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TELEVISION AND VIDEO ENGINEERING
UNIT-1
FUNDAMENTALS OF TELEVISION
SYLLABUS
scanning process
video signals
characteristics of human eye
brightness perception and Photometric qualities
Aspect ratio and Rectangular scanning
persistence of vision and flicker
vertical resolution
Kell factor
Horizontal Resolution and video bandwidth
Interlaced scanning
Camera tubes
camera lenses
auto focus systems
camera pick-up devices
Image orthicon
vidicon
plumbicon
silicon diode array vidicon
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CCDsolid state image scanners
Comparison of Camera tubes
camera tube deflection unit
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Fig: 1.1
Horizontal scanning from left to right at fast rate and vertically from top to bottom
at slow rate.
The retrace of beam is very fast compared to forward scan by cutting off the beam
during horizontal and vertical flyback intervals.
Information about some color signal and some sample of color sub-carrier frequency.
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Fig: 1.2
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Fig: 1.3
Fig:1.4
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1.5 BRIGHTNESS PERCEPTION AND PHOTOMETRIC
Symbol Defining
Unit
equation
Luminous flux
Luminous energy
Name
Symbol
lumen
lm
Q = vdt
lumen-second
lm-s
l=d v/d
candela
cd
K = v/e
lm/w
efficacy
of
radiant K
power
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QUALITIES
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Table 1. Principal photometric qualities
Quantity
Symbol Defining
Unit
equation
Symbol
a given direction)
E = dv/dA
lux
lx
M=dv/dA
lm/m2
surface).
Luminous exitance
Exposure
(quantity
of H
illumination).
lx-s
dt
Spectral
H=dQ/dA = E lux-second
concentration
of
a X
=ldt
candale-section
cd-s
X = dx/d
photometric quantity
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Name
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16 inches wide and 9 inches high. Another image is 16 centimeters wide and 9
centimeters high. A third is 8 yards wide and 4.5 yards high. Two dimensional sector
scanning which a slow sector scanning section is superimposed on a rapid sector in a
scanning perpendicular direction.
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They are not enough to allow brightness of 1 frame to blend smoothly into next through
the time, when the screen is blanked between suceesive frames.
This results in FLICKER of light that is annoying to observer when the screen is made
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must be low-pass filtered (i.e., blurred) in the vertical dimension to avoid spatio-temporal
aliasing (i.e., flickering effects), the Kell factor of interlaced video is said to be about
70% that of progressive video with the same scan line resolution.
A TV's resolution can be reported as the result of counting the total number of picture
elements (pixels) per scan line, across the entire screen-width, multiplied by the total number of
scan lines. However, TV screen-sizes vary, making an equal comparison of different displays
more complex. TV's also differ technically, functionally and in component quality; this results in
additional complications.
An alternative method is to count the number of pixels that fit within a prescribed
circle, having a diameter equal to the screen height. Known as LPH - Lines per Picture
Height - this is the 'correct' method in determining TV resolution.
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The "vertical resolution" of NTSC TV refers to the total number of lines (rows) scanned
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As this shows, along with other, similar variables, the accuracy of a 'stated'
horizontal resolution for a particular display, may depend on who is doing the 'stating' .
However, for the purpose of this overview of HDTV-Resolution, the primary point
regarding horizontal resolution, is that it is variable. Unlike vertical resolution which is
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BW-3dB-min = BWS(-0.5db) 2.86
Where:
A minimum bandwidth that's about six and a half times' the highest frequency in the
signal. If you can tolerate 0.5dB attenuation, it needs to be only about three times. To account
for normal variations in the bandwidth of integrated circuits, it is recommended that the results
from equations 3 and 4 be multiplied by a factor of 1.5. This will ensure that the attenuation
performance is met over worst-case conditions. In equation mode, it is expressed as follows:
BW-3dB nominal = BW-3dB-min 1.5
In addition to bandwidth, the circuits must slew fast enough to faithfully reproduce the video
signal. The equation for the minimum slew rate is as follows:
SRMIN = 2 pi BWS Vpeak
Substituting and simplifying,
SRMIN = BWS 6.386
This is because some distortion can occur as the frequency of the signal approaches the slewrate limit. This can introduce frequency distortion, which will degrade the picture quality.
Multiplying the equation 6 result by a factor of at least two or three will ensure that the
distortion is minimized.
