seven c o w r i e s and a

H i s purpose was to thank Esu f o r a s s i s t i n g him to

c a t c h a t h i e f who had been coming i n t o h i s y a r d to s t e a l

previous efforts

All

to c a t c h the t h i e f had f a i l e d but Esu was approached

h a s t e n the death o r a r r e s t o f the t h i e f .

received this

food.

to

The t h i e f was caught and Esu

'gift.'

In case 5 i t i s w o r t h n o t i n g t h a t i f h i s r i v a l i s k i l l e d , M r .
E . A . w i l l g i v e Esu a t h a n k s g i v i n g s a c r i f i c e .

The same i s t r u e i n case 6 .

These s a c r i f i c e s do not i n any way i n d i c a t e the frequency o f

different

types o f s a c r i f i c e s

the

(votive, propitiation, thanksgiving).

Every

d i v i n i t y i s o f f e r e d v o t i v e type s a c r i f i c e s ; the n a t u r e o f the r e q u e s t

v a r y i n g w i t h the c a p a b i l i t i e s and sphere o f i n f l u e n c e o f the d i v i n i t y .
d i v i n i t i e s are p r o p i t i a t e d or appeased s i n c e a l l d i v i n i t i e s are
o f b e i n g d i s p l e a s e d w i t h Edo b e h a v i o u r .

But E s u , due t o h i s

capable

capricious

and d e s t r u c t i v e n a t u r e , i s f a r more l i k e l y to be p r o p i t i a t e d t h a n ,
example, O l o k u n .

The Edo thank Esu f o r a job w e l l done.

c o n s i s t e n t w i t h the Edo concepts o f s a c r i f i c e .

for

This, too,

is

All

CHAPTER V I I I

THE ANCESTORS: SPIRITS OF THE DEPARTED

It

i s necessary

to d i s t i n g u i s h between two k i n d s o f a n c e s t o r s who

once l i v e d i n agbon but who a f t e r

first

c a t e g o r y o f departed

t h e i r deaths r e s i d e

i n erimwin.

The

s p i r i t are the i n d i v i d u a l l y named a n c e s t o r s w i t h

s p e c i f i c genealogical reference

(erha and i y e ) and the c o l l e c t i v e unnamed

a n c e s t o r s o r p r e d e c e s s o r s o f the members o f a c o r p o r a t e

group

(edion).

The concept o f e d i o n i s n o t c o n f i n e d t o the c o l l e c t i v e a n c e s t o r s o f a

v i l l a g e community.

I n some v i l l a g e s each ward has

i t s own ogwedion.

The

f a m i l y and h o u s e h o l d has i t s e d i o n t o o , f o r whom a cow or goat i s s a c r i f i c e d d u r i n g mortuary r i t e s

and to whom l i b a t i o n s o f palm-wine and p i e c e s

o f k o l a - n u t are o f t e n o f f e r e d .

In most community s h r i n e s o f hero and

o t h e r d i v i n i t i e s t h e r e are s u b s i d i a r y a l t a r s to the e d i o n , t h a t i s to
p a s t w o r s h i p p e r s o f the d i v i n i t y .

And the p a l a c e - a s s o c i a t i o n s ,

too,

the
have

t h e i r e d i o n a l t a r s at w h i c h o f f e r i n g s ;'are made r e g u l a r l y , f o r example,

promotions and the i n v e s t i t u r e o f new t i t l e - h o l d e r s .
e d i o n a l t a r housed i n the compound o f t h e i r

leader

The Uzama have

(Oliha).

Finally

at

their
there

are the e d i o n o f the whole B e n i n n a t i o n ( e d i o n - E d o ) , r e p r e s e n t e d by a

c a r v e d s t a f f w h i c h i s i n the k e e p i n g o f the Esogban, the
Eghaevo n ' O r e who i s a l s o known as o d i o n w e r e - E d o .
edion-Edo i n times o f n a t i o n a l c a t a s t r o p h e , ( B r a d b u r y
There are a number o f v e r y c o m p l i c a t e d r i t e s
a n c e s t o r s o f the Oba.

Bradbury s t a t e s

the famous Oba had s e p a r a t e a l t a r s ,

second-ranking

S a c r i f i c e s are made to
1957:

56).

a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the

(1957: 55) t h a t

' i n the p a s t a l l

each housed i n a l a r g e w a l l e d compound...

- 190 In the p a s t t h e r e were two s e p a r a t e annual s e r i e s o f r i t e s

( u g i o r o and

ugigun) at w h i c h s a c r i f i c e s to i n d i v i d u a l Oba were performed on every

fifth

day.

Each s e r i e s was"3rought to a c l o s e w i t h a p u b l i c f e s t i v a l i n

honour o f the r e i g n i n g Oba's f a t h e r

(ugie-erhoba)

at w h i c h t w e l v e human

b e i n g s , chosen from the p r i s o n i n B e n i n C i t y , where the w o r s t c r i m i n a l s

were c o n f i n e d , were s a c r i f i c e d . . . T h e a c t u a l r i t e s
Oba were d i r e c t e d by s p e c i a l p r i e s t s

i n honour o f the p a s t

from the group known as Ihogbe who

a l s o o f f i c i a t e at the annual s a c r i f i c e s t o the r e i g n i n g Oba's

head.'

T h i s p a r t i c u l a r study w i l l be l i m i t e d t o the i n d i v i d u a l l y named

ancestor
village

(erha) and the c o l l e c t i v e unnamed a n c e s t o r s

of a p a r t i c u l a r

(edion).

THE ERHA

I.

THE EDO REPRESENTATION OF THE ERHA

The word erha means f a t h e r .

When a man w i t h no c h i l d r e n d i e s , he

i s u s u a l l y accorded o n l y a p e r f u n c t o r y b u r i a l .
as a f a t h e r

(Bradbury 1966: 1 3 3 ) .

He i s not

incorporated

I f a man l e a v e s o n l y d a u g h t e r s ,

the

s e n i o r d a u g h t e r ' s s o n , o r her husband a c t i n g on her b e h a l f , may undertake

t o bury h i m .
his

father,

serve h i m .

N o r m a l l y i t i s the s e n i o r son who bury ( r e ) and p l a n t

i . e . c o n v e r t him i n t o a a n c e s t o r and d e d i c a t e an a l t a r
I f the departed e r h a i s not i n t e r r e d ,

i s not c o m p l e t e d , the f a t h e r ' s

his

former dependents,

or to l o s e t h e i r money.
r i g h t f o o t o f the h e i r .

(ko)
to

i . e . the second b u r i a l

ghost may commit a c t s o f a g g r e s s i o n

making them s i c k , c a u s i n g them to have

against

accidents

They are p a c i f i e d by s a c r i f i c e s made over

the

- 191 When the e r h a i s p r o p e r l y b u r i e d , the d e p a r t e d e r h a takes h i s p l a c e

i n e r i m w i n where he assumes the g u a r d i a n s h i p o f h i s s o n ' s
father's
rites,

shrine

(aruerha)

lineage.

The

then becomes the scene o f p e r i o d i c commemorative

and o f e x p i a t o r y s a c r i f i c e s and o f f e r i n g s a r i s i n g out o f s i c k n e s s

and o t h e r d i s e a s e s , w h i c h are d i v i n e d to be the r e s u l t o f q u a r r e l s and

o t h e r s i n s o f o m i s s i o n and commission i n v o l v i n g l i n e a g e members and t h e i r
w i v e s (Bradbury 1966: 1 3 8 ) .
The s e n i o r son i s the p r i e s t o f the d e p a r t e d e r h a .

He i n t e r c e d e s

w i t h h i m on b e h a l f o f h i m s e l f and a l l o f the d e p a r t e d e r h a ' s

Bradbury s t a t e s

(1957: 54) t h a t t h e r e may be a second p r i e s t ,

s e n i o r s u r v i v i n g b r o t h e r o f the deceased, who must be p r e s e n t

t a n t s a c r i f i c e s and p r a y e r s to r e p r e s e n t
the male l i n e , h i s b r o t h e r s

II.

descendants.
ideally

at a l l impor-

h i m s e l f and h i s descendants

and t h e i r d e s c e n d a n t s ,

and h i s

the

in

sisters.

THE MANIFESTATION OF THE ERHA

In l i n e w i t h t h e i r sphere o f i n f l u e n c e , the e r h a f u n c t i o n as
g u a r d i a n s o f the u n i t y and harmony o f the l i n e a g e .
disasters

may be caused by the d i s p l e a s e d e r h a .

the l o s s o f p r e s t i g e

i n the f a m i l y c i r c l e .

S i c k n e s s and o t h e r

The e r h a can a l s o

It i s imperative that

s e n i o r son obey the d i c t a t e s o f the f a t h e r .

I f the s e n i o r son f a i l s

the

I f the e r h a i s not happy

w i t h the s e r v i c e s o f the s o n , he may cause h i s i n h e r i t e d p r o p e r t y

dwindle.

cause

to. c a r r y out the Eho ceremony,

to
the

e r h a may cause h i m to l o s e h i s senses and wander about B e n i n as a madman.

One informant t o l d me t h a t a t r a d i t i o n a l c h i e f who was d a n c i n g b e f o r e
Oba d u r i n g the Igwe dropped h i s eben and f e l l

down, u t t e r l y d i s g r a c i n g

the

- 192 h i m s e l f b e f o r e the Oba.

H i s f a m i l y was i n g r e a t b i t t e r n e s s .

I t was l a t e r

d i s c o v e r e d t h a t he had not observed the Eho F e s t i v a l because o f m i s e r l i n e s s .

I f a son offends

h i s father during h i s l i f e

time and f a i l s

r e c a n t , he c o u l d b e g i n t o e x p e r i e n c e c e r t a i n h a r d s h i p s .
r e i n s t a t e d the son would have to s i t i n the f a t h e r ' s
father's

brother,

to

In o r d e r to be

shrine with his

c a l l the name o f the erha to come and hear h i s p r a y e r .

Each would have to t a k e some m e d i c i n e , water and a c u t l a s s .

The n a t u r e

o f the o f f e n s e would be named b e f o r e the s h r i n e , the abuse r e c a n t e d and

water blown on the e r h a ' s s o n .
I f the departed e r h a i s not s a t i s f i e d w i t h the b e h a v i o u r o f members
o f the l i n e a g e , he can b l o c k t h e i r p r o g r e s s f o r the Edo b e l i e v e t h a t
progress

i s dependent upon r e t a i n i n g the e r h a ' s b l e s s i n g .

i s i n t i m a t e l y concerned w i t h the a f f a i r s o f the f a m i l y ,

S i n c e the e r h a

they have power

to p r o t e c t them from o u t s i d e i n f l u e n c e s as w e l l as power to d i s r u p t

harmony o f the p a t r i l i n e a g e through s i c k n e s s , e t c .

Part of t h e i r pro-

t e c t i v e power i n c l u d e s the a b i l i t y to thwart the a z e n .

is

the

A l t h o u g h Olokun

' f o r ' e v e r y o n e , the e r h a are e s p e c i a l l y concerned f o r ego and h i s

b r o t h e r s and

sisters.

I f one judges from the s a c r i f i c e s o f f e r e d to the e r h a , the e r h a can

m a n i f e s t themselves through the g i v i n g o f c h i l d r e n .
Edo to a t t r i b u t e

the b i r t h o f a c h i l d to the e r h a .

response i n the form o f a t h a n k s g i v i n g s a c r i f i c e .

I t i s common f o r

the

T h i s w i l l evoke a
On another o c c a s i o n

the d i v i n e r suggested t h a t the r e a s o n t h a t the f a t h e r ' s

son was n o t

p r o g r e s s i n g i n h i s l i f e was t h a t the boy was the source o f some c o n f l i c t

i n the f a m i l y .

H i s b e h a v i o u r was not a c c e p t a b l e to the e r h a .

ensued i n o r d e r t o b a l a n c e the r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h the offended

A sacrifice
erha.

- 193 D u r i n g the B i a f r a n i n v a s i o n o f the Mid-West i n A u g u s t , 1967

a number o f s a c r i f i c e s were made to the erha f o r p r o t e c t i v e

assistance.

In one h o u s e h o l d one man made a number o f s a c r i f i c e s to h i s e r h a , and

when the Mid-West was l i b e r a t e d September 2 0 , 1967 he o f f e r e d a

further

t h a n k s g i v i n g s a c r i f i c e ; h i s s a f e t y over a s i x - w e e k p e r i o d b e i n g a t t r i b u t e d
to the e r h a ' s p r o t e c t i v e

activity.

The Edo respond to the e x i s t e n c e and presence o f the e r h a p r i m a r i l y

t h r o u g h p r a y e r and s a c r i f i c e .
the a r u e r h a .

P r a y e r can be o f f e r e d at any time b e f o r e

In g e n e r a l p r a y e r b e f o r e the a r u e r h a , a k o l a i s p l a c e d on

the s h r i n e and the f o l l o w i n g p r a y e r

uttered.

Erhamwen o r o b u e , r h i e e r i m w i n n e g b e r u e h i a , mwonbo nude r i e e v b a r e ,

na nuvbedeba v i a , ghasimwin v b e n , kevbe emo vbe amwen.

Ghegumwen wu

ghegumwen khuomwin khuebehia himwen egbe r e ghegiogbe, ehgiangba mwen.

Simwin emo vbamwen me.
My f a t h e r

Ise.

(mention name o f f a t h e r ) ,

I am e n t i r e l y under your p r o t e c t i o n .

I i m p l o r e you to g a t h e r the d e p a r t e d f o r e f a t h e r s .
what I am p r e s e n t i n g to you now ( k o l a ) .
fathers

you seek my i n t e r e s t

w i f e and c h i l d r e n .
with sickness.

In c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h the

fore-

and p r o t e c t i o n , as w e l l as t h a t o f my

Do n o t l e t me d i e a premature death or be

P r o t e c t me a g a i n s t a l l d a n g e r .

to get the upper hand over me.

as my w i f e ' s .

Come to p a r t a k e o f

afflicted

Do not a l l o w my enemies

P r o t e c t my c h i l d r e n ' s w e l f a r e as w e l l

Amen.

T h i s i s a g e n e r a l p r a y e r and i s a t y p i c a l example o f the k i n d o f p r a y e r

o f f e r e d b e f o r e the a r u e r h a .

The p r a y e r s c o u l d be more s p e c i f i c a c c o r d i n g

t o the predicament and s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n o f the s u p p l i c a n t .

- 194 The Edo respond to the i n t e r v e n t i o n o f the e r h a i n t o t h e i r

by s a c r i f i c e .

A c o n f l i c t s i t u a t i o n , or a s i t u a t i o n i n d i c a t i n g that a l l

i s not w e l l i n the f a m i l y w i l l s e t

the s a c r i f i c i a l a c t i o n i n m o t i o n .

d i v i n e r s e t s the s a c r i f i c e i n m o t i o n : i t
are o f f e n d e d .

i s he who r e v e a l s

t h a t the

The
erha

However, i t i s not o n l y to g a i n p r o t e c t i o n or a s s i s t a n c e

t h a t the Edo s a c r i f i c e to the e r h a .

A.

affairs

They a l s o respond

i n thanksgiving.

