Protocol

In computing, a protocol is a set of rules which is used by computers to communicate

with each other across a network. A protocol is a convention or standard that controls or
enables the connection, communication, and data transfer between computing endpoints.
Protocols may be implemented by hardware, software, or a combination of the two. At
the lowest level, a protocol defines the behavior of a hardware connection.

Typical properties
While protocols can vary greatly in purpose and sophistication, most specify one or more
of the following properties:

• Detection of the underlying physical connection (wired or wireless), or the

existence of the other endpoint or node
• Handshaking
• Negotiation of various connection characteristics
• How to start and end a message
• Procedures on formatting a message
• What to do with corrupted or improperly formatted messages (error correction)
• How to detect unexpected loss of the connection, and what to do next
• Termination of the session and/or connection.

Importance
The protocols in human communication are separate rules about appearance, speaking,
listening and understanding. All these rules, also called protocols of conversation,
represent different layers of communication. They work together to help people
successfully communicate. The need for protocols also applies to network devices.
Computers have no way of learning protocols, so network engineers have written rules
for communication that must be strictly followed for successful host-to-host
communication. These rules apply to different layers of sophistication such as which
physical connections to use, how hosts listen, how to interrupt, how to say good-bye, and
in short how to communicate, what language to use and many others. These rules, or
protocols, that work together to ensure successful communication are grouped into what
is known as a protocol suite.

The widespread use and expansion of communications protocols is both a prerequisite for
the Internet, and a major contributor to its power and success. The pair of Internet
Protocol (or IP) and Transmission Control Protocol (or TCP) are the most important of
these, and the term TCP/IP refers to a collection (a "protocol suite") of its most used
protocols. Most of the Internet's communication protocols are described in the RFC
documents of the Internet Engineering Task Force (or IETF).
Object-oriented programming has extended the use of the term to include the
programming protocols available for connections and communication between objects.

Generally, only the simplest protocols are used alone. Most protocols, especially in the
context of communications or networking, are layered together into protocol stacks where
the various tasks listed above are divided among different protocols in the stack.

Whereas the protocol stack denotes a specific combination of protocols that work
together, a reference model is a software architecture that lists each layer and the services
each should offer. The classic seven-layer reference model is the OSI model, which is
used for conceptualizing protocol stacks and peer entities. This reference model also
provides an opportunity to teach more general software engineering concepts like hiding,
modularity, and delegation of tasks. This model has endured in spite of the demise of
many of its protocols (and protocol stacks) originally sanctioned by the ISO.

Common protocols
• IP (Internet Protocol)
• UDP (User Datagram Protocol)
• TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)
• DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol)
• HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol)
• FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
• Telnet (Telnet Remote Protocol)
• SSH (Secure Shell Remote Protocol)
• POP3 (Post Office Protocol 3)
• SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
• IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol)
• SOAP (Simple Object Access Protocol)
• PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol)
• RFB (Remote Framebuffer Protocol)
protocol

- In information technology, a protocol (from the Greek protocollon, which

was a leaf of paper glued to a manuscript volume, describing its contents) is the special
set of rules that end points in a telecommunication connection use when they
communicate. Protocols exist at several levels in a telecommunication connection. For
example, there are protocols for the data interchange at the hardware device level and
protocols for data interchange at the application program level. In the standard model
known as Open Systems Interconnection (OSI), there are one or more protocols at each
layer in the telecommunication exchange that both ends of the exchange must recognize
and observe. Protocols are often described in an industry or international standard.

On the Internet, there are the TCP/IP protocols, consisting of:

• Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), which uses a set of rules to exchange

messages with other Internet points at the information packet level
• Internet Protocol (IP), which uses a set of rules to send and receive messages at
the Internet address level
• Additional protocols that include the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) and
File Transfer Protocol (FTP), each with defined sets of rules to use with
corresponding programs elsewhere on the Internet

There are many other Internet protocols, such as the Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) and
the Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP).