In equation form:
SRnominal = SRMIN 2
As an example, let's assume we have a standard NTSC video signal and the following
requirements:
VLT = 525
TVL = 346
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AR = 1.3333
KH = 1.17
FR = 29.94
Using equation 1, we calculate a maximum signal bandwidth (BWS) of about 4.2MHz. This is the
highest frequency in the signal. Now let's assume that we need less than 0.1dB attenuation.
Using equation 3, we calculate the minimum signal bandwidth necessary to be 27.5MHz. Using
equation 5, to account for variations, gives 41.3MHz. This is the circuit -3dB bandwidth required
to achieve our desired resolution and maintain the signal quality. The last calculation we need to
make for our example is the minimum slew-rate requirement. Using equations 6 and 7 and
plugging in the 4.2MHz value for BWS, we see that we will need at least a slew rate of 52V/s
and a more desirable value of 80V/s.
Fig: 1.5
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KV = 1.09
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The effects of interlacing can be somewhat compensated for by using de-interlacing. Deinterlacing is the process of converting interlaced video into a non-interlaced form, by
eliminating some jaggedness from the video for better viewing. This process is also
called line doubling. Some network video products, such as Axis video servers, integrate
a de-interlace filter which improves image quality in the highest resolution (4CIF). This
analog camera.
Interlaced scanning has served the analog camera, television and VHS video world very
well for many years, and is still the most suitable for certain applications. However, now
that display technology is changing with the advent of Liquid Crystal Display (LCD),
Thin Film Transistor (TFT)-based monitors, DVDs and digital cameras, an alternative
method of bringing the image to the screen, known as progressive scanning, has been
created.
Since the lens-to-target distance for most lenses increases when we focus the lens on
anything closer than infinity (see second illustration), we specify infinity as the standard
for focal length measurement.
Focal length is generally measured in millimeters. In the case of lenses with fixed focal
lengths, we can talk about a 10mm lens, a 20mm lens, a 100mm lens, etc. As we will see,
this designation tells a lot about how the lens will reproduce subject matter.
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feature eliminates the motion blur problems caused by the analog video signal from the
Fig:1.6
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To make this possible, zoom lenses use numerous glass elements, each of which is
precisely ground, polished, and positioned. The space between these elements changes as
Fig: 1.7
With prime lenses, the focal length of the lens cannot be varied. It might seem that
we would be taking a step backwards to use a prime lens or a lens that operates at only
one focal length.
Not necessarily. Some professional videographers and directors of photography -especially those who have their roots in film -- feel prime lenses are more predictable in
their results. (Of course, it also depends on what you're used to using!)
Prime lenses also come in more specialized forms, for example, super wide angle, super
telephoto, and super fast (i.e., it transmits more light).
However, for normal work, zoom lenses are much easier and faster to use. The latest of
HDTV zoom lenses are extremely sharp -- almost as sharp as the best prime lenses.
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the lens is zoomed in and out. (Note cutaway view on the right below.)
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Angle of view is directly associated with
lens focal length. The longer the focal length (in
millimeters), the narrower the angle of view (in
degrees).
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Fig:1.8
There are two main ways for cameras to focus automatically: contrast detection
and phase detection. The former uses data from the CCD or CMOS sensor and looks at
how sharp the resulting photograph would be. It's simple, but slow, as the camera has to
go through all of the possibilities until it finds one where the subject is clearly contrasted
from the background. The latter uses a tool that works like a rangefinder, which
accurately calculates the correction needed to get the subject in focus. It's fast, but
difficult to operate as the light coming into the lens needs to reach both the phase detector
and the sensor (or the film) at the same time. This has meant that phase detection has
traditionally been reserved for SLRs, which already have a mirror that sends the image to
the viewfinder. At the same time, a second mirror also sends it down to the phase
detector. While focussing is taking place, the sensor is covered by these mirrors, which
rules out video. SLRs that do shoot video fold their mirrors out of the way and rely on
the contrast detection found on ordinary compacts.
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1.15 CAMERA PICK UP DEVICES
The scene of picture is focused with help of lens system on a photosensitive target near
The electrical response of each element is read of f with help of electron beam circuit
produce electrical pulses.
The target plate is held with electrical potential with respect to cathode of pick up
tubes.
The actyal beam varies in accordance with electrical state of picture element.
The beams scans the image horizontally by means of magnetic field setup by horizontal
deflection coil.
Similarly the beams scans the image vertically by means of magnetic field setup by
vertical deflection coil.