VOTIVE SACRIFICES

Case 1
M r . C . M . o f B e n i n made a s a c r i f i c e to h i s e r h a w i t h one c o c k .
H i s purpose was to g a i n the e r h a ' s a s s i s t a n c e f o r h i s son who was w r i t i n g
h i s GCE e x a m i n a t i o n .

He promised h i s e r h a t h a t i f h i s son passed

the

e x a m i n a t i o n , he would o f f e r one w h i t e goat and a b o t t l e o f g i n as

thanks-

giving.

the

T h i s f o l l o w s the u s u a l Edo p a t t e r n : r i t u a l a c t i o n to get

e r h a ' s a s s i s t a n c e w i t h the promise o f f u r t h e r

the e r h a a c t s on h i s b e h a l f .

It

offerings

and s a c r i f i c e s

i s worthy n o t i n g t h a t i n t h i s

if

particular

case we have a f a t h e r o f f e r i n g a s a c r i f i c e on b e h a l f o f someone e l s e .

Case 2
M r . 0 . E . o f B e n i n made a s a c r i f i c e to h i s e r h a w i t h one l e g o f
a n t e l o p e and k o l a n u t s .
h i s trade t e s t .

H i s purpose was to a l l o w him to succeed i n p a s s i n g

L i k e C M . he promised t h a t i f he succeeded he would

s a c r i f i c e one goat as a t h a n k s g i v i n g .

Case 3
M r . J . E . o f B e n i n made a s a c r i f i c e to h i s erha o f some f i s h
rfufu.

and

The purpose was to persuade the e r h a to stop t r o u b l i n g one o f h i s

- 195 -

sons who was not p r o g r e s s i n g v e r y w e l l i n s c h o o l .

Case 4
M r . J . E . o f B e n i n made a s a c r i f i c e to h i s e r h a w i t h a g o a t .

His

purpose was to a v e r t the q u a r r e l l i n g between two sons who were w o r k i n g

at S a p e l e ,

35 m i l e s from B e n i n .

The d i v i n e r s a i d t h a t a s a c r i f i c e

be made to the e r h a to a v e r t the

should

quarrel.

Case 5
M r . J . E . o f B e n i n made a s a c r i f i c e to h i s e r h a w i t h a g o a t .

His

purpose was to be d e l i v e r e d from the r e b e l s who were o c c u p y i n g B e n i n C i t y

at the time o f s a c r i f i c e .
for deliverance

This p a r t i c u l a r

and p r o t e c t i o n .

s a c r i f i c e was made to the

T h i s same man a l s o came b e f o r e the

and promised t h a t at the end o f the war a goat would be

erha
aruerha

sacrificed.

Case 6
M r . J . E . o f B e n i n made a s a c r i f i c e to h i s e r h a w i t h a g o a t , cock
and t o r t o i s e .
the d i v i n e r .

This p a r t i c u l a r

s a c r i f i c e was the r e s u l t

s a c r i f i c e had to be made to the e r h a .

at the time o f the F e d e r a l Government's

'get b e t t e r '

the

The d i v i n e r s a i d t h a t a

This p a r t i c u l a r

s a c r i f i c e was made

l i b e r a t i o n o f the M i d - W e s t .

purpose o f the s a c r i f i c e seemed to be to g a i n a g e n e r a l

B.

to

The f a t h e r p r o b a b l y had a dream and sent h i s w i f e to

d i v i n e r to i n q u i r e about the dream's meaning.

would

of a v i s i t

end: t h a t

The

things

in Benin.

THANKSGIVING SACRIFICES

Case 7
M r . E . E . o f Usen V i l l a g e near B e n i n made a s a c r i f i c e to h i s

erha

- 196 w i t h one s h e - g o a t .

The p u r p o s e o f t h i s s a c r i f i c e was t o thank h i s e r h a ,

on the o c c a s i o n o f h i s g r a n d - d a u g h t e r ' s

d e l i v e r y of a c h i l d ,

for sparing

him t o l i v e t o an advanced age so t h a t he c o u l d see the b i r t h o f a g r e a t

grandchild.

T h i s s a c r i f i c e was from the h e a r t and was not d i v i n e r m o t i v a t e d .

Case 8
M r . I . U . o f B e n i n C i t y made a s a c r i f i c e t o h i s e r h a o f one g o a t ,
and

one c o c k .

H i s purpose was to thank h i s e r h a f o r h i s w i f e ' s

o f a male c h i l d .

She had not had a s i n g l e male c h i l d b e f o r e , h a v i n g g i v e n

b i r t h t o (three d a u g h t e r s .
4

Thus by t h i s b i r t h , M r . I . U . would now have

someone t o succeed h i m a f t e r h i s d e a t h .
to h i s b r o t h e r - i n - l a w .
ted

erha.

delivery

H i s p r o p e r t i e s would no l o n g e r go

T h i s p a r t i c u l a r b i r t h was a t t r i b u t e d t o h i s depar-

Now h i s name w i l l not d i e i n the f a m i l y

circle.

Case 9
M r . J . E . made a s a c r i f i c e t o h i s e r h a o f one g o a t .

H i s purpose

was t o thank h i s e r h a f o r the work done f o r h i m and h i s f a m i l y d u r i n g the

B i a f r a n o c c u p a t i o n o f the Mid-West from August 9, 1967 to September 2 0 ,
1967.

III.

THE EHO 'FESTIVAL AS RESPONSE TO THE ERHA

The most i m p o r t a n t r i t u a l d i r e c t e d t o the e r h a i s the Eho F e s t i v a l .

T h i s i s the y e a r l y f e s t i v a l

i n honour o f the d e p a r t e d e r h a at w h i c h a l l the

p a t r i l i n e a l descendants o f e r h a and h i s f a t h e r and t h e i r w i v e s , k n e e l oneby-one b e f o r e the a l t a r , p r e s e n t i n g k o l a n u t s and o t h e r o f f e r i n g s and

p r a y i n g f o r the w e l l - b e i n g o f t h e m s e l v e s , t h e i r w i v e s and c h i l d r e n .

- 197 M a r r i e d daughters r e t u r n home to take p a r t

i n the E h o .

Patrilineal

c o l l a t e r a l s and o t h e r cognates may be p r e s e n t but they do not k n e e l b e f o r e

the a l t a r

(Bradbury 1957: 5 5 ) .

The Eho b e g i n s w i t h the Ihonmwhona or the p u r i f i c a t i o n o f mens t r u a t i n g women.

T h i s cerembny must take p l a c e b e f o r e the a c t u a l p e r -

formance o f the E h o .

The m e n s t r u a t i n g women cannot go near the

ancestral

s h r i n e s i n c e they are i n a s t a t e o f i m p u r i t y .
M e n s t r u a t i n g women must c o n f i n e themselves to t h e i r room f o r seven
days.

The Edo b e l i e v e t h a t bad s p i r i t s f o l l o w them d u r i n g t h i s

state.

C e r t a i n a c t i o n must take p l a c e b e f o r e they can be brought to a s t a t e o f

purity.
is

F i r s t a s m a l l c h i c k e n o r , i n i t s absence, an empty egg s h e l l

purchased.

Ikimwin l e a v e s from the t r e e known as the

s i o n ' are g a t h e r e d and t i e d to the s m a l l c h i c k e n .

'tree of deci-

A dish containing

n a t i v e c h a l k , c o w r i e s and water i s prepared by a member o f the

family.

husband's

Chalk i s s a i d to b r i n g good f o r t u n e and the c o w r i e s w e a l t h .

A f t e r the n e c e s s a r y items have been g a t h e r e d , a j u n i o r member o f

the p a t r i l i n e a l l i n e w i l l
i n h i s l e f t and r e p e a t

take the c h i c k e n i n h i s r i g h t hand and the

the f o l l o w i n g i n c a n t a t i o n :

come d u r i n g m e n s t r u a t i o n s h o u l d go away.

dish

' A l l the bad s p i r i t s t h a t

The good ones can then come i n . '

W h i l e the i n c a n t a t i o n i s b e i n g s a i d the c h i c k e n i s swept around the household.

it

The s m a l l c h i c k e n i s then l e f t to d i e , s i n c e the Edo b e l i e v e t h a t

i s the bad s p i r i t s t h a t must k i l l him and then go away.

The good

s p i r i t s are s a i d to feed the bad s p i r i t s .

The
mony.

c o m p l e t i o n o f t h i s event does not complete the Ihomwhonwa c e r e -

The now p u r i f i e d women must cook f o r t h e i r husbands i n o r d e r to

p l e a s e them and as a s i g n t h a t the good s p i r i t s w i l l come.

I t appears

that

- 198 the good s p i r i t s are l i n k e d w i t h c o n c e p t i o n , f o r the Edo b e l i e v e t h a t

is

a f t e r menstruation that conception w i l l take p l a c e .

On t h a t n i g h t

no o t h e r woman must i n t e r f e r e w i t h the s e x u a l r e l a t i o n s of'--' a

woman and her husband.

- purified

As the purpose o f the Eho i s to ensure t h a t

e r h a w i l l be p l e a s e d w i t h the s a c r i f i c e , one can r e a d i l y see the

of

it

the

importance

the Ihonmhonwa t o the Eho ceremony.

B e f o r e the a c t u a l s a c r i f i c e p r o c e e d s , the head o f the house

set a d a t e .

A l l r e l a t i v e s w i l l be n o t i f i e d o f the p r e c i s e d a t e .

will
They

w i l l b r i n g t h e i r g i f t s to the house on the day b e f o r e the performance o f

the E h o .

In some i n s t a n c e s g i f t s w i l l be brought i n b e f o r e the day o f

performance.

In t h i s case they w i l l be s t o r e d .

s a c r i f i c e r i t u a l l y p r e p a r i n g the a n c e s t o r s

Dancing precedes

f o r the s a c r i f i c i a l

the

offering.

I t i s a l s o e s s e n t i a l f o r the compound to be i n a s t a t e o f c l e a n l i n e s s .
Each member o f the f a m i l y prays b e f o r e the s h r i n e , each
a k o l a - n u t on the a r u e r h a :

'0 f a t h e r ,

h o u s e h o l d be i n good h e a l t h .

presenting

l e t me l i v e p r o s p e r o u s l y .

F o r at t h i s time next y e a r ,

I will

L e t my
come

a g a i n i n good h e a l t h and feed you more scrumptuously than l a s t y e a r .

l e t me be b l e s s e d by the
A bell
them.

king.

i s then rung to n o t i f y the a n c e s t o r s

The e r h a presences h i m s e l f

have been b u r i e d i n the a r u e r h a .

has been a c c e p t e d .

This w i l l

( n a i l s , etc)

B e f o r e the s a c r i f i c e can p r o c e e d ,

the

i n d i c a t e whether or not the s a c r i f i c e

I f a l l i f not r i g h t f o r the s a c r i f i c e , f u r t h e r

father's

that

A f t e r the k o l a i s b r o k e n , the headman

w i l l be n e c e s s a r y to r i g h t the s i t u a t i o n .
by the departed

o f t h e i r approach to

i n the b o d i l y e f f l u g i a

a c t i n g p r i e s t must break a k o l a - n u t .
w i l l read i t s p o s i t i o n .

And

action

The headman ( s e n i o r son a s s i s t e d

b r o t h e r ) w i l l p l a c e one p i e c e o f the

four-sided

- 199 k o l a on the s h r i n e ; the r e s t b e i n g d i s t r i b u t e d to the members o f the

Now the s a c r i f i c e can b e g i n .

I f a t i t l e d man i s p e r f o r m i n g the

ceremony, the l i v e s t o c k w i l l be brought b e f o r e the a l t a r .

and

cow w i l l be s a c r i f i c e d

h o l d the s a c r i f i c i a l

family.

i n that order.

A cock, goat,

The f i r s t son i s f o r b i d d e n to

a n i m a l s i n c e t r a d i t i o n has i t t h a t the f a t h e r ' s

s h o u l d h o l d the a n i m a l .

First,

brother

the a n i m a l ' s b l o o d i s s p i l l e d on the

shrine.

The Edo c l a i m t h a t the b l o o d i s used by the e r h a : they a r e hungry and want

food.

One informant s t a t e d t h a t the b l o o d i s p r o v i d e d f o r the

'sustenance'

erha's

i n erimwin.

After

s p i l l i n g the b l o o d on the a r u e r h a , the b l o o d i s marked on the

forehead o f the headman f o l l o w e d by the heads o f the f a m i l y .

believe that

The Edo

' i t i s the head t h a t d i r e c t s the body, the body b e i n g u s e l e s s

w i t h o u t the h e a d . '

No one e l s e i s a l l o w e d t o do the b l o o d - m a r k i n g .

formed by the headman, t h i s a c t s i g n i f i e s h i s t r u s t e e s h i p o f the

Per-

ancestral

shrine.
If
of

a cow has been s a c r i f i c e d b e f o r e the s h r i n e , the v a r i o u s s e c t i o n s

the a n i m a l w i l l be d i s t r i b u t e d .

This part

One l e g o f the cow must go to the p a l a c e .

i s c o n s i d e r e d to be the b e s t ;

kola-nuts.

i t w i l l be sent to the p a l a c e w i t h

The Oba w i l l r e c i p r o c a t e t h i s g i f t by s e n d i n g a v a l u a b l e

gift

which may i n c l u d e a g o a t , cocoanuts and the t r a d i t i o n a l k o l a .

Prayer i s then o f f e r e d by the headman who w i l l by then have washed
his

hands o f the b l o o d .

clean hands.'
is

i s n e c e s s a r y f o r one to feed the f a t h e r s

Food i s brought a g a i n to the s h r i n e .

cut from the s a c r i f i c e ,

shrine.

'It

with

A s m a l l p i e c e o f meat

d i p p e d i n a n a t i v e soup and t h e n p l a c e d on the

The erha are b e l i e v e d to be p r e s e n t dp p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n the

The neck o f the s a c r i f i c e d a n i m a l i s g i v e n to the c h i l d r e n .

feast.
The

- 200 r e a s o n f o r t h i s , s t a t e d by the a c t o r , i s t h a t t h i s i s the way i t has

always been done.
(The

The w a i s t o f the cow i s r e s e r v e d f o r the w i v e s .

w a i s t i s r e l a t e d t o the womb and i s supposed t o promote the

t i l i t y o f the women).
a l t h o u g h the f a t h e r ' s

The r e s t

i s d i s t r i b u t e d as the headman c h o o s e s ,

b r o t h e r w i l l r e c e i v e a share f i r s t .

t a k e n from the a n i m a l ' s h e a d , the jaw t i e d t o g e t h e r

wall.

This w i l l

indicate

fer-

The meat

is

and p l a c e d on the

status.

The n a t u r e o f the s a c r i f i c e i s r e l a t e d to o n e ' s s o c i a l s t a t u s .

poor man may use an a n t e l o p e l e g w h i c h i s b e l i e v e d to be the l o w e s t

a c c e p t a b l e o f f e r i n g to the e r h a .

There i s no need f o r a poor man to

call

a dance because t h i s i n d i v i d u a l i s p e r f o r m i n g the Eho w i t h the p r i m a r y

i n t e n t i o n o f becoming r i c h , o f r e c e i v i n g the e r h a ' s b l e s s i n g .
to the e r h a more out o f need t h a n o f t h a n k s g i v i n g .