Getting started with protocols

To explore how protocols is used in the enterprise, here are some additional resources:
Guide to Internet Protocol
In networking and communications, a protocol is the formal specification that defines
the procedures that must be followed when transmitting or receiving data. Protocols
define the format, timing, sequence, and error checking used on the network. This 10-
part series includes information on the most common TCP/IP networking protocols.
Test your TCP/IP protocol stack to troubleshoot network connectivity
Troubleshoot Windows network connectivity by verifying problems on the TCP/IP
protocol stack. Test host name resolution, ping DNS server and default gateways and
more in this tip.
IP addressing and subnetting fundamentals
Our IP addressing and subnetting crash course provides an overview of IP addressing-
related topics, including IPv4 and IPv6, subnetting, DHCP, and calculating subnet
masks.
Network Protocol - Types of Network Protocols

What is a Network Protocol

A protocol is a set of rules that governs the communications between computers on a network.
These rules include guidelines that regulate the following characteristics of a network: access
method, allowed physical topologies, types of cabling, and speed of data transfer.

Types of Network Protocols

The most common network protocols are:

• Ethernet
• Local Talk
• Token Ring
• FDDI
• ATM

The follow is some common-used network symbols to draw different kinds of network
protocols.

Ethernet

The Ethernet protocol is by far the most widely used. Ethernet uses an access method called
CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection). This is a system where each
computer listens to the cable before sending anything through the network. If the network is
clear, the computer will transmit. If some other node is already transmitting on the cable, the
computer will wait and try again when the line is clear. Sometimes, two computers attempt to
transmit at the same instant. When this happens a collision occurs. Each computer then backs
off and waits a random amount of time before attempting to retransmit. With this access
method, it is normal to have collisions. However, the delay caused by collisions and
retransmitting is very small and does not normally effect the speed of transmission on the
network.

The Ethernet protocol allows for linear bus, star, or tree topologies. Data can be transmitted
over wireless access points, twisted pair, coaxial, or fiber optic cable at a speed of 10 Mbps up
to 1000 Mbps.

Fast Ethernet

To allow for an increased speed of transmission, the Ethernet protocol has developed a new
standard that supports 100 Mbps. This is commonly called Fast Ethernet. Fast Ethernet
requires the use of different, more expensive network concentrators/hubs and network
interface cards. In addition, category 5 twisted pair or fiber optic cable is necessary. Fast
Ethernet is becoming common in schools that have been recently wired.

Local Talk

Local Talk is a network protocol that was developed by Apple Computer, Inc. for Macintosh
computers. The method used by Local Talk is called CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access
with Collision Avoidance). It is similar to CSMA/CD except that a computer signals its intent to
transmit before it actually does so. Local Talk adapters and special twisted pair cable can be
used to connect a series of computers through the serial port. The Macintosh operating system
allows the establishment of a peer-to-peer network without the need for additional software.
With the addition of the server version of AppleShare software, a client/server network can be
established.

The Local Talk protocol allows for linear bus, star, or tree topologies using twisted pair cable. A
primary disadvantage of Local Talk is speed. Its speed of transmission is only 230 Kbps.

Token Ring

The Token Ring protocol was developed by IBM in the mid-1980s. The access method used
involves token-passing. In Token Ring, the computers are connected so that the signal travels
around the network from one computer to another in a logical ring. A single electronic token
moves around the ring from one computer to the next. If a computer does not have
information to transmit, it simply passes the token on to the next workstation. If a computer
wishes to transmit and receives an empty token, it attaches data to the token. The token then
proceeds around the ring until it comes to the computer for which the data is meant. At this
point, the data is captured by the receiving computer. The Token Ring protocol requires a star-
wired ring using twisted pair or fiber optic cable. It can operate at transmission speeds of 4
Mbps or 16 Mbps. Due to the increasing popularity of Ethernet, the use of Token Ring in school
environments has decreased.

FDDI
Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) is a network protocol that is used primarily to
interconnect two or more local area networks, often over large distances. The access method
used by FDDI involves token-passing. FDDI uses a dual ring physical topology. Transmission
normally occurs on one of the rings; however, if a break occurs, the system keeps information
moving by automatically using portions of the second ring to create a new complete ring. A
major advantage of FDDI is speed. It operates over fiber optic cable at 100 Mbps.

ATM

Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) is a network protocol that transmits data at a speed of
155 Mbps and higher. ATM works by transmitting all data in small packets of a fixed size;
whereas, other protocols transfer variable length packets. ATM supports a variety of media
such as video, CD-quality audio, and imaging. ATM employs a star topology, which can work
with fiber optic as well as twisted pair cable.