The scanning must done in fast speed over the changing or moving pictures.
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a pickup tube.
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Apollo/Saturn rockets nearing orbit after the networks had phased them out, as only they
could provide sufficient detail.
An image orthicon camera can take television pictures by candlelight because
of the more ordered light-sensitive area and the presence of an electron multiplier at the
light sensitivity curve similar to the human eye. However, it tends to flare in bright light,
causing a dark halo to be seen around the object; this anomaly is referred to as
"blooming" in the broadcast industry when image orthicon tubes were in operation.
Image orthicons were used extensively in the early color television cameras, where their
increased sensitivity was essential to overcome their very inefficient optical system.
Fig:1.9
1.16.2 OPERATION
An image orthicon consists of three parts: a photocathode with an image
store ("target"), a scanner that reads this image (an electron gun), and a multistage
electron multiplier.
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base of the tube, which operated as a high-efficiency amplifier. It also has a logarithmic
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In the image store, light falls upon the photocathode which is a photosensitive plate at a
very negative potential (approx. -600 V), and is converted into an electron image (a
principle borrowed from the image dissector). Once the image electrons reach the target,
they cause a "splash" of electrons by the effect of secondary emission. On average, each
image electron ejects several "splash" and these excess electrons are soaked up by the
charge on it in relation to the incident light in the photocathode. The result is an image
painted in positive charge, with the brightest portions having the largest positive charge.
A sharply focused beam of electrons (a cathode ray) is generated by the
electron gun at ground potential and accelerated by the anode around the gun at a high
positive voltage (approx. +1500 V). Once it exits the electron gun, its inertia makes the
beam move away from the dynode towards the back side of the target. At this point the
electrons lose speed and get deflected by the horizontal and vertical deflection coils,
effectively scanning the target. Thanks to the axial magnetic field of the focusing coil,
this deflection is not in a straight line, thus when the electrons reach the target they do so
perpendicularly avoiding a sideways component. The target is nearly at ground potential
with a small positive charge, thus when the electrons reach the target at low speed they
are absorbed without ejecting more electrons. This adds negative charge to the positive
charge until the region being scanned reaches some threshold negative charge, at which
point the scanning electrons are reflected by the negative potential rather than absorbed
(in this process the target recovers the electrons needed for the next scan). These reflected
electrons return down the cathode ray tube toward the first dynode of the electron
multiplier surrounding the electron gun which is at high potential. The number of
reflected electrons is a linear measure of the target's original positive charge, which, in
turn, is a measure of brightness.
Additional amplification is also performed via secondary emission in the
electron multiplier which consists of a stack of charged dynodes (pinwheel-like disks
surrounding the electron gun) in progressively higher potentials. As the returning electron
beam hits the first dynode, it ejects electrons similarly to the target; for each electron
striking a dynode, many are emitted. These secondary electrons are then drawn toward
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positive mesh effectively removing electrons from the target and causing a positive
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the next dynode at a higher potential, where the splashing continues for a number of
steps. Consider a single, highly energized electron hitting the first dynode, causing, say,
four electrons to be emitted and drawn towards the next dynode. Each of these might then
cause four each to be emitted. Thus, by the start of the third stage, you would have about
16 electrons to the original one. As many as 5 to 10 stages were not unusual, thus the
1.17 VIDICON
1.17.1 INTRODUCTION
A vidicon tube is a video camera tube design in which the target material is a
photoconductor. While the initial photoconductor used was selenium, other targets
including silicon diode arrayshave been used.
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Fig:1.10
1.17.2 OPERATION
1.18 PLUMBICON
1.18.1 INTRODUCTION
Plumbicon is a registered trademark of Philips for its Lead Oxide
(PbO) target vidicons. Used frequently in broadcast camera applications, these tubes have
low output, but a high signal-to-noise ratio. They had excellent resolution compared to
Image Orthicons, but lacked the artificially sharp edges of IO tubes, which caused some
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of the viewing audience to perceive them as softer. CBS Labs invented the first outboard
Fig:1.11
1.18.2 OPERATION
Compared to Saticons, Plumbicons had much higher resistance to burn in, and
comet and trailing artifacts from bright lights in the shot. Saticons though, usually had
slightly higher resolution. After 1980, and the introduction of the diode gun plumbicon
tube, the resolution of both types was so high, compared to the maximum limits of the
broadcasting standard, that the Saticon's resolution advantage became moot. While
broadcast cameras migrated to solid state Charged Coupled Devices, plumbicon tubes
remain a staple imaging device in the medical field.