He comes

My informant s a i d t h a t

even though the erha are not r e c e i v i n g any b l o o d a t l e a s t they a r e b e i n g

remembered.

The poor man prays to h i s e r h a so t h a t he w i l l be l i f t e d

to a higher s t a t u s .
(uzo)

One informant t o l d me t h a t the a n c e s t o r s

meat more than any o t h e r bush meat.

up

love antelope

When a poor man comes b e f o r e

the s h r i n e , the s a c r i f i c e f o l l o w s the same g e n e r a l p a t t e r n except

that

t h e r e w i l l be no d a n c i n g .
The
the e r h a .

cock i s an a c c e p t a b l e o f f e r i n g because i t i s presumed to awaken

I t s use .serves as a symbol o f t h i s i n t e n s e d e s i r e to awaken the

e r h a i n o r d e r t h a t they might hear and f u l f i l l

of

prayers.

The a c c e p t a b i l i t y

the goat s a c r i f i c e i s r e l a t e d to the f a c t t h a t the erha

types o f a n i m a l s more t h a n o t h e r s .

certain

The goat i s b e l i e v e d to be the most

v a l u a b l e a n i m a l i n the s i g h t o f the e r h a .
male a n c e s t o r s

'love'

The h e - g o a t

i s used f o r

s i n c e t h i n g s male a r e used f o r the male a n c e s t o r s .

the
One

- 201 -

informant t o l d me t h a t i n the past the Edo had n o t used a cow f o r

f i c e to the e r h a .

In p r e s e n t

times the cow i s used p r i m a r i l y as an

i n d i c a t o r o f s o c i a l s t a t u s , but not to the e x c l u s i o n o f the

goat.

The Eho i s performed p r i m a r i l y to remember the erha as a

p a r t o f the l i n e a g e .

sacri-

living

' I f you remember the e r h a , they w i l l remember y o u . -

To f o r g e t them w i l l mean t h a t t h e r e w i l l be bad r e p e r c u s s i o n s f o r t h a t

p a r t i c u l a r person.

The f a m i l y head i s under a g r e a t d e a l o f p r e s s u r e ,

a t r u s t e e o f the a r u e r h a , to perform the Eho ceremony.

to the success and w e l f a r e o f the e n t i r e f a m i l y u n i t .
handed over to you must be performed and p r e s e r v e d . '
the Eho i s to bestow p r o s p e r i t y upon the f a m i l y .

He h o l d s the key
'What the e r h a
A n o t h e r purpose o f

A secondary end, but an

i m p o r t a n t one, i s the o c c a s i o n f o r the r e u n i o n o f the f a m i l y .

can observe how the f a m i l y has grown.

as

The f a m i l y

The f a m i l y a l s o p a y s . r e s p e c t

once

more to the head o f the f a m i l y , h i s a u t h o r i t y b e i n g r e i n f o r c e d by t r i b u t e

and

gift.

THE EDION

T h i s d i s c u s s i o n o f e d i o n w i l l be l i m i t e d t o the e d i o n o f the

unit,

village

i . e . the c o l l e c t i v e p r e d e c e s s o r s o f a v i l l a g e .

I.

THE EDO REPRESENTATION OF EDION

The e d i o n are thought to be the o r i g i n a l o c c u p i e r s o f the v i l l a g e

l a n d and as a l l the e d i o n who have s i n c e l i v e d and been b u r i e d t h e r e
(Bradbury 1957: 5 6 ) .

A l l v i l l a g e s have e d i o n s h r i n e s w h i c h c o n t a i n an

a l t a r decorated w i t h ukhurhe.

These s h r i n e s

(ogwedion) a l s o serve as

- 202 meeting p l a c e s .
offerings

The odionwere as the p r i e s t o f the e d i o n makes

regular

t h e r e , and h i s i n f l u e n c e w i t h the e d i o n s p i r i t s i s a p o w e r f u l

sanction p a r t i c u l a r l y with reference

to h i s c o n t r o l o f the

age-grades.

Promotions are made i n the ogwedion and the odionwere h i m s e l f i s

invested

there.
We have a l r e a d y seen t h a t the d i f f e r e n t k i n d s o f dead c o r r e s p o n d
to a s t a t u s c a t e g o r y among the l i v i n g .
his

own f i e l d

of authority.

Each o f the i n c o r p o r a t e d dead has

As Bradbury has p o i n t e d out

(1966), for a l l

t h r e e types the act o f i n c o r p o r a t i o n i s a p a r t o f a complex s e r i e s o f

mortuary and s u c c e s s i o n r i t e s .
do t h r e e main t h i n g s .
i n erimwin.

From the a c t o r ' s

standpoint

these

rites

F i r s t , they ensure the deceased h i s r i g h t f u l p l a c e

Second, they r e f o r m u l a t e

and r e g u l a t e h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p s

with

those among the l i v i n g f o r whom he has r e l e v a n c e by v i r t u e o f the same

statuses.

T h i r d , the r i t e s e f f e c t

s t a t u s e s to one o r more s u c c e s s o r s .
undifferentiated
groups.

o f s y m b o l i z e the t r a n s m i s s i o n o f t h e s e
The e d i o n o r e l d e r s ,

t h e n , are

the

deceased e l d e r s o f k i n s h i p , t e r r i t o r i a l and a s s o c i a t i o n a l

The c h i e f s

( e n i g i e and oba) have t h e i r own p r e d e c e s s o r s

t h e r e are s p e c i a l r i t e s

for which

(Bradbury 1966: 1 3 8 ) .

The e d i o n demand t h a t the l i v i n g e l d e r s s h o u l d u p h o l d the

customs

and r u l e s they have t r a n s m i t t e d to them, and a f f o r d them m y s t i c a l s a n c t i o n s

to a s s i s t

them i n d e a l i n g w i t h i n f r a c t i o n s .

w i t h the a n c e s t o r s

image f a t h e r - s o n

I t seems t h a t j u s t as

relations

r e l a t i o n s , so do r e l a t i o n s between

the

v i l l a g e e d i o n and t h e i r c o n g r e g a t i o n r e f l e c t the c o r r e s p o n d i n g a s p e c t s o f
the r e l a t i o n s h i p between the l i v i n g e d i o n and t h e i r apparent h e i r s .

- 203 II.

THE MANIFESTATION OF THE EDION

S i n c e the sphere o f i n f l u e n c e o f the e d i o n i s r e s t r i c t e d to

village,

the v i l l a g e r s b e l i e v e t h a t the e d i o n i n t e r v e n e i n t h e i r

causing disaster
of

an e l d e r ' s

o f b o t h a g e n e r a l and i n d i v i d u a l n a t u r e .

the

affairs;

The f l o u t i n g

a u t h o r i t y and cases o f a d u l t e r y are p a r t i c u l a r l y s e r i o u s

events and w i l l

i n c u r the r e t r i b u t i v e a c t i o n o f the e d i o n .

It is

through

the events t a k i n g p l a c e i n the v i l l a g e t h a t the l i v i n g w i l l know t h a t

e d i o n are d i s p l e a s e d e v e n t s

t h a t t h r e a t e n the whole v i l l a g e .

are g o i n g p o o r l y ' i n the v i l l a g e t h i s

have been o f f e n d e d .

the

When ' t h i n g s

i s t a k e n as a s i g n t h a t the e d i o n

T h i s l e a d s to a c o n s u l t a t i o n w i t h a d i v i n e r who t e l l s

what a c t i o n i s needed t o r e s t o r e the r e l a t i o n s h i p between the l i v i n g and

the dead e d i o n .

III.

THE EDO RESPONSE TO THE EDION

The Edo respond to the m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f the e d i o n i n t h e i r

i n the f o l l o w i n g w a y s .

I f i t i s d i v i n e d t h a t the e d i o n are

w i t h some a s p e c t o f l i f e
them b e f o r e

the a n c e s t r a l

i n the v i l l a g e i t i s n e c e s s a r y
shrine.

The s a c r i f i c i a l

and a l l o f the v i l l a g e g a t h e r s at the s h r i n e .

affairs

dissatisfied

to s a c r i f i c e to

items are c o l l e c t e d

The items f o r

sacrifice

w i l l be h a n d l e d by the odionwere who invokes the e d i o n t o g u i d e the

living

b o t h at home and a b r o a d .
Next he breaks

the k o l a and spreads i t on the f l o o r .

p i e c e on the s h r i n e and shares the r e s t w i t h the o t h e r s .

the s a c r i f i c i a l

a n i m a l ( e g . goat)

He p l a c e s

Then he

one

slaughters

and s p i l l s the b l o o d on the a l t a r .

He

- 204 takes t h e ukhurhe s t a f f and rubs t h e b l o o d on i t - - a n e s s e n t i a l aspect o f

the s a c r i f i c e .

A f t e r t h i s i s done, t h e s t a f f i s p l a c e d back on t h e a l t a r .

The s a c r i f i c e i s f o l l o w e d by f e a s t i n g .

This s a c r i f i c i a l pattern i s

followed at a l l s a c r i f i c e s before the edion s h r i n e .

As w e l l as r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e e d i o n ' s i n t e r v e n t i o n i n t h e i r a f f a i r s ,
i n f o r m a n t s t o l d me t h a t i n case o f an impending epidemic s a c r i f i c e s would
be made t o t h e e d i o n f o r p r o t e c t i o n o f t h e whole v i l l a g e .

Judging

from

the g e n e r a l p r a y e r o f f e r e d t o t h e e d i o n a t v a r i o u s o c c a s i o n s , t h e e d i o n
are a l s o c a p a b l e o f d r i v i n g away e v i l s p i r i t s o f c o u n t e r a c t i n g t h e azen.
D u r i n g t h e i m p o r t a n t v i l l a g e d e c i s i o n s , p r o c e e d i n g s w i l l be conducted b e f o r e t h e e d i o n s h r i n e .

I n cases o f c o n f l i c t , f o r example, t h e

p a r t i e s would be summoned t o t h e s h r i n e where they would be d e a l t w i t h .

Every meeting

i s opened w i t h t h e b r e a k i n g o f t h e k o l a , f o l l o w e d by p r a y e r .

E d i o n , e d i o n n i r u n a g b a n wahia do s i k o k o niwa d o r i e evbare na wa

g h e g i e e v b o n i mayena v e , wagie o k p i a kevbe okhuo no r o ghama.

Wa khue be ^Kevbe uwa r o r u e .

Wa giomokpia kevbe omo okhuogha maubo.

Azen o k p i a kevbe azen okhuo nogha omwan vbe vbo waghi gbe.
Translation:
Departed
munity

s e t t l e r o f t h e v i l l a g e we i m p l o r e you t o see t h a t t h e com-

c o n t i n u e s t o m u l t i p l y i n c h i l d r e n and i n f o o d .

and female i n t h e v i l l a g e c o n t i n u e t o p r o s p e r .

L e t b o t h male

We i m p l o r e you people

to d r i v e away a l l w i t c h e s t h a t w i l l cause s i c k n e s s o r death t o t h e

community.

L e t b o t h male and female c h i l d r e n c o n t i n u e t o l i v e l o n g .

Any w i t c h e s t h a t may cause s i c k n e s s o r d e a t h , may you g a t h e r t o

c o u n t e r a c t them.
In cases o f a d u l t e r y , t h e g u i l t y p a r t y w i l l be f i n e d .

CHAPTER

THE A Z E N :

The
are
is

'normal'
released

Their

the

ween

T H E EDO R E P R E S E N T A T I O N OF T H E

are

anti-social spiritual beings.

human
from

being
Edo

the

agbon

are

beings
which

the

and

helps
are

azen

are

them

A.

CHARACTERISTICS

utilized

Witches,
social

level.

their

evil

1.

azen

the

able

gain

to

evil
their

one

Even

an

Edo,

They

are

believed

appear

They

are

They w i l l

are

'good, '

should

move

of

the

beings

from

agbon

other.

Of

capable

the

proper

knowledge
Thus

SOCIAL

of

their

to

disguise

moving

once

their

bet-

resided
As

in

fellows
during

dark.

normally

on

a n t i - s o c i a l manner,

household.
the

in

social

their

the
and

fundamentally

follows:

the

made

beings

LEVEL

an

be

the

observations

in

in

a l l

erimwin

burial.

to

only

to

of

a n c e s t o r s who

functioning

anger

never

activities.

activities after

c h a r a c t e r i z e d as

provoke

evil

their

of

is

they

out

incapable

it

day

carry

the

behave

the

(orion)

them.

OF T H E A Z E N ON T H E

During

part

after

nefarious

AZEN

spiritual

intimate

against

ERIMWIN

their

to

only

erimwin

the

palaver

in

realms.
of

to

ability

are

members

night

them

resident

the

in

the

their

say

actions

motives.

in

to work

day

in

enabling

erimwin

permanent

the

but

body
lies

pantheon,

the

if

beings

permanently

agbon

BETWEEN AGBON AND

I.

s p e c i a l power

without
in

azen

BRIDGE

IX

night,

The

Edo

say

for

the

azen

that
will

206 -

f i n d t h e cause and w i t h t h e i r knowledge o f i n n e r weakness continue to multiply d i s t r e s s .

They w i l l seek t o 'double' t h e

already e x i s t i n g state of a f f a i r s .
An azen may harm someone i n t h e d a y t i m e .

I t may be t h a t when

two women a r e c o o k i n g soup t h a t one o f the women w i l l have

some meat and t h e o t h e r w i l l n o t .
azen t o p o i s o n

Jealousy

may provoke t h e

t h e meat o f t h e more f o r t u n a t e w i f e .

A r e f u s a l t o meet an azen' s r e q u e s t may l e a d t o r e t r i b u t i o n a t

a l a t e r date.
r i c h man.

F o r example, a w i t c h may r e q u e s t money from a

I f t h e r i c h man r e f u s e s n o t knowing t h e s u p p l i c a n t

i s . a w i t c h , he may be t h e o b j e c t o f e v i l a c t i o n .

I n such a

case as t h i s t h e Edo say t h a t the w i t c h e s are n o t i n t e r e s t e d

i n whether o r n o t a n y t h i n g

i s s h a r e d , b u t i n f i n d i n g an oppor-

t u n i t y o r excuse t o work e v i l .
man r e f u s e s

The Edo a l s o b e l i e v e t h a t i f a

t o share some o f h i s w e a l t h he may be a v i c t i m o f

w i t c h c r a f t a c t i v i t y i n the night.

Here we see c l e a r l y t h e

emphasis t h e Edo p l a c e on s h a r i n g and h o s p i t a l i t y .

The

Edo b e l i e v e t h a t an azen w i l l be m o t i v a t e d t o e v i l

through j e a l o u s y .