ATM is most often used to interconnect two or more local area networks. It is also frequently
used by Internet Service Providers to utilize high-speed access to the Internet for their clients.
As ATM technology becomes more cost-effective, it will provide another solution for
constructing faster local area networks.

Gigabit Ethernet

The most recent development in the Ethernet standard is a protocol that has a transmission
speed of 1 Gbps. Gigabit Ethernet is primarily used for backbones on a network at this time.
In the future, it will probably be used for workstation and server connections also. It can be
used with both fiber optic cabling and copper. The 1000BaseTX, the copper cable used for
Gigabit Ethernet, is expected to become the formal standard in 1999.

Compare the Network Protocols

Protocol Cable Speed Topology

Twisted Pair, Coaxial,

Ethernet 10 Mbps Linear Bus, Star, Tree
Fiber

Fast Ethernet Twisted Pair, Fiber 100 Mbps Star

LocalTalk Twisted Pair .23 Mbps Linear Bus or Star

4 Mbps - 16
Token Ring Twisted Pair Star-Wired Ring
Mbps

FDDI Fiber 100 Mbps Dual ring

ATM Twisted Pair, Fiber 155-2488 Mbps Linear Bus, Star, Tree
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Network Protocol Overview

The OSI model, and any other network communication model, provides only a conceptual
framework for communication between computers, but the model itself does not provide
specific methods of communication. Actual communication is defined by various
communication protocols. In the context of data communication, a protocol is a formal set of
rules, conventions and data structure that governs how computers and other network devices
exchange information over a network. In other words, a protocol is a standard procedure and
format that two data communication devices must understand, accept and use to be able to
talk to each other.

In modern protocol design, protocols are "layered" according to the OSI 7 layer model or a
similar layered model. Layering is a design principle which divides the protocol design into a
number of smaller parts, each part accomplishing a particular sub-task and interacting with
the other parts of the protocol only in a small number of well-defined ways. Layering allows
the parts of a protocol to be designed and tested without a combinatorial explosion of cases,
keeping each design relatively simple. Layering also permits familiar protocols to be adapted
to unusual circumstances.

The header and/or trailer at each layer reflect the structure of the protocol. Detailed rules and
procedures of a protocol or protocol group are often defined by a lengthy document. For
example, IETF uses RFCs (Request for Comments) to define protocols and updates to the
protocols.

A wide variety of communication protocols exists. These protocols were defined by many
different standard organizations throughout the world and by technology vendors over years
of technology evolution and development. One of the most popular protocol suites is TCP/IP,
which is the heart of Internetworking communications. The IP, the Internet Protocol, is
responsible for exchanging information between routers so that the routers can select the
proper path for network traffic, while TCP is responsible for ensuring the data packets are
transmitted across the network reliably and error free. LAN and WAN protocols are also critical
protocols in network communications. The LAN protocols suite is for the physical and data link
layers of communications over various LAN media such as Ethernet wires and wireless radio
waves. The WAN protocol suite is for the lowest three layers and defines communication over
various wide-area media, such as fiber optic and copper cables.
Network communication has slowly evolved. Today's new technologies are based on the
accumulation over years of technologies, which may be either still existing or obsolete.
Because of this, the protocols which define the network communication are highly inter-
related. Many protocols rely on others for operation. For example, many routing protocols use
other network protocols to exchange information between routers.

In addition to standards for individual protocols in transmission, there are now also interface
standards for different layers to talk to the ones above or below (usually operating system
specific). For example: Winsock and Berkeley sockets between layers 4 and 5; NDIS and ODI
between layers 2 and 3.

The protocols for data communication cover all areas as defined in the OSI model. However,
the OSI model is only loosely defined. A protocol may perform the functions of one or more of
the OSI layers, which introduces complexity to understanding protocols relevant to the OSI 7
layer model. In real-world protocols, there is some argument as to where the distinctions
between layers are drawn; there is no one black and white answer.

To develop a complete technology that is useful for the industry, very often a group of
protocols is required in the same layer or across many different layers. Different protocols
often describe different aspects of a single communication; taken together, these form a
protocol suite. For example, Voice over IP (VOIP), a group of protocols developed by many
vendors and standard organizations, has many protocols across the 4 top layers in the OSI
model.

Protocols can be implemented either in hardware or software or a mixture of both. Typically,

the lower layers are implemented in hardware, with the higher layers being implemented in
software.