Narragansett Imaging is the only company now making Plumbicons, and it does so from
the factories Philips built for that purpose in Rhode Island, USA. While still a part of the
Philips empire, the company purchased EEV's (English Electric Valve) lead oxide
camera tube business, and gained a monopoly in lead oxide tube production.
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Saticon is a registered trademark of Hitachi also produced by Thomson and Sony. It was
developed in a joint effort by Hitachi and NHK (Japan Broadcasting Corporation). Its
surface consists of Selenium with trace amounts of Arsenic and Tellurium added
(SeAsTe) to make the signal more stable. SAT in the name is derived from (SeAsTe).
It can store and transfer analog charge signals either electrons or holes in
electrically or optically.
The chip consists of a p-type substrate, the side is oxidized to form a film of
silicon dioxide, an insulator.
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1.18.3.2 Newvicon
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Results- creation of very large number of tiny MOS capacitors on either surface
Fig:1.12
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ofchip.
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Fig:1.13
It mounts itself inside a deflection coil unit which consists of focusing coil, horizontal
and vertical deflection coils, alignment coils and magnets.
The focusing coil surrounds entire tube extending from electron gun to face plate of
tube.
The horizontal and vertical deflection coils are pair of coils each in a shape of yokes
mount on pick-up tube.
The horizontal deflection coils produce a vertical field and vertical deflection coils
produces horizontal field.
The field strength of deflecting magnetic field is about 1/10th of focusing coil.
The required currents have to be supplied by deflection drive circuits of camera chain.
The alignment coils are a pair of coils positioned just outside the limiting aperture that
produce a magnetic field at right angles to the tube axis.
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called frames. We measure the rate at which frames are displayed in frames
per second (FPS).
Pixels have only one property, their color. The color of a pixel is represented by a
fixed number of bits. The more bits the more subtle variations of colors can be
reproduced. This is called the color depth (CD) of the video.
An example video can have a duration (T) of 1 hour (3600sec), a frame size of
640x480 (WxH) at a color depth of 24bits and a frame rate of 25fps. This example
video has the following properties:
1.
2.
3.
Fig:1.14
REFERENCE:
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size is WxH.
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1. A-M-Dhake-" Television and video Engineering second Edition TMH 2003
2. R-R-Gulati-"Modern Television Practice -Technology and servicing -second
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SYLLABUS
Composite video signal
scanning standards
Horizontal and vertical syn
Blanking standards
video modulation and video signal standard
sound modulation and Inter carrier system
standard channel characteristics
Reception of VSB signals
TV Broadcast channels
CCIR-B standards
various TV broadcast systems
NTSC
PAL
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UNIT II
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SECAM system
Comparison
Television studio system
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2.3 HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL SYN
2.3.1 TV SYNCHRONISATION
The sync pulses of a tv waveform need to be able to allow the receiver or
waveforms is described here. The description given here applies to the European 625 line
CCIR (or PAL) signals but the arguments can be applied to other interlaced tv systems.
2.3.2 Basics
A tv picture is built up of a spot scanned rapidly on the faceplate of a crt
(cathode ray tube) horizontally and (relatively slowly) vertically to produce a 'raster'. The
brightness of the spot is varied to produce the picture. A synchronising signal to control
the position of the spot on the screen is combined with the brightness (or luminance)
information producing a 'composite' tv signal. The sync and brightness information are
kept separate by assigning them unique signal level ranges (see line waveform below).
Normally, the total range of a monochrome (black and white) signal is 1 Volt peak-topeak although the absolute dc levels may vary (usually the signal is ac coupled). The
luminance information occupies a range of around 0.7 V and the sync 0.3 V. With respect
to the lowest sync level, the brightest parts of the picture are at a level of 1 V with the
black level at 0.3 V. Black level is the same as the blanking level in CCIR system
(though this isn't necessarily the case for other systems); blanking occurs in non-picture
parts of the waveform when it is necessary for the electron gun of the crt to be 'off' so that
retrace is not visible on the screen.
The tv waveform carries pulses (at sub-black levels) that allow synchronisation of both
the horizontal and vertical deflection circuits. These pulses are separated by the video
information using a 'sync separator' - this can be just a comparator with its threshold set
around halfway between black level and the sync tips. See 'Notes' below for more
information on sync separation.