F o r example, i n a house where t h e r e i s more

than one w i f e , one woman may have s i x c h i l d r e n .

i s b e l i e v e d t o be a w i t c h w i l l have o n l y one.
liate,

The woman who

In order

to reta-

t h e b a r r e n woman w i l l d i r e c t e v i l a c t i o n a g a i n s t h e r

co-wife.
to k i l l

action

I t should be n o t e d t h a t i f t h e j e a l o u s woman i s a b l e
t h e o t h e r woman, t h e l i v i n g c h i l d r e n w i l l be cared

by h e r s e l f .

for

The Edo say t h a t i f a woman f e e l s t h a t t h i n g s a r e

not r i g h t w i t h i n t h e h o u s e h o l d , whether t h i s be m a n i f e s t i n t h e

sickness

of

witchcraft
as

occur

against
or

very

hindrance

often.
of

verify

the

Bradbury's

that

camouflage

for

them

to

their

a l l

persons.
of

behaviour.

an E d o ' s

be

asked:

the

Edo

either

B.

believe

The

any

good

that
or

majority

also

male w i t c h e s

azen

are

is

behaviour

a cover-up
to

have

For

that

in

seem

most

were

regarded

thus

to

recorded

who

making

recorded

for

manifest

a witch

example,

as
it

seem

to

as

evil

the

is

showing

the

motives.

socially

Summing

merely

a w i t c h may

It

be

utmost
is

more

reprehensible

accepted norms,

a witch?'
on

by

as w e l l

contradicts

'Are you

witches

(oso)

the

not

people

group,

appears

However,

does

60)

who

her

up,

they

we

social level

will

can say

is

that

abnormal:

bad.

associated with
During

kin

cases

OF T H E A Z E N A S E R I M W I N

of

(1957:

good b e h a v i o u r

a w i t c h ' s behaviour

too

household

co-wives

objective.

a w i t c h , however,

CHARACTERISTICS

people.'

This

A z e n we k h i n r a ?

too

The

show e x c e s s i v e f r i e n d l i n e s s

characteristic
If

the

direct

hypothesis.

believe
gain

the

social status.

states

of

to w i t c h c r a f t .

also

to

her

of

she w i l l

c o n f l i c t b e t w e e n k i n was

unity

Edo

respect

to

omens,

accusations involved

The

The

and

evil

member

Bradbury

witchcraft

disturbed

vulnerable

honest

other

another

close kinsmen.

having

very

p r a c t i c e a c c u s a t i o n between

instances
not

children or

threat

actual

207

but

in

they

darkness

night

the

the
are

less

and

azen

Edo

are

are

no

BEINGS

culture
common

are

female.

and have

commonly

known

longer

limited

There

less
as
to

are

power.

the
any

The

'night
physical

locality,
in

the

for

while

form of

through

the

body

is

it

private

happens

to

will

feel

dizzy.

witches

are

said

be

child

others.

a witch

into

was

thus

be

initiated

inherit

the

because

protect
her

awaken

the

witch.

presence

of

Closer
give
is,

into

through

It

is

also

to

the

child
to

putting

(Bradbury

be

the

1957:

power'

in

60).

the

area

relegated

1930's

claimed

that

she had

entered

of

barrenness.

She h a d

lost

and

to

children

witches

herself

f r o m any

witchcraft,

but

in

order

further

have

child

underwent

that

if

one

children

of

frequently
a belief

is

that

carrying;

suspected
same

the

that

is

she

body

left

night

reveals

the

her

has

The

usually

the

believed

the

however,

away,

of

orion

society.

in

out

'Witchcraft

likely

by

'witchcraft

the

during

also.

more

food'

fly

witches'

living

the

azen

flies

inheritance.

food

recruited

orion

Once

questioning,

therefore,

buy

the

a witch

witchcraft

can be

to

of

be w i t c h e s

a person's

possible

One woman

malpractice

body.

to

it

society

the

likely

of

in

of

quite

inherited.

azen's

that

a witch

New w i t c h e s

II

the

the

say

become

invisible,

Eweka

to

Edo

may

that

to

in

p r e g n a n t w i t c h may

the

is

be

The

sleeps,

orifices

impossible

An Edo

body

a bird.

one

to

the

208

than

substance,

which

I was

told

Afenmai

also

Division

and

to

deaths.

certain

known

Edo w i t c h e s

into

many

witches'

children

due

she became

This

rituals

the

woman

by

did

suggested

by

to

the

witch
not
a

known

I t s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t t h e Edo c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n o f w i t c h e s does
n o t c o r r e s p o n d e n t i r e l y w i t h t h e c l a s s i c a l d e f i n i t i o n g i v e n by Evans-^
P r i t c h a r d i n W i t c h c r a f t , M a g i c a n d O r a c l e s Among t h e A z a n d e .
See n o t e s
in
C h a p t e r I o n Some p r o b l e m s w i t h t h e c l a s s i c a l d i c h o t o m y b e t w e e n w i t c h c r a f t and s o r c e r y .

witch

or

One

in

way

vomit

Edo
the

of

up

method

of

The

the

they

larger
areas
the

the

most

is

for

witches

no

way

related

small

in

agbon

may

be

to

the

in

the .witches-.'

while

king

a member
It

U<
to

the

trouble
have

of

is

seized

a very

the

of

ugly,

azen.

of

the
job

He

the

the

in

soul,

akin

tennis

Edo

the

witches

Benin

in
man

the

on

er i m w i n . '
claimed
to

at

have

claimed

of

cults
area.

leaving

Bradbury,

is

are

only

This

level.

w h o m my

controlled
have

tree

There

60).

second

to

its

attended

agbon
Edo

be

has

to

geographical

(1957:

the

he

parallel

night.

major

One
to

this

upon

lines

which

kingdom'

status

woman

Citing
along

meeting

to

(ikeniwarenason).

meet

of

ball.

surrounding

Each v i l l a g e

to

sub-

witch

a number

Immediately

witches

said

the

culture

say,

and

kingdom.

are

to

force

to

organized

claimed

barren

certain

structured.

social

poor

in

infor-

command

eight

had

'A

wives

many

children

society.

witches

witches.

participate
someone's

One

the

be

the

man

also

witches'
of

to

a big

society.

the

meeting
and

as

Benin

a central

from

in

described

of

to

to

individually.

village

is

mant

in

Benin

finally

was

Needless

more p o w e r f u l

and

roughly

possess

contemporary

arisen

the

hierarchy
man

In

azen

days

banned.

said

of

the

the

powerful

old

a meeting

are

the

is

hierarchically

of

kingdom

is

operate

divisions

witches

the

have

to

'witches

meetings
of

not

away

society

territorial
the

do

in

substance.

witches

that

substance

witches

witches

fly

the

believed

This

witchcraft

witches

that

in which

by

stomach.

detect

The w i t c h e s '
states

always

detecting
to

body,

have

detecting

the

claiming

the

obonoyada.

The
stance

209

The

a kind
they

of

to

steal

purpose

a person's
of

communal

transform

it

the

meeting

feast.
into

orion

Once

is

to

the

an animal
r

and

take

this

cause

witches

(usually

- 210 -

goat), k i l l

i t and then f e a s t upon i t .

U n l i k e Esu who a c t s s u d d e n l y , t h e azen a r e b e l i e v e d t o t o y w i t h

an i n d i v i d u a l b e f o r e they f i n a l l y k i l l him.

One informant t o l d me t h a t

the azen w i l l q u i t e o f t e n warn a p o t e n t i a l v i c t i m through dreams o f o t h e r

e x p e r i e n c e s g i v i n g h i m a means o f escape.
phenomena w i l l

The o c c u r r e n c e o f s t r a n g e

l e a d t h e p o t e n t i a l v i c t i m t o t h e d i v i n e r who w i l l r e v e a l

what must be done t o escape i n j u r y .

II.

1.

THE MANIFESTATION OF THE AZEN

The azen have t h e power t o s t o p c o n c e p t i o n .

they w i l l d r i n k a woman's c o n c e p t i o n .

I t i s said that

This i s absolutely

a b h o r r e n t t o t h e Edo. I t i s v e r y common f o r Edo women t o c l a i m

t h a t they have been pregnant o n l y t o l o s e t h e i r c o n c e p t i o n t o
the azen.

The Edo a l s o b e l i e v e t h a t t h e azen c a n h o l d a woman's

embryo i n t h e womb f o r as l o n g as f o u r y e a r s .
2.

The azen can cause d i s t u r b a n c e s i n a woman's m e n s t r u a l p e r i o d .

3.

The azen have t h e power t o r e n d e r a man

4.

The azen can cause madness.

causing v i o l e n t behaviour

impotent.

They take c o n t r o l o f t h e b r a i n ,

i n the s t r e e t s .

The Edo u s u a l l y l e a v e

such people a l o n e f o r t h e r e i s n o t h i n g t h a t they can do t o

c o u n t e r a c t t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e azen a f t e r a person has a c t e d
i n t h i s manner.
5.

The azen c a n cause g e n e r a l s i c k n e s s .

Stomach t r o u b l e i s a t t r i -

buted t o t h e i r a c t i v i t y as a r e poor b r e a t h i n g and some t h r o a t

problems.

Most common o f t h e s i c k n e s s e s a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e azen

6.

are

those

The

azen

natural

Case

The

azen

can r u i n

1961

loss

Some

the

They

blood.
are

believed

to

order

cause

finger'

in

to

empower

various

ability

individual

Information

of

the

Edo

about

a c e r t a i n man w o n ^ 5 0 0 0

distribute
a hole

man's

people'

the

nor

his

r e s i s t a n c e of

caused

the

had

not

the

went

cause of

food;

does

of

w h i c h he

relatives

were

family

any

into

any

business

the

to

have

super-

blindness.

medicines.

enterprises.

Manifestation

of

the

Azen

he

placed
to

the

offered

the

money

the

in

to
his

He d i d

relatives.

money.

diviner

lottery.

his

ailment.
them

who

The

Later

man h a d

sacrifice.

He

died

of

dysentry.

know where

the

money

is.

In

this

finally,

after

the

to

remained

later

and

the

failed

and

sickness

became

that

azen

case

warning,

give

Instead,
he

stated

not

he

went

sick.

Some

'night
give

the

adamant

azen

in

To

this

day

the

azen

have

his

the
first

death.

2
In
dogs

unusual

December,
living

occasions

it

on

the

three

1966

within

was

manner

and

were

'pointing

8.

or

the

the

of

have

dug

Case

the

feast

of

way

azen

Revealing

can cause b l i n d n e s s .

The

In

and

connected with

7.

Cases

211

the
the

reported

after

the

village
boundary

that

affected

and

with

came t o

witchcraft

suddenly
the
(or

Ekiadolor

of

dogs

church b e l l s

each o c c a s i o n a c h i l d
events

the

of

the
in

had

village.

the
rung

for

The

conclusion

that

least

the

Benin
On

village

died.

at

near

village
a l l

three

had

early

dogs

potential

destroyed

different

barked

morning
elders

a l l

in

an

prayers
associated

without

exception

instruments

of

the

azen)
the

and were

responsible,

children.

In
their

this

viour

this
My

in

the

them

to

is

that

case

informant

traditional

Christians.

London

are

December,

for

beating

judge,

repeated

Mr.

to

Justice

a s s a u l t s on

was

parcelled

found

accused had

taken

with

man,

an Edo

informant

weak

were

azen,

for

the

destroyed

and

new o n e s

azen use

azen w i l l
enabling
the

lower

give
them

system does
very

to

azen hate
not

much

animals

deaths

second

the

of

banned

capable

the

church.

of

agents

the

the

of

animals

dog's

fact

be

eradicate

a part

as

unsuspecting

control

The

believed

the

the
to

children.

are

me t h a t

the
in

and

s h e was

Jones,

twenty

said

that

power

to

harass

a witch,

paper

a taxi.

that

confused.

g i r l

beha-

emerging

of

destroying

Rejection

belief

of

in witches.

conceptual

36-year

in

i s was

humans.

framework

rats,

old

Nigerian

The

London

case of
this

g i r l

was

that

girl's

include

a w i t c h and

birds,

causing him

to

man p r o b a b l y

dreamt

of

and

plaguing

and

the

harassing

he

g i r l
him

to

in
a

witch.

the
would

bruised

particular

and

continually

that

'disappointed

would

life

s t r e e t where

discussing this
a

for

c l a i m e d was

so h o r r i f y i n g

a north

(and
The

jailed

who h e

imprisonment.

Upon

a l l witches

snails,
The

the

years

in

me

form of

told

old

man w a s

f e l l o w N i g e r i a n were

told

the

a 19-year

i n brown

it
he

a Nigerian Yoruba

death

a minimum of

man

the

azen

s t i l l

1966

recommend

have

dogs

the

3
In

The

the

religious

of

Case

The

night,

told

beliefs

Edo

that

destroy

Witchcraft
the

see

activity.

eat

and u s e

life.
the

to

a l l

of

village.

c a s e we

nefarious

something

from

the

as v e h i c l e s

Consequently,

from entering

212

the
case

love.'

the

My

azen)

appeared
become

to

the

very

believed
the

body

point

that
where

he

c o u l d no

longer

study

Extrapolating
limited

to

distances

Case

from

a particular
and

or

213

function

this

normally.

case,

locale.

it

They

can cause

confusion

A.

V i l l a g e near

is

are

through

Thus

he

clear

that

capable

of

killed

the

azen

her.
are

travelling

tormenting

dream

not

great

experiences.

4
Mr.

been

P.

responsible

of

Ova

for

the

repeated

Benin

discovered

miscarriages

of

his

that

the

wife.

azen

He

had

sought

Ogun

Case

who was

ponsible

Case

I.

for

E.

killed

the

witch.

discovered

through

divination

continually

troubled

of

Village

that

the

azen were

res-

sleep.

I.
the

Iguosala

cause of

his

discovered

wife's

through

abnormally

divination

developed

that

embryo.

7
I.

causing his

0.

of

Ugbogui

persuaded

Ogun t o

obstruct

wife

to

undergo

irregular

menstruation.

of

Benin

t h e w i t c h who

was

8 .
Mr.

the

0.
his

azen were

Mr.

Case

have

6
Mr.

the

to

5
Mr.

Case

reported

I.

cause of

The

0.
his

declining

azen manifest

Cases

4-8

discovered

are

transport

themselves

taken

from

the

through

divination

that

the

azen

were

business.

to

the

data

Edo

in

through

the

the

chapter

on

disrupting

Ogun.

of

activities

on the s o c i a l l e v e l .

214

They a l s o invade t h e n a t u r e o f man,

d i s r u p t i n g h i s normal f u n c t i o n i n g .

Their presence, then, i s f e l t p r i m a r i l y

as a r e s u l t o f t h e e v i l ends o f t h e i r a c t i o n .
o f t h e i r m a n i f e s t a t i o n : the c a u s a l l i n k

The Edo 'read' t h e s i g n s

i n an event b e i n g e x p l a i n e d i n

terms o f t h e a z e n .

III.

THE EDO RESPONSE TO THE AZEN

The Edo seldom i n i t i a t e

communication w i t h t h e w i t c h e s .

The w i t c h e s

pose a s e r i o u s t h r e a t t o t h e harmonious f u n c t i o n i n g o f Edo s o c i e t y .

There-

f o r e t h e p r i m a r y m o t i v a t i n g f a c t o r i n t h e Edo response t o t h e azen i s

appeasement.