Protocols could be grouped into suites (or families, or stacks) by their technical functions, or
origin of the protocol introduction, or both. A protocol may belong to one or multiple protocol
suites, depending on how you categorize it. For example, the Gigabit Ethernet protocol IEEE
802.3z is a LAN (Local Area Network) protocol and it can also be used in MAN (Metropolitan
Area Network) communications.

Most recent protocols are designed by the IETF for Internetworking communications and by
the IEEE for local area networking (LAN) and metropolitan area networking (MAN). The ITU-T
contributes mostly to wide area networking (WAN) and telecommunications protocols. ISO has
its own suite of protocols for internetworking communications, which is mainly deployed in
European countries
The History of Computers

"Who invented the computer?" is not a question with a simple answer. The real
answer is that many inventors contributed to the history of computers and that a
computer is a complex piece of machinery made up of many parts, each of which can
be considered a separate invention.

This series covers many of the major milestones in computer history (but not all of
them) with a concentration on the history of personal home computers.

The development of the modern day computer was the result of

advances in technologies and man's need to quantify. Papyrus
helped early man to record language and numbers. The abacus was
one of the first counting machines..
Some of the earlier mechanical counting machines lacked the
technology to make the design work. For instance, some had parts
made of wood prior to metal manipulation and manufacturing.
Imagine the wear on wooden gears.

Computer History Computer History Computer History

Year/Enter Inventors/Inventions Description of Event
1936 Konrad Zuse - Z1 Computer First freely programmable
computer.
1942 John Atanasoff & Clifford Who was first in the computing
Berry biz is not always as easy as
ABC Computer ABC.
1944 Howard Aiken & Grace The Harvard Mark 1 computer.
Hopper
Harvard Mark I Computer
1946 John Presper Eckert & John 20,000 vacuum tubes later...
W. Mauchly
ENIAC 1 Computer
1948 Frederic Williams & Tom Baby and the Williams Tube
Kilburn turn on the memories.
Manchester Baby
Computer & The Williams
Tube
1947/48 John Bardeen, Walter Brattain No, a transistor is not a
& Wiliam Shockley computer, but this invention
The Transistor greatly affected the history of
computers.
 1951 John Presper Eckert & John First commercial computer &
W. Mauchly able to pick presidential
UNIVAC Computer winners.
1953 International Business IBM enters into 'The History of
Machines Computers'.
IBM 701 EDPM Computer
1954 John Backus & IBM The first successful high level
FORTRAN Computer programming language.
Programming Language
Stanford Research Institute, The first bank industry
Bank of America, and General computer - also MICR
1955
Electric (magnetic ink character
(In Use 1959)
ERMA and MICR recognition) for reading
checks.
1958 Jack Kilby & Robert Noyce Otherwise known as 'The Chip'
The Integrated Circuit
1962 Steve Russell & MIT The first computer game
Spacewar Computer Game invented.
1964 Douglas Engelbart Nicknamed the mouse because
Computer Mouse & the tail came out the end.
Windows
1969 ARPAnet The original Internet.
1970 Intel 1103 Computer The world's first available
Memory dynamic RAM chip.
1971 Faggin, Hoff & Mazor The first microprocessor.
Intel 4004 Computer
Microprocessor
1971 Alan Shugart &IBM Nicknamed the "Floppy" for its
The "Floppy" Disk flexibility.
1973 Robert Metcalfe & Xerox Networking.
The Ethernet Computer
Networking
1974/75 Scelbi & Mark-8 Altair & The first consumer computers.
IBM 5100 Computers
1976/77 Apple I, II & TRS-80 & More first consumer
Commodore Pet computers.
Computers
1978 Dan Bricklin & Bob Frankston Any product that pays for itself
VisiCalc Spreadsheet in two weeks is a surefire
Software winner.
1979 Seymour Rubenstein & Rob Word Processors.
Barnaby
WordStar Software
1981 IBM From an "Acorn" grows a
The IBM PC - Home personal computer revolution
Computer
1981 Microsoft From "Quick And Dirty" comes
MS-DOS Computer the operating system of the
Operating System century.
1983 Apple Lisa Computer The first home computer with
a GUI, graphical user interface.
1984 Apple Macintosh Computer The more affordable home
computer with a GUI.
1985 Microsoft Windows Microsoft begins the friendly
war with Apple.
SERIES TO BE CONTINUED