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There are two deflection generators (timebases) - horizontal and vertical. Both must be
triggered at the right time to ensure that the picture is correctly reproduced. Therefore
both timebases need to be synchronised and there needs to be a method of triggering
either one independently using the same single set of sync pulses. The method used to
allow the receiver to distinguish between the two types of sync is to use different widths
2.3.4 INTERLACE
In tv, the same effect (of increasing the refresh rate by a factor of 2) is
achieved by the use of interlace, that is, splitting each picture into two fields. A field is a
single vertical scan. Each field consists of half the total picture lines (312) which is
scanned from top to bottom of the display at twice the picture rate. The second field then
completes the picture by scanning its lines between those of the first field. Thus a
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complete picture is produced in 1/25th of a second but the effective scan rate is twice this
(50 Hz). So a picture containing 625 lines is actually made up of two separate vertical
scans, each of 312 lines. This is termed 2:1 interlace (although as this order of interlace
Interlace will reduce the visibility of large area flicker but small detail that
the viewer at normal distances since the eye is unable to perceive rapid variations in time
in areas of very fine detail in a picture. Close examination of a blank scanned raster on a
monochrome display will enable the 25 Hz flicker to be seen, though it tends to be rather
more visible on picture detail such as sharp edges that are at small angles to the
horizontal where there can be very large local differences between the two fields. (Close
examination of an interlaced picture may also exhibit the phenomenon of 'line crawl'; this
effect gives the appearance of all the lines moving up (or down) the screen. Higher orders
of interlace are more prone to this which can be distracting at normal viewing distances;
this is partly why 2:1 interlace and not higher orders is used.)
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isn't common to both fields will show up as 25 Hz flicker. However, this is not obvious to
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Broad pulses or serrations are used for triggering the field scan generator. In order to keep the
line sync generator running continuously, falling edges appear every 64 microseconds
throughout the entire field blanking interval for this purpose. Because there is an effective half
line offset between the two sets of field sync pulses it is necessary to double the frequency of
the line syncs during the field sync pulses. This allows identical pulse trains to be used for both
The equalisation pulses, which are inserted before the field syncs, allow the
integrator to settle and be minimally influence by the presence of the line syncs. It is
worth noting that the equalisation pulse width is half that of the line sync pulses - this
compensates for the doubling in frequency, so that the dc level at the integrator output is
unaffected. Further equalisation pulses are inserted after the field syncs to ensure that the
trailing edge of the integrated waveform is the same for both fields for those circuits
where this may be critical (e.g. where the area under the waveform can influence the
triggering point).
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field syncs.
The equalisation pulses and the field sync are identical for both fields and are shown in
detail below:
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It is easy to see why 25 pictures per second rather than 24 was chosen. The effective vertical
scan frequency is 50 Hz and in the early days of tv, mains (at 50 Hz) could break through from
imperfectly filtered power supplies. This would manifest itself on the picture by modulating the
brightness of the picture or the position of the raster. If there were a difference of 1 Hz (i.e. 25 24 Hz) this modulation would show up very noticeably by rolling up the screen once every
less noticeable. In the US and elsewhere where the mains frequency is 60 Hz the field rate is also
60 Hz.
However, choosing a picture rate related to the local mains frequency means that
televising cinema films (filmed at 24 frames per second - fps) isn't straightforward. In
Europe cinema films are transmitted at 25 fps, this means that the action is marginally
increased in speed and the sound raised in frequency by roughly a semitone. This is not
normally considered to be a problem. In the US, on the other hand, it would be
impractical to show films at 30 fps. But by adding a degree of complexity to the scanning
process, they are shown at a film rate of 24 fps and the higher tv rate is accommodated by
taking pairs of film frames and spreading them between 5 tv fields. The first film frame
takes 2 tv fields and the second film frame, 3 tv fields (i.e. 1 pictures). The sequence
ends after 10 complete tv fields (i.e. 5 pictures) which takes the same time as
4 film frames.
Filmed material, destined to be shown on tv only, is very often shot at 25 or 30 fps
depending on the intended broadcast system - this does away with speed errors or
complications of scanning.
2.3.7.2 NOTES
1. SYNC SEPARATORS: Chips that will perform this function (as well as having some other
useful features) are the National Semiconductor LM1881 or the (more sophisticated)
Elantec (now Intersil) EL4581.