The azen must be k e p t a t a d i s t a n c e , o r p u t t i n g i t another

way, r i t u a l l y

managed.

for

Thus t h e m a j o r i t y o f s a c r i f i c e s t o t h e azen a r e

t h i s s p e c i f i c purpose.
I f an Edo d e s i r e s t o harm another p e r s o n , he can i n t e r a c t w i t h a

known, confessed

witch.

to give the witches

Or he can o f f e r h i s c o m p l a i n t

openly,

something i f they c a r r y out h i s r e q u e s t .

promising
The Edo may

a l s o c o n t a c t t h e obonoyada i n o r d e r t o purchase some m e d i c i n a l power w h i c h

w i l l e n a b l e them t o g a i n s u p e r n a t u r a l i n s i g h t i n t o t h e azen's

activities.

B e f o r e examining a number o f cases o f s a c r i f i c e t o t h e a z e n , I w i l l

o u t l i n e t h e a c t u a l s a c r i f i c i a l process

t o t h e 'night

people.'

A f t e r t h e c o n s u l t a t i o n w i t h t h e obonoyada o r p o s s i b l y o t h e r
the s u p p l i c a n t w i l l go w i t h him t o t h e j u n c t i o n .

The azen always want b l o o d .

Things a s s o c i a t e d w i t h d i r t i n e s s and e v i l a r e a c c e p t a b l e
informant

t o l d me t h a t items k i l l e d

e l s e are acceptable)
l e f t foot of a goat).

diviners,

t o t h e azen (My

on t h e road and r e j e c t e d by everybody

as w e l l as items a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e l e f t

(eg. the

Some o f t h e items o f f e r e d t o t h e azen a r e t h e dog,

goat,

tortoise,

purpose

of

the

hen,
white

animal which

is

azen

their

to

reason

r o l l

this

informant

associated
sacrifice
a

told

some
at

him

pepper

to

might

medicine.

the

they

believed
travel

obonoyada

Edo

is

that

offering.

After

the

sacrifice

to

to

the

slaughtered

be used

by

crossroads.

azen

Before
is

for

The

the

away.

the

the

fufu.

made

c a n come

The

from

the

the

sacrifice

is

the

obonoyada

and

made,
the

a man who was

night.
to

the

bathe

soup

(oil

him

approached

in

Osun

and

of

is

the

take his

particular

sacrifice

are

medicine).

told
azen,

position
was

to

that
as

He w a s

it

if

is

to

prepared

told

the

appease

to

for

the

of

the

members
not

pots

preparation)

necessary

did

very

medicinal

also
in

junior
he

felt
who

various

be used

the

made

as he

an obonoyada

(there

forbidden

I was

associate with

troubled

He

divinity

crossroads.

k i l l

This

me o f

have

head

strong

them.

2
In
what

this

case Mr.

he was

F.

0.

accused of;

azen

at

the

told

me

that

this

not

been

a l l

had

the

is

the

the

Osun,

the

family

lineage

for

The mat

c l o t h and

an u n d e r c o v e r

of

told

during

with

cock

the

Case

as

i n when

with

partake

blown.

serve

white

t a l i s m a n and

of

to

mat,

home.

uncomfortable

and

to

is

go

goes

native

a mat.

according to

points

(oru)

is

ingredients

for

One

p l a c e d on

individual

supplicant

Case

cloth

The

cardinal
a horn

small egg,

215

crossroads

right

in

(ada)

man w a s
in

had

this

praying

taking
his

been

falsely

desperate
blindly

a very

life, '

the

accused.
state

for

serious
azen

of

He w a n t e d
mind

their

help.

chance,

for

could

he

redress

sought
My

if

e a s i l y have

the

informant

'everything
caused

him

- 216
harm.
fell

Apparently
sick.

ness.

The

c a u s e was
a

This

to

Case

related

to

some

I.E.

of

aforementioned

jealous

of

family

nature

a c t i v i t y of

man.

He w a s

of

the

also

request

and

his

to

the

cause of

seek

the<problem,
azen

told

thereby

thing

he

In

siderable

and

hinder

materials

other

wife,

inheriting

could

sacrifice

to

the

do

to

to

and

that

offered

opponent

the

sick-

that

azen

money

later

the

stating

that
the

progress

commenting

on

this

conflict within
wives

t h e woman

the

one

tortoise
of

The

to

he-goat,
the

the

demanded

should

his

that

wife's

diviner

she might

property

recurrence

of

one

azen.

be

of

give

small

His

given

the

him

upon h i s

to

was
she

offer

wives

to

death.

attacks from

as

man's

birth

native

purpose

pregnancy

advised

azen b e c a u s e one

husband's

escape the
the

man's

to

her

at

Apparently

one

thinking

them

the

Village

from o c c a s i o n a l b l e e d i n g .

the

child

of

the

the

Iguosodin

them n o t

the

One

accuser's

cowries, kolanuts

implore

granted, F . O . ' s

revealed

from the

suffering

the

to

was

to

azen

F.O.

Mr.
mat,

led

diviner

sacrifice

bask

the

male

The

only

the

azen

was

there

is

con-

crossroads.
case,

the

my

informant

polygamous

feared

that

succeeded

in

her

family

said

that

over

succession rights.

c o - w i f e would

c o n c e i v i n g and

have

the

a male

jealous

child.

wife

was

banished.

Counteract ion

The
their

lives

consciousness that
leads

the

Edo

to

the

of

the

Azen

azen

are

constantly

seek ways

and means

of

trying

to

disrupt

counteracting

was

them.

- 217

The
is

first
to

means

by

interact with

O g u n we e x a m i n e d
order
out

which the

to

of

E d o may

divinities

a number

of

obtain

Ogun and

cases

hundred

to

cases the

seek p r o t e c t i o n

by

the

witches.

be

especially

The

'good'

their

anti-human

cults

into

at

My

diviner

will

the Mid-West.

resulted
One

in

Seraphim

also

the

specially
of

prepared

leaves,

to

the

and

leaves
as

seeking
this

buy

everything

Osun.

The

pot

protection will

medicine.

is

will
be

erimwin beings.

By b a t h i n g

can be

from azen

Another
men.

The

means

diviner

dollar.

in

watchpocket.

his

gether

with

of

My

tarry

blood

placed
be

placed

asked to
say
in

this

person
to
is

in

ninety

troubled

be

by

greatly

the

the

to

azen

a number

cult

the

feared

also believed

Azelu

the

Edo,

asks

goat

is

clay

somewhere
to

azen

skilled

then

large

travel

the

that

in

and

of

introduced
Cherubim

and

the

in

by

in

the

the

pot.

bush

or

others

in

need

sprinkled
This

bush.
and

is

the

like

over

one

with

aid

i t ,

of

generally

The

bathe

can work without

medicine,

with

preparation

one

then

the

bathing

of

the

Edo

activity.

one

informant
I have

He

me

such as

from

from the
in

on

counteract witches.

obonoyada,

counteracting

may make

silver

The

The

No m e d i c i n e ,

protected

to

chapter

Obsession with

the

azen

s a c r i f i c e d to

told

the

churches

special medicine.

a goat.

the

believed

is

special protection

medicines.

prepares

protection

known

gain

power

from the

i n t r o d u c t i o n of

such example

Syncretist

have

In

Orunmila,

the

AfenmaiDivision.

E d o may

is

divinity,

from the

The

lead

detecting witchcraft.

acts has

claim to

Esu.

informant

f r o m Ogun who

'imported'

protection

i n w h i c h Ogun was

counteract witch a c t i v i t y .

one

witches

the

out

of

the

azen

a tarry

s h o w e d me o n e
also

s u b s t a n c e and

seen

through

substance

the

in

the

he was u s i n g - - h e

a number

p l a c e d on

is

of

the

of

shape

kept

broom p i e c e s

the .inside of

use

it

stuck
front

talisof

tucked
todoor.

- 218 -

Once someone i s known as a witch, he i s expelled from the intimacy

of face-to-face contact and p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n the daily round of a c t i v i t i e s .
This l i m i t s their e v i l powers considerably since they are denied the
necessary intimate knowledge needed i n order to work their e v i l against
the Edo.

Their power becomes limited to that of directing e v i l upon

p a r t i c u l a r individuals as a result of a nocturnal v i s i t by an individual

desirous of directing e v i l against some enemy.

CHAPTER

EHI:

DESTINY

I.

The
living

person

erimwin.
in
his

Edo

It

is
goes

l i f e

on

earth

fighting
people

(Bradbury

and

this.
in

1957:

An E h i

the

shadow,

witnesses
judgment

fate

the

has

is

he

and

the
is

is

expressed

mourners

call

and
in

have

going

he

the word
done

them

to

hi

to

If

badly

is

in

be

born

do

with
for

a man

or

himself
well

the

facilities

Iii.

this
for

to

plans

spiritual

determined

after

two p a r t s :

Ehi which

is

him what

material

to

c o n s i s t s of

a person

tells

said

EHI

counterpart

when

which he has

created

acts

as

a l l

for

actions

Ehi

informant

'When we

constantly

it

that

RELIGION

to

and

next

is

be
when

time

58-9).

used here

a l l

act

individual

spiritual

requests
This

omwan v b a s e r i m w i n .
The word

the

Osanobua

the world

buried

Osanobua
tions.

before

against

are

and

every

a common b e l i e f

he

unsuccessful

that

agbon

agbon

accomplishing

T H E EDO T R A D I T I O N A L

T H E EDO R E P R E S E N T A T I O N O F

believe
in

IN

Ehi

shall

is

and when
to

its

get

to

given

up,

them a number

The

erimwin,

w h i c h means

agbon

an Edo

cover

has

Osanobua.

aghoghon

observing

impossible

to

and

Edo

say:

be

shadow.

An E h i

for

his

goes

An

my

witness
is

individual's

before

Ehi will

func-

Aghoghonorsoe

Ehi w i l l

counterpart.

eventually

of

bear

Osanobua
witness.

lik
Eh
for

- 220
The
element
cannot
is

of

destiny

of

fate

operative

is

r i s e higher

destined

behaviour,
good.'

to
an

The

be

than

might

well.

This

before

one's

here

before

for

Ehi.

it

If

remark:

an

(My

Ehi

ere

Ehi

is

he

is

observing

particular
Ehi:

set

Upon

Ehimwenma

is

one's

'poor.'

Edo

name

an Edo

comes

into

commonly

Edo
an

has

the world.''"

believed
'poor'

individual's

ima.

'That

good)

Ehi,

one

then

he

unfortunate

person's

reflects

that

The

this

Ehi

is

not

attitude

as

name

possibly

no

doubt

reflects

the

birth

of

an

a child

attitude
is

of

thankfulness

attributed

to

Ehi's

2
intercessional
to

Ehi.

cative

The
of

activity.

name

Ehiorobo

a belief

that

This

consciousness that

seen

in

the

happiness
born

over

Ehi

is

good

Ehizogie

good

(Ehi

is

other

a good

capable

destiny

(Ehi

fortune

is

of

has

of

is

names

doctor)

reveal
is

attributable

expressed

to

be

similar

a praise

interceeding

c r e a t e d me

name

on o n e ' s

to

Ehi

like

in

the

name

from

the

shadowing

is

indi-

behalf.
further

a king).

given

to

attitude

the

The
newly

child.
It

is

of

an E h i ' s

to

his

obvious,
functions

human

Osanobua.
other

name

A number

It

then,
or

counterpart.
may

divinities

be
on

that

that

spheres
This
if

apart
of

takes

an E h i

a m i s s i o n on

influence

the

the

is

form

is
of

that

of

function,
giving

intercession

s u c c e s s f u l Osanobua

supplicant's behalf.

another

assistance
before

will

send

the

One

informant

In an e s s a y "Ezomo's Ikegobo and the B e n i n C u l t o f the H a n d , '

R.
B r a d b u r y s t a t e s : ' A t one l e v e l t h e E h i r e p r e s e n t s t h e i n n a t e p o t e n t i a l i t i e s
f o r s o c i a l achievement w i t h w h i c h each i n d i v i d u a l i s b e l i e v e d to be endowed.
P r e d e s t i n y i s seen as a l i m i t i n g f a c t o r on t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s c a p a c i t y to
a c h i e v e s u c c e s s t h r o u g h h i s own a c t i o n s ( 1 9 6 1 :
133-4).

2
Bradbury s t a t e s (1961: 133-4) 'In o p e r a t i o n the c u l t of the E h i
c a n be shown to h a v e a p a r t i c u l a r a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h t h e a b i l i t y t o . b e g e t ,
o r b e a r , and keep h e a l t h y c h i l d r e n .
T h o u g h o n e who h a s a s t r o k e o f g o o d
l u c k s h o u l d , and o f t e n d o e s , t h a n k h i s E h i , i t i s more o f t e n i n v o k e d i n
c o n t e x t s o f f a i l u r e and m i s f o r t u n e . '

'.;

- 221 told

me

sphere

that
of

tecting
name
an

an

Ehi

is

the

influence

is

limited

function

IgbinEhi

Ehi

of

(I

can give

an E h i

take

guards

me)

out

trials

imposed by

remain
At

when
Ehi

death

an Edo
ceases

child
to

The

it

takes

exception

since
only

they
the

final

mants,
the

death

it
of

not

it

Ehi)

is

is

Ehi

personal
in

the

asserts

the

praised

stood by

because

level.

Edo

and

pro-

The/',-

belief

that

Ehisumwen
for

his

The

E h i names.

situations.

being

to

(My

protection

enabled

exist.

an E h i by

however,

that

the

ceases

given

assuming

are

had

revealed

E h i has

An E h i ,

place

Edo b e l i e v e

the

throughindividual

death
the

w i l l

incarnate

releases

new

burial.

the

function

The

A s we h a v e

Osanobua;

i g h e l e - e r i m w i n who

a proper

that

judgment

before

discovered

that

incarnated

First,

Ehi

the

of

are

orion

when
at

orion

dead

the

not

erimwin

guardian.

wanderers
does

the

first

into

lineage

seen

(ghosts),

incarnate,

Ehi.

The
its

have

to

divinities'

intentions.'

born

this

the

dangerous

Edo b e l i e v e

its
to

in

individual's

is

The

solely

enemies.

function.

opportunity.
where

the

a l l

under

that

from.'bad

of

also

shelter

indicates

free

is

protection

Ehi

to

'last

is

Ehi.

some member

of

goes

Osanobua.
the

There

necessary

an E h i

for
the

through

In

a number

Edo b e l i e v e

are

that

it

e s s e n t i a l l y four

t h e woman

to

extended

cycles

of

interviews

is

possible

means

of

before
with

to

infor-

identify

identification.

conceive 'contiguously

with

the

family.

FFB
the
Diagram

fourteen

died
FS.

and h i s

Ehi
*

incarnated

3
As f a r as I have b e e n
i n whom a l l E d o p a r t i c i p a t e .

able to
Further

a s c e r t a i n , t h e r e i s no d i v i n i t y E h i
r e s e a r c h may b e n e c e s s a r y o n t h i s
point.
1

Secondly,

markings

on

person's.

Thirdly,

similar

to

the

child's

Ehi.
In

child
this
and

one

case

statement

This

she

the

to

was

that

the

The

FFB

the

the

to

child

wanted

after

they

behaviour
he

took

and

to

that

a non-Edo

in

the

the

is

contrast

the

Edo

individual's

survive

and

He

on

the

a wife.

wife.

to
The

Ehi.

For

go

village

The

the

Orogho

return
During
a

diviner

said

the

the

the
vanished

subsequent
boy

FFB's

that

in

that

sickness

when

for

food.

had

child's

me

the

of

some

she

diviner

told

making

village.

to

parallels

the

and w o u l d

the

example,

informant

be

explanation

The woman's
Ehi.

will

Ehi,

conception

husband

dead

prepare

out

to

the

identify

the

FW t o

her

This

My

from

back

FFB's

years

FFB's

going

problem.

'revealing.'

for

the

after

to

following

came

road

FFB's

c h i l d was

the

The

he was

the

the

the

for

will

FFB

the

led

of

diviner

told

that

identical
the

FS had

the

Shortly

as

this

married,
behaviour

Ehi

will

family.

Ehi

life

said

nature

the

the

be

through

father.'

home.

died

will

the

day

This

I t s e k i r i woman

stay

In

he

'known'

reinforced

choice of

always

the

be

said

an

at

problem.

discover

that

One

FW c o n c e i v e d .

stomach

body

behaviour

father's

then

Unfortunately

order

told

not

Fourthly,

given.

shortly.

serious

child's

was

F was

did.

month

child's

deceased's.

'brother

found

the

222

to

and

Ehi

concept

of

capacity

prosper.

The

the

Edo

Belief

representing
the
to

head

is

Uhumwun

predestiny

(uhumwun),

organize

uhumwun

in

his

the

believed

actions

recognized

of

by

in

potentiality
to

such

the

Edo

be

the

a way
to\be

as

seat

of
of

to
the

seat

of

thinking

most

of

the

(iroro),

of

judgment

senses.

Bradbury

223

(enwae)

states

and w i l l

(1961:

(ekhoe)

as w e l l

as

of

134):

While E h i implies a r e j e c t i o n of personal c o n t r o l over one's

fortunes,
uhumwun a d m i t s a g r e a t e r d e g r e e o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e m . . . O n a
man's Head depends n o t o n l y h i s w e l l - b e i n g b u t t h a t o f h i s w i v e s and
c h i l d r e n ; and, s i n c e t h i s dependence i s r e c i p r o c a l , he serves t h e i r
H e a d s a t t h e same t i m e as h i s o w n .
Thus t h e Head c u l t has a p a r t i c u lar association with family headship.
The

Edo

told

that

me t h a t

says:
from
or

say

it

'without
is

Uhumwunnamure
heaven

behaves

piece

of

goes

badly,

he

child

with

good

that

on w i t h
is

and

fortune

(Bradbury

head

head,

said

'It

(on
to

1957:

body
the

is

are

the

58).

The

the

of

that

head

informant

An Edo

one

has

proverb

brought

experiences

(Omijie

1968:

case or

s a c r i f i c e to

i l l - l u c k

41).

particularly

a court

individual

One

'shape.'

someone

head

to

the winning

useless.'

head
If

a bad
made

is

body

earth).'

have

offerings
s u c h as

the

gives

a ya khian.

that

Sacrifices

the

the

the

the

after
birth

uhumwun

a
of

begins

prayer.
My h e a d , b e p r e s e n t w i t h me t o t a k e t h i s f o o d .
I'm d o i n g i t f o r a
sign of thanksgiving for your guidance throughout t h i s
troublous
period.
I i m p l o r e y o u t o a l l o w me t o l i v e l o n g s o t h a t t h e w o r l d w i l l
n o t s a y t h a t I h a v e b a d l u c k (uhumwun d a n ) a n d a b a d E h i ( E h i
dan).

My

informant

together.
the

sacrifice

make

nut

There

that

it

doesn't

consciousness that
The

the

said

course
a

is

actual
c a n be
of

is

necessary

seem t o

one

is

events.

s a c r i f i c e to

It

his

The

individual

the

favoured

at
is

mention

s a c r i f i c e to
or

honouring

uhumwun f o l l o w s

any

time

either

possible

both

for

to

the

the

Ehi

and

uhumwun

t h e uhumwun
one's

usual

thank

Ehi.
Edo

pattern.

uhumwun o r

diviner

to

without

ask

to

any

change

Edo

to

uhumwun.

who

item)

any

invoking

s a c r i f i c e to
offered

be

to

is

making

first

cuts

s a c r i f i c e to
the

cocoanut

his
into

uhumwun
31

(the

pieces.

cocoaThe

thirty-first

p i e c e must

other

v-shaped

thirty

circular

shaped

side

back of

and

After
I

this

is

to

see

the

the

public

dawn
out
is

c a l l e d the

to

the
to

on

evening
the

the

s i x t h day
The

Thousands
Before
These
and

the

Oba.

of

Edo

dance b e f o r e
They

rubbed

is

child.

rubbed

s a c r i f i c e to

position

of

every

Festival.
from

they

on
is

the

the

the

the

The

the

the

twirl

present

rite

the
at

come
and

open

to

me.

live

courtyard

and

uhumwun

is

importance

and

status

There

of

in

are

the
this

the

Edo

number

just

before

chase a l l

evil

things

'leaves

to

their

the

the

is

regularly

past

the

head

Oba's

the

parents

of

Oba's

enter

the

chest.

morning

leading

gather

his

year.

In

fire

roads

s a c r i f i c e s to

Oba

front,

out

of

of

the

joy

town.

This

(eb-ewere)

s a c r i f i c e the

chiefs

the

gathered.

Oba's

of

on

the

of

M a y my w i f e

the
end

top

Uhumwunmwen

head.

junction

last

gather

actual

it

Oba's

Igwe

(priests

s a c r i f i c e to

paramount

blessing.

the

after

and

the

brands

they

Ihogbe

Only

taken

'Ehimwen,

the

those

the

Then

p l a c e d on

return

the

Oba.

at

ugie-ewere.

their

by

from

the

the

which

head

take burning
City

to

then

contrasts with

A f t e r the s a c r i f i c e in

honour

derives
is

place

individual's

to

is

is

prays:

delivery

eaten

associated with

Benin

last

child.'

the

(Igwe)

Igwe

children
of

to

ceremony
The

is

shape w h i c h

chalk

supplicant

the

item

ceremony

rites

of

The

safe

in

A k o l a nut

Native

head.

the

contrast

kingdom.

pieces.

the

growth

particular

of

the

for

sacrificial
In

circular

cocoanut.

done

am t h a n k f u l

be

224

is

kings)

various

to

titled

ceremonial

demonstrating
traditional

observe
chiefs

power

and

It

takes

(Bradbury

are

the

In

leaves
place

on

1957:

59).

ceremony.
sacrifice.

salute

with
and

adults.

similar

impressive

ground

their
eben

uhumwun

a most

other

present

performed.

Oba's

palace

and

their
asking

the

Oba.

entourages
for

acknowledged by

his
the

Next
two

of

Oba's
Held

the

the
Oba's

uhumwun
by

bowl.

Oba's

one

is

anointed

assistants.

takes

man,

head

place.

its

Some

of

the

blood

This

is

followed

After
The

throat

is

is

225

this

first
slit

then

with

a medicine

is

completed

item to

and

taken

the
and

be

the

flows

anointed

prepared

sacrifice

sacrificed is

blood
is

ritually

into
on

the

the

to

by

the

cock.

large
head

wooden

of

the

4
Oba.
is

c o m p l e t e d . , ; The

the

Oba's

There

is

throne
a

surrogate
head
is

is

for

the

final

Facing

tense

animal

towards

perambulates
blowing

horns

with

is

his

the

made

to

the

Oba.

gerous

period

into

to

Edo

Edo,
as

if

he

people.
is

being
for

during

the

he

out
The

of

goats.

and

subdued
which

throat

blood.
of

the

is

the

cow,

for

the

and

appear
It

the

Oba

'good

is
is

to
the
the

have

been

Oba's

head

then

also

that
of

his

triumphantly.

sword).

brought

depository

destiny,'

throne

followed

crowd

Oba's

once

eben.(ceremonial

The

the

but

the

tusks.

again

animals,

from h i s

animals

is

crowd

twirls

elephant's

say

the

arises

slaughtered

before

in

Oba

the

process

sacrifice.

atmosphere

various

same

brought

some E d o
slit

The

The

the

protection.

blessed with

cow's

sacrifice

people

Since

four

sacrificed is

sacrificial
the

of

cow's blood

The

slaughtered
wives,

be

bludgeoned

being.
the

sacrifice
to

carcasses of

praise

the

the

item

bowl

a human

anointed

extremely

final

after

separate

by

He

by

men

joins
out

gives

blessing
subjects

of

then

in
a

dan-

direction
for

the

will

benefit

well.

B l o o d i s a l s o a n o i n t e d on the head of one o f the h o l d e r s of

"bodyt i t l e s " (egie-egbe).
The h o l d e r s o f t h e s e t i t l e s r e p r e s e n t
different
p a r t s and q u a l i t i e s o f t h e O b a ' s p e r s o n : t o r s o ( e r h a / o n y e ) ;
head
(ohoba);
feet (ehana), e t c .
During the s a c r i f i c e to the Oba's"head, blood i s
a n o i n t e d on t h e Ohoba t i t l e - h o l d e r .
:

II.

As
that

we h a v e

when

things

satisfactorily.

THE M A N I F E S T A T I O N

seen
are

226

from our

going

Names

analysis

well

like

My

(good
Ehi

OF

of

Ehi-names,

destiny)

is

good;

an

Ehi.

this
of

me

indicate
On

to

the

the

the

individual

will

other

fact

something.

that

that

his

This

may

back

into

r e c e i v e messages

certain

events

media nor

the

as

Ehi

to

their

open

Ehi

could
of

be

burial

in

Ehi

that

Ehi

his

can be
as

me

that

This

cowries
house

ceremony
Edo

motivation

Ehi

is

that

interact with

is

is

believe

doing

his

doctor;

the

My

Edo

be
can

by

may

action designed

to

bring

with his

Ehi.

who w i l l

Neither

of

attribute
need

an

An

Edo

interpret

the

dream-

Ehi.

EHI

believe

does

that

sacrifice

not

have

before

one's

It

would

be

placed

with

the
to

aruEhi,

a
in

dead

person.

come f r o m w i t h i n

the

at

in

an

shrine
amount

separate

And

Ehi

pray

one

large

year.

their

can

made

own E h i

containing

every

they
is

an

a pot

sacrifice

the workings

is

of

buried

Ehi

in

The

invoked

E h i may

and

diviner

Edo

60-70

job

thus

displeased.

him.

to

u n s u c c e s s f u l he

ritual

the

i t .

c o u l d be

they

attributed

R E S P O N S E TO

consist

around

Ehi

Edo

honoured

utilized

reach

aruEhi would

believe
to

must

Ehi

a good

relationship

average

would

tied

where

the

some

s a c r i f i c i n g to

one

way

being

influenced,

the

is

through

T H E EDO

Although

obtained.

the

not

a harmonious

from h i s

signs

as w e l l

told

The
The

an

chalk with

place

is

possession-media are

courtyard.

informant

an E d o ' s

precipitate

III.

Since

if

is

the

successful living

hand,

their

Ehi

guards

EHI

during

any

the

time.

individual

or

because

of

s a c r i f i c e s but

Edo

of

belief

Case

Ehi with

Ehi.

U.

I.

one

sparing

token

U.

in

I.

of

was

him

few

was

to

later.

his

be

have

give

not

some

Here

be

recorded

idea

of

fortune

good

City

Ehi.

we

This

can

see

Ehi

is

able

the

other

not

preclude

Case

3
Mr.
purpose

J . E.
was

to

some

a great

number

s a c r i f i c e and

the

that

Ehi

is

and

for

City

continued

this

such

made

such
(old

he

the

his

was

for

more

as

age.

Mr.

cocoanut.

sacrifice
1967.

Apparen-

harassed.

suggested

his

that

fourteen

intercessional

Osanobua

to

plead

personalistically

Ogun o r
for

his

from r e b e l

Ehi

grandchildren)

sacrifice

before

divinities

old

and

August

sought

Olokun,

his

behalf.

diviner

repeated

s a c r i f i c e to

deliverance

age

particular

The

go

thank

Ehi with

rebels,

function

these

his

the

to

to

a grand

City,

being

as

was

Benin

persuaded

perform

s a c r i f i c e to

s a c r i f i c e was made

This

guidance.
and

a c t i o n on h i s

by

did

divinities

Benin

life

of

he

interaction with

of

in

from danger.

a roadblock

seeking

to

s a c r i f i c e to

seen

his

does

occupation

approached

of

made

This

live

favourable

Biafran

is

any

to

made

purpose

a grandfather.

his

at

City
His

him

Ehi

than

Benin

allowing

functions.
cause.

in

cocoanut.

delivered

diviner
his

Ehi's

Benin

the

s a c r i f i c e to

to

that

he was

the

and

for

to

to

during

whenever

He w e n t

live

J . E . of

purpose

was made

cock,

conscious

Mr.

The

may

Ogbe Q u a r t e r s

gratitude

days

have

to

Case

he

the

white

attributable

tly

request.

of

were

His

diviner's

1
Mr.

for

the

227

Esu.

This

similar

Ehi with

hands

fact

ends.

during

cock.
the

Biafran

occupation of

The
or

when

it

Edo
is

to

the

revealed

to

them

Ehi's

dissatisfaction with

above

cases,

gerous '

his

Edo

Thus

but

it

is

the

there
obo"*

not

the

the
This

'some

(Bradbury

their

E h i when

plight

activities in

s a c r i f i c e or

to

their

might

agbon.

in

order

will

the

The

c a n become

erimwin.

uhumwun o r

Osanobua

uhumwun

is

on

Not

to

their

the

point

confusing.

seems

the

that

either

worship.

aver

In

and
that

a guess,

individual

Edo make

hand

they

are

be

related

As

seen

thankful
to

their

from

alleviate

the
'dan-

is

the

Edo

though

or

is

of

say

status

guide
but

sacrifice, it

what,

the

in

positive

he

Edo

act

that

is

as

Ehi's

hands

states

wealth

actual

more

closely

are

in

(obo).

One

and

and

object
offerings
some

erimwin.

sacrifice is
attention

that

uhumwun

making

'served'
a

of

be

sacrifice,

though

questioned

when

58)

the

may

the

case of

symbol

the Head),

when

their

Ehi

the

principle,

(1957:

directing his

s a c r i f i c e s to

an

Bradbury

actual entities

would

does

to

actually receiving

a more

an E h i

related

behalf.

p r a c t i c e the

arms

as

only

recipient

that

is

present-life

se

regards

Hazarding
uhumwun,

in

an Edo

uhumwun p e r

a c t u a l heads

informants

what

d i f f i c u l t y . . . i n determining

achievement

of

of

their

before

when

Ehi.

is

social

divinity

interacted with

counterpart

through

intercedes

that

that

their

also

potentiality

spiritual

individual
also

is

personal

situations.
The

of

Benin.

respond

an E h i

228

made

to

to

particular

case

recorded

illustrates this.
M r . 0 . 1 . o f B e n i n C i t y made a s a c r i f i c e o f k o l a n u t s ,
a l l i g a t o r pepper and one c o c k t o h i s o b o .
H i s p u r p o s e was t o t h a n k h i s
h a n d f o r t h e good y i e l d o f l a r g e yams i n h i s f a r m .
Mr. 0 . 1 . ' s success is
judged i n terms of w e a l t h .
A c c o r d i n g t o B r a d b u r y (1961: 134) the s a c r i f i c e . )
s y m b o l i z e s h i s v i g o u r , e n t e r p r i s e and i n d u s t r y ; i n f a c t , a k i n d o f
selfcongratulations .