2. SYNC PULSE GENERATORS: The idea of an SPG is that a fixed frequency clock goes in and
the correct waveforms come out. Locking to a timebase supplied externally is usually an
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second. Using a 50 Hz scan causes the modulation to be stationary on the screen which is far
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option (Genlocking). In practice timings (pulse durations) can be a bit off and there may
be other quirks.
o
The first single chip SPG was the Ferranti (later GEC Plessey) ZN134 (16 pin DIL);
I mention this as (I believe) it was the first (produced some time in the late
seventies). It was able to produce either 625 or 525 line waveforms correctly.
The RCA (now Intersil) CD22402 is basically a 525 line SPG, it can produce a
correct 525 line waveform (which has 6 equalisation and field sync pulse) but
produces 6 of each in the 625 mode rather than the correct 5. In practice, this
defect is unlikely to be a real problem but it looks like a silly oversight by the
designers. Obsolete, but some may still be around.
The only single chip SPG currently in production that I know of is the Fairchild
74ACT715. This is a wholly programmable device which can produce almost any
set of video timing waveforms. It is designed to give NTSC 525 line waveforms
by default but while other line system waveforms can be generated it will
require some ingenuity to achieve this - registers need to be loaded with the
correct numbers every time it is switched on. Fairchild haven't given any
application notes, which, had they done, would make the chip possibly more
attractive to use in a design. Has anyone any experience of this chip? Let me
know.
3. The definition of Odd and Even Fields follows the nomenclature used in Report No. 124
adopted by the International Radio Consultative Committee at its Plenary Assembly in
Los Angeles in 1959. Return to text (or press 'Back' button). People who should know
better manage to get things quite wrong; see what they say.
4. The timing datum for all the pulses (line sync, field sync and equalisation) is the falling
edge. Falling edges are separated by either 32 or 64 microseconds).
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Long obsolete.
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5. Equalisation pulses are a desirable feature of a tv waveform. However, many tv systems
(as well as home computers and games) can produce adequately interlaced pictures
without them. Two such systems were the British 405 and the French 819 line systems.
The absence of equalisation pulses may result in a defect called line pairing - its
appearance is as described - the lines of the raster are not evenly spaced but appear on
are distinct, however, this impairment is not serious - its main effect is to make the line
structure more visible at normal viewing distances.
6. In the UK, some broadcasters, at least sometimes, choose to extend the field blanking
by half a line at the end of the odd and the beginning of the even fields thereby
extending the field blanking by one line in total. This means that there are no active half
picture lines but it also means that the blanking signal is different for the two fields (and
therefore
harder
to
produce).
Additionally, now that we're all going digital, many programmes in the UK are
transmitted with fewer active lines than is specified. This is equivalent to increasing the
number of lines blanked.
7. Extra signals are inserted during the field blanking interval and before the 'official' start
of the picture (lines 23 or 336). These signals are for in-service network testing using the
Insertion Test Signal (ITS) or for teletext transmission. Lines 7 - 22 and 320 - 335 are
available for text data although, in practice, not all are usually used. The ITS usually is
broadcast on two lines per field: 19, 20, 332 and 333 are used.
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the screen with gaps alternating between wide and not-so-wide. Provided that the lines
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These periods overlap. (Sync pulses areas in field blanking period take precedence).
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2.4.2 Horizontal Blanking Period
Contains the 'start of scanline' sync pulse.
blanking periods.
Some scanlines with horizontal blanking periods fall within the Field Blanking
Period. These scanlines do not carry Picture Data (they can, however, carry other data,
such as teletext).
Horizontal Blanking Period = Front-Porch + H-Sync pulse + Back-Porch
Start of H-Sync signifies start of scanline.
Many more details (rise/fall times etc.) left out here.
Back-Porch is where colour synchronisation occurs.
Back-Porch is empty for monochrome.
Timing table:
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The following diagram shows a signal's voltage level over a couple of horizontal
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Area
PAL
64s 63.55s
Front Porch
1.65s
1.5s
H-Sync pulse
4.7s
4.7s
Back Porch
5.7s
4.5s
A scanline 'starts' when the H-Sync pulse starts (yes - worth repeating). Timing of HSync pulse start is crucial. Jitter on H-Sync pulse = wobbly picture (effect similar to poor
video recorders from the 80's). Length of H-Sync pulse less critical. 4s pulse works
nicely. Most microcontroller video output seems to use 4s H-Sync pulse.
movement
of
electron
gun
trace
back
to
top-left
Pre-equalising pulses
Post-equalising pulses.