- 229
component
no
a

of

divinity
good

Ehi,

his
is

able

it

doesn't

Summing
higher
full,

body;

up,

than h i s

to

this

and

matter

assistance.

assistance

the

Edo

from

divinities
Therefore
doxical
a

the

whereas
when

an

because he

destiny

behaviour

that

is

as w e l l

receive
other
Ogun,
Edo

destiny

It

as

there

for

being

various
such
to

is

can act

manipulate

only

manipulate

fulfilled

disruptive

due

without

to

And

'good'

further,

He

obstacles

without

can r i s e
that

no

hinder

circumstances, Ehi

can

note

of

not

of

the

that
the

the

his

kind

same n a t u r e

a s s i s t a n c e of

independently
destiny

of

is

to

help

him

careless of

even

his

Ehi

Esu or

the

the

a
be

as

that

other

Osanobua.

this

a c t i v i t y of

head,

i s .

erimwin.

E h i needs

example,
to

Ehi

head

in

important

divinities.

attempts

the

is

set

In

For

activities.

one's

are

from t h e i r

can r e a l l y
not

is

successful l i f e .

for

head.

in his

how g o o d

However,

approached

received

case the

a s s i s t one

an E d o ' s

Ehi.

harmonious

in

not

para-

achieve

rebellious

azen.

CHAPTER

T H E EDO

I.

. The

Edo

believe

divinities.

The

conceived

in

who

have

of

DIVINITY

is

not

given

consent,

closely

related

the

that

their

their

Edo

know

destiny

life

can be

individual.

And

lastly,

the

Holy

gentle

Osanobua

of

and

emotions

status

in

Osanobua

God.
no

is

been

is

lesser
they

He

Edo

the

is

the

to

Osanobua
sends

the

of

purpose
the

could

be

born.

in

that

he

has

g o d who h a s

who
the

Thus
is

dead

given

the

process.

every

them

the

the

is

also

one

an

this

Ehi;

events

in

the

Edo

world

continuity

a cult;

is

perform.

over

into

lesser

Osanobua

Osanobua

given

back

by

to

unfortunate

him w i t h

worship

of

creative

sovereign

as

Osanobua

'children'

in

linking

object

or

as w e l l
to

active

child

high

Osanobua,

divinities

are

predetermined.

intimately

and

Edo

Ogun.

in

the

the

g o o d may

temperamental
of

terms:

Osanobua

cycle

the

individual

it

related

Divinity,

SYSTEM

in

of

life.

members

of

Aruosa.

Each
as

has

Further,

reincarnational

Edo

that

OVERVIEW

specific function

a withdrawn

to

of

AN

EDO R E L I G I O U S

supreme

genealogical

Osanobua's

A l l

I N THE

Without

Ehi.

RELIGION:

relationship

each been

Osanobua

in

XI

their

divinities
be

Not

contrasted
only

do

the

interaction with

hierarchically
Olokun

has

is

a distinctive
with
Edo

a particularly

capricious

divinities

the

structured

the

Edo,

personality.

but

Esu

display
they

pantheon.

The

interesting

one.

have

and

Olokun
the

various
low or

relationship
Some

Edo

types
high
between

feel

that

231

the

worship

of

Olokun

'more p o w e r f u l . '
of

Jehovah-Christ.

concepts
his
be

of

position
capable

beings

expected

of

Just

of

bulk

importance

of

the

of

that

the

in

the

have

the

Edo

the

dream-experiences,

ohen.

But

the

most

through

the

relating

divinity

in

that

Edo

by

the

Once
the

the

the

have

experience
in.

problems

are

the

azen.

For
a l l

enable

be

of

the

unfortunate

Ogun

is

also

has
he

in

in
the

We h a v e

is

that

Christian

come

to

assume

believed

the

to

to

the

great

Thus

divinities
as

events

capable

of

Edo

to

be

to

com-

accentuates

interpret
the

Edo

divini-

child,

to

detail,

we

could

and

order

Edo

to

lack

k i l l i n g but

divinity

events

experience

to

erimwin.

live
or

in

unfortunate,

divinity

children,

grounded
the

say

is

the
of

particular

experience

fortunate

be

of

experience

believed

either

which would
of

is

thesis

that

a l l

c l a s s i f i e d according
death

exist

possession-experiences

comprehend

divinity.

to

ability

system

unfortunate
into

This

the

seen

in which

and

Edo

culture.

within

and

one/more

further

example,

is

by

believed

this

going

the

in

is

material

c l a s s i f i e d experience

w i l l

to what

is

way

fortunate
Without

canopy

influenced

personality

divinity.

experiences

sacred

Edo

grounded

pantheon.

these

of

significant

divinities

grounding

'under'

or

the

Olokun

parallels

Olokun

cosmology

actors

through

of

due

themselves

ties

is

been

Possibly

divinities

as

the

Edo

here.

experience
speak

that

Osanobua-Olokun

descriptive

point:

'speech'

Osanobua,

between

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of
of

of

Edo.

manifesting

this

the

say

divinities

another

The

cannot

for

the

how much

hierarchy

doing

of

for

the

capable

municate.
the

in

superseded

relationship

Divinity

Each
as

The

has

in

nature

of

it

is

menstrual

either

Esu

death

*"In s e v e n
Ogun

in

order

some

ailment

to
or

of

the

destroy

thirteen

cases

i n my

a w i t c h who was

disturbance.

data,

believed

the
to

be

Edo
the

sacrificed
ground

of

to

- 232

would

not

would

be

in

this

can be

be

the

same

grounded
manner.

in

as

Olokun.

Once

comprehended

the

and

divinity

who

has

divinity

who

can a s s i s t

been

II.

The
pure

Like

the

other

relationship

element

is

not

culture

this

comes

power

the

pure

with

as

absent

to

the

divinities.

systems

(See

Uchendu

as

there

on

However,

selected

or

to

pure
1965:

the

to

another

individuals

here

the

with

which

priests

the

maniputhe

within

relevant
of

of

communion

Particularly

members

the

15),

communion

cult

it

continuum

mystical

For

mapped

to

of

majority

child

SYSTEM

close

contractual.

the

divinity

experience

very

significant.

over

be

interaction

be

a kind

of

diilemma.

is

Since

to

placed

are

gift

could

if

would

achieve

particularly
control

divinity,

religious

able

and

EDO

his

the

RELIGIOUS

are

is

of

IN

divinity

priests.

ritual

in

THE

the

attributed

individual

communion,

to

been

ground

And

experience

through

the

with

African

entirely

Olokun

women

divined

Esu.

Edo

has

managed

who

relationship
Ogun and

then

to

entire

experience

RITUAL

to

attributed
The

relationship

manipulation

lation.
Edo

Edo

death

in

would
of

their

be

the

Olokun

are

possession-experience

usually

includes

them

maintain

some

male

members.
The
and

cosmological

disruption
demands

of

ritual

fulfillment
are

divinities

of

the

of

the

balance.

Any

harmonious

action.
their

associated with

Edo

cosmology

event

functioning

Disruptions

goals
evil:

that

are
Esu,

or

azen

involves
of

the

to

and

to

an

Edo

obstacles

attributed
the

help

in

'affliction, '

individual

in

the

the

a number
other

social

evil

way

of

of

or

culture
Edo

divinities

spirits.

The

who

233

diviner

w i l l

ress

in

business,

ticular

divinity.

text

social

of

others
well
who

and

as
is

to

attribute

to

has

an

The

obstacle

types

diviner

relationships

a particular

believed

removed

various

a particular

counteraction
is

some

to

of

and

be

bad

the

will

divinity

capable

set

by

passage

the

is

can
a

good)

to

the

child,

lack

activity

of

in

the

con-

relationship

with

disruptive
to

ground

the

his
of

event

that

balancing

of

agent:

(The

normally

again).

V.

the

Igbo

as

divinity
(The

balance

in

par-

the

social

theme

prog-

experience

cosmological balance

and

function
similar

a male

event

restoring

the

on

the

the

as

who

of

of

sickness)

divinity

forces

(Lack

relating

individual

illuminating

of

obstacle
Uchendu

religious

system:
B u t t h e Igbo b e l i e v e t h a t t h e s e s o c i a l c a l a m i t i e s and c o s m i c f o r c e s
w h i c h d i s t u r b t h e i r w o r l d a r e c o n t r o l l a b l e and s h o u l d be
"manipulated"
b y t h e m f o r t h e i r own p u r p o s e .
The m a i n t e n a n c e o f s o c i a l and c o s m o l o g i c a l b a l a n c e i n the w o r l d becomes, t h e r e f o r e , a dominant
and
p e r v a s i v e theme i n I g b o l i f e .
They a c h i e v e t h i s b a l a n c e , f o r
instance,
t h r o u g h d i v i n a t i o n , s a c r i f i c e , a p p e a l t o the c o u n t e r v a i l i n g powers
of
t h e i r a n c e s t o r s (who a r e t h e i n v i s i b l e f a t h e r - f i g u r e s )
against the
powers o f t h e m a l i g n a n t and n o n a n c e s t r a l s p i r i t s , and s o c i a l l y t h r o u g h
constant re-alignment i n their s o c i a l groupings
(1965:
13).
What Uchendu
with

their

has

stated

divinities

for

in

the

order

Igbo
to

is

solve

also

valid

their

for

the

problematic

Edo

who

interact

situations

which

2
are

invariably

related

and

children.

At

the

Edo:

Some
to

disrupters

divinities

remove

the

the

to

three

basic

cosmological

and

disrupt

restorers;
and

afflict

concerns

level

there

malignant
primarily

of

the

are

and

Edo:

beings

health,
for

non-malignant

while

others

are

and

wealth
against

beings.
'mobilized'

affliction.

F i f t y percent of the s a c r i f i c e s o f f e r e d to Olokun were

thanksgiving
s a c r i f i c e s o f f e r e d b e c a u s e O l o k u n was b e l i e v e d t o have overcome o b s t a c l e s
b l o c k i n g the f u l f i l l m e n t of g o a l s .
One E d o w o m a n , f o r e x a m p l e t h a n k e d
Olokun
t h a t he had fought a g a i n s t the azen f o r
her.

The
units

Edo

within

sphere

believe

the

that

social

the

The

of

influence:

the welfare

important

divinities

in

not

surprising

regardless

of

divinities,
Although

experience,

This

is

The
give

of

are

is

Sacrifice

say

that

Edo

that

increase

the

Edo

drawn

are

the
one

the

are
for

most

highly

divinity

The

are

most

is

a l l

limited

to

and

a yet

of

some

capable
health

and

matters

of

of

it!s

the

a l l

and

pre-occupied

free

villages.

of

Edo

powerful
in

with

the

culture.

matters

alleviating

concerns

most

individuals

aspect/s

important

valued

The
and

servitors

lineages

village

wider

Olokun

welfare

f r o m many

the

have

Ogun and
the

that

lineage

village-groups.

concerned with

Olokun
not

or

affiliation.

are

only

is

village

cosmology

seems

Ogun and

achieve

of

village

it

underpin

hero-divinities

'concerned'

divinities

Olokun

and

Edo
for

are

Olokun,

the

erha,

children
The

the

or

Edo

concerned with

to

The

point

lineage

with

not

health.

they

Ogun and

a l l

divinities

that

ancestors

order.

the

234

but

of

sickness.

is

able

to

wealth.

cosmological
demands

that

and
they

social

balance

procure

at

through

sacrifice.

considerable

expense
3

various
The

items

items

patterned
white
ficial
say

be

as

items
they

goats,

offered

manner.

female

that

I did
paper
fice:

to

such

hen
have
are

With
and
a

to

hens,

dogs

divinity

Olokun,

the white
symbolic

are

for

pieces

of

cloth

determined

by

the

example,

goat.

meaning

interacting with

and

the

favoured

Ogun f a v o u r s
in

the

divinity.

ritual
I

the

and

diviner
items

dog.

this

in

are

These

context where

suggest

foodstuffs.
a
the
sacri-

the

actors

tentatively,

The economic t r a n s a c t i o n i n v o l v e d h e r e i s o b v i o u s l y i m p o r t a n t
but
not have the time to determine the a c t u a l cost to the Edo.
For a
on t h e e c o n o m i c a s p e c t s o f s a c r i f i c e see F i r t h ' O f f e r i n g and S a c r i Problems of O r g a n i z a t i o n '
(1965:
185-194).

- 235
but

it

may

and

the

in

believers

be

that

ritual

patterns

can be

be

the

setting

order

to

affirm:

the

attempt

to

personal,

are

sacrifice

and

of

entirely

level.

The

dog.

How a r e

we

to

interpret

goods

to

divinity

offering

of

munication with

Edo

these

Many w r i t e r s
nature

of

communal
sacrifice

does

with, d i v i n i t y .

have

certain that

of

shrine.

shrine,
it

was

only

festivals
In
the

the

Eho

the

the

prepared

he had

blood

that

element

of
for

animal.
foods.

b e t w e e n k i n members

be

to

are

was

the

aside.

it

being

lies

to

in

though

patterns

one

I was

told

phrase)

However,

in

the

there
also

is

the

the

a ritually

be noted

that

that

reaffirmed.

day

on

aspect

of

day

floor

rite

of

This

is

front

the
that

thanksgiving

is

predominant.

defined

bonds

Olokun,

in

again

yearly

the

interaction

to

place

time

the
in

a hen

kinsmen

the

com-

is

by

proper

sacrificial

obvious

ritually

in

him

beings.

sacrifice

and

the

the

and Mauss)

the

time

level,

communal

on

on

p o s s i b i l i t y of

sacrifice

blood

may

who

of

the

it

beings,

of

the

then

divinity

actors

in

in

the

Edo

the

Hubert

Olokun

the

in

the

The

offered

meaningful

w h e n we g i v e

At

importance

sprinkled

seems

him,

important

mattered.

should

to

Horton's

offering.

sprinkled

example,

Here

use

in

face v a l u e what

better

a belief

items

words

communication
us

the

them because

media

uncovers

that

of

item

statement?

(to

actor,

items

such a

communion

It

the

'Ogun h e a r s

overly

blood

tossed

Festival,

sacrificed

other

After

t h e h e n was

non-verbal

seen a p r i e s t

the

to

sacrificial

sacrificial

seem t o

making
the

the

we a c c e p t a t

Robertson - Smith,

noted

the

phrasing

offering

'extra-social'

have

of

not

say:

(Frazer,

sacrifice
sharing

do

the

meaningful

the

subject

social
1

If
is

in

s t a t e d by
to

c o n t r o l l e d by

s t r u c t u r e messages
not

as

analogous

symbolic meaning

are

end

communicate.

that

manipulated

that

desired

sharing
partake

of

of
of

fellowship

also

true

for

the

ceremonies

selves

honouring

as

linked

An

interesting

congregational
Dahomean
(is)

is

and

units

peculiarities
accurate

in

of

that

culture

crosscut

their

ends.

tirely

new

fertility
have

This

and

job.

divinities
social

not

than

who

Edo

seem t o

be

shifted

f r o m an

are

It

say,
s t i l l

though
the

the

a l l

been

helping

ancestral

the

important
The

the

Edo

religious

true

that

focus

to

the
the

for

that

means

to

are

pass

with

the

system

is

very

traditional
focus.

be

is

in

entirely

essentially

the

Edo

to

the

where

economic

Edo

there

and

poli-

are

pursuing

en-

goals

(health,

wealth,

these

or

to

modern

goals
for

obtain

that
unit

help

better

certain
of

the

world.

resilient
religious
In

may

sought

appears

enduring

to

a cultic

character

instrumental

now b e i n g

any

enduring

view

attain

it

it

to

old

exams

of

not

have

the

come

both

the

pursue

cults

their

provenance

environment

adjust

the

of
of

Edo

as

urban

divinities,

identified

none

system

divinities
to

social

religious

to

them-

is

much

Edo

open,

able

'so

would

i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c way

motorcycles,

is

with

function

groups.

an

see

about

statement

most

descent

that

said

this

however,

traditional

dying.

the

has

with

to

even

not

of

the

is

individuals

rejecting

have

today

217)

unconnected

(this)

members

Dahomean r e l i g i o n

noted

between

are

sell

and

coincident

within

example,

to

structure
The

goals

They

For

and

a highly

status),

trade,

Rather

days,

where

community.

(1960:

Although

structure

is

goals.

changed.

lorry

vodun.'

struggle

Edo

He h a s

virtually

lineages
in

cultic

both

Edo.

kingdom,

various

considerable

tical

in

of

the

of

the

divinities

attainment
is

is,

of

groupings

the

divinities

single

ritual
the

What H o r t o n

for

pre-contact

cultic,

feature

recruitment
in

various

in

structure.

by

resulting

structural

together

also valid

marked

the

236

and

does

.system

general

has

terms,

not

lineages,
tance

as

become

clans,

less

valued

ends

shifts

in

For

example,

with metal,

this

is

'Europeans'

built,

experiences

society

attributed

Edo

due

about

unfortunate
are

is

The

divinity

d i v i n i t i e s have

individuals

village.

c a u s e d any

demise

canopy.

divinity

praised

power.

power

of

The

become

said

the

here

ground

is

of

in

that

Someto

that

that

Edo.

accidents

the

things

across

stating

also

Ogun t h a n

point

the

Ogun,

He

from motor

came

achieve

of

his

to

has

new

and m e c h a n i c s under

his

of

And

taken

priest

Ogun.

and

not

impor-

Ancestor worship

in which

lineage

in

has

resulting
to

field

decreased

iron,

to

the

have

goals.

new e x p e r i e n c e

ugiOgun.

knew more

of

s o c i e t y have

Ogun t h e

of

this

the
from

machinery

adjusting
the

as

away

a modernizing

observing

tional

attainment

important

associated

a bridge

the

less

divinities.

of

to

l a r g e - s c a l e groupings

and

experiences

when

other

instruments

socially

thing

and

237

me

whenever

the

Further,

the

some

modernizing
of

new e x p e r i e n c e

the
in

tradichanging

society.
We h a v e
were

ritualized

never
on

seen

that

oppositions

and

that

the

been

conceived of

lineage

affiliation.

their

r e s p e c t i v e ed i o n

uphold

in

The

Oba
laid

of

(Bradbury

1967:

opposition

between

them,

also

Uzama

f u l f i l l
It
any

served his

their

appears

edion,

divinely

more

competitor,

likely
the

he

did

sanctioned
that

Edo

social

in

the

Benin

if

edion-Oba

the

the

26).
set
not

customs
These

Kingdom

limits
do

on

this

Oba w a n t e d
help

and

their
to

to

him

of
the

attain

this

the

power.

When

Oba b u t

to

political

eliminate

to

to

sanctioned
use

based

rituals

continue(d)

depose
the

have

segments

important

rituals

function within

wouldn't

structure

c o m p e t i t i o n between

Uzama p e r f o r m e d

down

values'

but

the

and

its

the

the

p o l i t i c a l roles

terms

'who

within

the

structure.
Uzama

or

particular

end.

In

fact,

tion

in

1939

'struggle

c o a l i t i o n , which

proportions.
of

the

sorcery
the

purpose

of

the

Oba

1968:

guardians

of

power

one

chalk
the

239).

a divinely
another

in

divinity

is

by

butes

the

to

welfare

interests

rate

this

which
If

served

is

any

of

would

the

ambitious

into

alliances

ship

cut

political

the

between

segments

to

them

the

help
same

the

of

achieve

divinities,

We m i g h t

To

do

want

not

group.

village

in

the

of

social

that
in

the

the

culture

of

chiefly
(1968:

structure

to

orders

and

198).

Thus

who

see

departed

the

in

the

structural

shift

in

the

Edo

Holy

to

Aruosa

the
as

the
off

to

gain

of

contri-

not

serve

level.

its

Nuer

At

any

structure

and
he

served

Dinka.

had

as

to

and

divinities
have

enter
friend-

a basis

competition

Edo

hero-

is

as

for

not

able

access

to

ancestors.

shift

turn

does

affinity,

A l l

we

played
'used'

ahead,

kinship,

the

were

divinity

but

the

for

a particular

this

get

i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c ends.
the

if

serious

generally'

not

was

because

of

priests

political

p o l i t i c a l system of

excluding

examine

at

alarming

commoner

and were

divinity

to

times

people

village-group

Bonds

in

the

people,

p o l i t i c i a n wanted

their

and

example,

of

group

Edo

intrigue

this,

one

the

opposi-

paraphernalia

important
of

the

grew

of

custom

many

For

or

qua

the

the

order

any

and

support,

royalty

social

directions.

result

illustrate
to

Edo

and

expect

s o c i e t y would

tion.

that

boundaries

cooperation

of

e x c l u s i v e group

segmentary

young

to

clique

discovery

interests

that

worshippers

i n many

across

the

sense

the

As was

ancestors

be u n l i k e l y

unlike

in

palace

popular

kolanuts

another

of

the

garden.

sanctioned

an

the

c r e a t e d by

gods

the

over

between

and

The

influence

the

or

sent

appeasing

(Bradbury

against

Residency

increasing

A s e n s a t i o n was
in

crisis,

gained

238

Holy

alignments

divinity
Aruosa

to

group

church

within
coordina-

in Benin.

a n a t i v i s t i c movement w h i c h

I
seeks

to

perpetuate

church

as

II

in

them

timber

the

of

their

within
who

coronated
there

who

interests

is

possible

to

and

the

struggle

formed

Ogboni Lodge,

recruiting

Before

1948

it

significance.
This

was

due

iyase.

Such r i t e s
alien
(1968:

cult,

to

the

most

of

of

its

never

But

it

the

been

came t o

fact
it

never

members

that

the

was

been

clique

allowed

1950

oligarchy.

the

many
Two

Edo

in

distinct

'Old

clique

for

growing

literacy
had

interests

belonged

as

an

(1968:
and

the

was

Benin

the
to

to

there
obstacle

the

direct

they

organizations

were

the

none

in
at

emerged

Re-

1930's,
elites.

political
sinister
other

cabal.

than

initiation

Moreover,
place

an

coalition.

that

and

mysterious

no

func-

commercial

a menacing

had

chiefs

was

early

have

was

and

There

and

before.

titled

opposition

since

Oluwo,

felt

235).

any

sectors

retainers

discovered

Benin
and

of

educated

as

the

defined

Guard'

his

with

people

Edo

the

order.

a s s o c i a t e s , but

cult,

Yoruba

and

whose

clearly

Oba,

it

in

from

secret

social

Oba h i m s e l f

palace

The

element

head,

view

introduced

Many

closest

perceived

its

The

the

considered
be

been

servants

fairly

reigh;

existed

the

w i l l

235).

three

palace

which had

had

By

his

p o l i t i c a l turbulence,

associated with

244-5).

oppressive

of

Further,
had

of

1968:

Eweka's

had

opportunities

civil

political class.

in

in

ideologies.

power

identify

between

this

was

time

some

r a d i c a l modernist

During

schools

enterprises.

(Bradbury
to

power

did

Rather

alignments

and

political

growing

modern B e n i n

come

intense

saw t h e

culture.

1933,

clerks,

commercial
so

its

new e c o n o m i c

and

own

tionaries

in

were

teachers,

other

of

structural

Western

the

had

new

access to

others

It

new

to

i n t e l l i g e n t s i a and

were
to

was

few y e a r s ,

intelligentsia
gave

selected aspect

a response

When A k e n z u a
quite

239

it

Benin

was

the
rites.

an

culture

the

mercy

of

an

as

anti-Ogboni.

One was

the

Holy

tion

the

alien

to

Aruosa.

mainly

among

Ogboni

sentiments
The

the

social

were

able

Ogboni

older

Holy

Aruosa,

modify

ritual

approach

to

tional

religion

was

Possibly
values
way.

they

well

The

as

new

however,

system
ideas

that

developments
The

in

Edo

the

last

into

the

twilight

change

Yoruba
of

divinity

divinity
assist
new

ideas

divinities
seems

the

Edo

tensions.

of

the

able

They

from
and

'gained

in

opposi-

some

mobilization

success,

of

anti-

would

assist
if

to

culture
able

new

in

theme

in

their

tradi-

change.

him

in

Edo

this

Edo

is

not

effectively

new

religious

developments

This

counter

the

upholding

the

structural

They

system:

for

honoured

in

purpose.

that

a need

contact.

to

feel

them

they

important

new a l i g n m e n t s

another

Edo

recognize

an

been

the

to

religious

did

adjust

from

years.

the

Some
and

to

the

to

be

to

relate

have

to

example,

divinities

only
In
or

have

others

And

recently
general

died,

have

to

as

say,

the

new

some

have

terms,

in

the

basis

divinity

to

of

the

to

such

and

as

era

the

ability

new p r o b l e m s ,
Orunmils

social

selection

modern
his

changes

receded

economic

divinities

society with

'imported'

or

religious,

added

the

significant

'adjusted'

been

accepted on

a changing
the

undergone

with Western

patterns.

Edo.

rejected

system has

Ogiuwu) ;

encounter

behaviour

Orunmila

For

values

society.

(Obiemwen

open

did

influences

to

has

indigenous

no way

illustrates

Aruosa

hundred

resulting

political

achieved

traditional->religious

over

the

also

In

anti-Edo

the

in

Edo

it

elite

Osanobua

resulting

the

a part

that

a response

aspect

that

is

says

of

as

exhausted.

Aruosa

focus

emerged

Edo

Osanobua.

these

The H o l y

system.

The

thought

against

played

245).
then,

one

as

Bradbury

and

(1968:

developed

cult.

people,

structure.
to

It

240

is

to

and
believed

of

to

have

special
Thus

Olokun,
and

the

the

there

eradicating

the

much

'pagan'

rely

is

church

of

divine

are

the

old

more

the

we h a v e

has

the

religious

entire

church.

seen,

to

the

systems

leave

in

Church

sect.

The

propagate

to

visions

intense

in

Benin

introduction

is

of

new

not

something

that

is

in
are

that

Roman

its

many

Catholics

beliefs.
Baptist
American
from

their

emotional
are

These

the

their

with

the

emphases
participation

small

and

un-

following.
a mere

ideas,

syncretism:

and

taken

buildings

significant

City.

large

been

churches

the

often

Benin

looking

of

success

pray

is

Most

l i t t l e

and

and

Christianity--

ministers

ranks.

clearly

of

Ogun,

Christian

Protestant

attracts

form

to

of,

idols.

Catholic

system

had

their

Witnesses

worship

coming

gospel,

denominations

phenomenon of
to

The

Pentecostal

religion

The

their

programme h a v i n g

Benin.

group

new.

led

Benin

Native

the

entrenched

glossolalia,

this

to

and

educational

throughout

but

are

light

the

azen.

new r e l i g i o n - - h a s

Jehovah's

downtown

healing,

and

patterns

in

the

in

practices.

Edo

within

the western

impressive,

this

the

the

their

guidance,

sprinkled

As

to

and

undaunted

Euro-american

variety

situated

manuals

of

the

Esu

hero-divinities.

religious

see

many

on

great

for

the

evidence

churches

founder

and

remain

institutionally

primarily

There

on

are

from the

Protestant

'pagans'

will

counteracting

how r e s i s t a n t

There
range

of

traditional

at

Edo

Edo

ancestors

is

dismayed

powers

241

contrast

beliefs

the

and

blending

neither,

but

between
ritual

of

two

or

related

to

4
both.

The

elements

in

Cherubim
this

cult

and
are

Seraphim
not

are

such

traceable

a movement

directly

to

although

any

the

traditional

'pagan'
religious

4
115-121)

The C a t h o l i c a n t h r o p o l o g i s t
and m i s s i o l o g i s t L. L u z b e t a k
(1966:
has c o i n e d the term C h r i s t o - p a g a n i s m to d e s c r i b e such movements.

- 242 system.

Groups

respectable
The
garb.
and

white

to

as

glowing

of

the

they

his

messages

to

ever,
system
the

the

is

solve

does

is

Cherubim

Edo

d i v i i f i t i e s to

Edo

to

future

and

overcome
of

the

from moribund,

and

medium.

communion

The

and

problems
the

form,

find

it

takes

evil

and

the

to

progress

and

Part

and

Edo

of

the

'fear'

possibly

spirit

It

religion,
continue

is
but
to

also

cults

evil

core

reveals
practices

was

told

s t i l l

v i s i t

the
of

the

How-

traditional

cannot

escape
are

is

or

Cherubim

churches
now

think
one

diviner

and

seriously.

to

that
of

the

to

and

some
Sera-

Although
the

Spirit
enable

predict
the

the

seek

relegate

the Holy
ones,

difficult

be

from

society.

forces which

the

powerful

to

choose

widespread,

witches

it

to

by

church.

r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s of

impact

more

cult

changing

some o t h e r

albeit

problems.

will

is

category,

players,

experience,

God

dance

the

that

adhere

the

of

is

dream

Christians

the

to

samba

fasting.

s t i l l

in witchcraft

the

to

divinities,

shepherd

a distinctive African

professing

contradictory

traditional
it

relate

semi-educated

instruments,

that

and

and

or

and v i s i o n s

numerous

particular

Edo

shacks

worshippers

prayer

vision

Edo have

Seraphim

as

God-sent

dreams

the

Although

the

that

and h i n d e r

the

alley

distinctive

drummers

see

and

it

the

chosen prophetic

the w i t c h e s .

that

serve

for

through

The b e l i e f

the

who

bell-ringers,

problem-solving

not

from

of

is

modified

ceremony.

their

Seraphim

its

cult

is

their

disrupt

known by

and

in

to

from back

Cherubim

people

of

are

confirmation,

old

protection

Jesus

to

ranging

commissioned prophets,

seek

it

the

Christian

phim

the

easy

influence

burial

that

that

Benin,

incense heavenward.

through his

them

believed

Seraphim

prophets

immersion,

prophet

help

and

accompaniment

believe

b a p t i s m by

over

buildings.

candles waft

cult,

It

mud

a l l

supernaturally

the

for

one

found

Cherubim

Led by

sing

are

and
the

the

system i s

options

in

far

the

- 243 -

market-place of competing belief systems.

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