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of
screen.
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Whole Scanline
NTSC
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Each section lasts for 5 half-scanlines. (NTSC: 6 half-scanlines).
Nothing else.
Nothing else.
PAL / NTSC
The 'Short Sync' pulse is exactly half the duration of the H-Sync pulse.
The following diagram shows the first 15 half-scanlines in the field blanking period.
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M and
5.5 MHz. in system) Then the modulated IF signals are added either at the output of the
vision modulator or at the output of the vestigial sideband stage. In both cases, the added
signals are low level signals and no special combining circuitry is required.
Frequency conversion and amplification is common. So a frequency converter (or
a mixer) and a series of amplifiers for aural signal as well as an output combiner are
spared, which reduce the cost of the transmitter and electricity consumption of the
amplifiers considerably. Although a notch filter to suppress the inter modulation products
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is used at the output of the inter carrier transmitter, the cost of the notch filter is not
comparable to the cost of extra amplifiers and the output combiner. (See the subsection
Inter modulation products below)
In TV receivers, the received radio frequency signal is converted to IF in tuner and then
in fact an FM subcarrier modulated by AF. (The subcarrier is 5.5 MHz. in system B and
4.5 MHz. in system M ) The aural signal and the VF are separated by a simple filter. The
only extra stage needed for AF (other than the loudspeaker) is an FM demodulator.[1] The
inter carrier receiver system makes for easier tuning of a TV station. The viewer could
fine tune such a set to get the best picture reception, and not lose sound reception.
(Although AF VF signals are combined in the IF stages of the transmitters, they are
separated in baseband stages of the receivers.)
When VF and the aural signal modulate the same carrier the inevitable non-linearity of
the electronic circuits cause unwanted signals which are called inter modulation products.
The unwanted signals appear on RF spectrum at regular intervals, the interval being equal
to the frequency difference of the visual and aural carriers.
In TV broadcasting the inter modulation products of the aural subcarrier and the main
carrier appear out of the RF band of the TV channel. However, out of band product
means an unwanted transmission in the neighbour TV channels. For example, inter
modulation products of channel 7 appear in channel 5,6, 8 and 9. That is why notch filters
are used in inter carrier system.
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demodulated. The output of the demodulator consists of a VF and an aural signal which is
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The end slopes are allowed as 0.5MHZ as LSB is suppressed fully at 1.25 MHZ
while USB is fully attenuated
The sound carrier with frequency modulation carrier deviation upto + or -50KHZ
This is logical; placed to minimize interference between sound and picture signals
In VSB the lower modulation frequency from 0 to 0.75 MHZ in both side bands
The slope is linearly over the double sideband frequency range from -0.75 to
+0.75 MHz.
Sum of output contributions from two sidebands together make up the same
output at all frequencies.
III
UHF range
IV
41-68 MHZ
174-230 MHZ
470-582 MHZ
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UHF range
606-790 MHZ
When transmitters operating on same channel operating different place causes co-
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The different number of lines used in different TV standards dictates the other
characteristics of the system. CCIR recommends 625 lines, EIA 525 lines and SECAM
Symbol Characteristics
Value
16.6833
Field-blanking interval
j'
(19 to 21) H
a
<6.35
1.5.0.1
3H
3H
3H
2.3.0.1
27.1
4.7.0.1
<0.25
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819 lines.
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Basic Characteristics
Characteristics
B,G/PAL
M/NTSC
625
525
59.94
Line frequency fH
156250.0001% 15734.2640.0003%
2.8
2.2
4.2
2.10 PAL
2.10.1 VIDEO TIMING SPECIFICATION
Line
period
64
us
Line
blanking
12.05
Line
sync
Front
porch:
Burst
start
4.7
5.6
1.65
+
(Micro-seconds)
0.1
+
us
0.25
us
0.1
us
0.1
after
sync
Burst 10 + 1 cycles
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us
start.
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a = line sync
b = back porch
no.
of
scanning
linesand
frame
frequency.
CCIR standard has 625 lines/frame and 25 frames/sec. EIA standard has 525 lines/frame
and 30 frames/sec.
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2.10.2 PAL DETAILS
1. CCIR/PAL standard video signal has 625 lines/frame and it repeats @ 25 frames/sec.
2. Each frame is split into 2 fields; - each consisting of 312.5 lines, called odd and even
3. Interlacing: The lines of odd-even field lie alternately . This method of scanning is
called interlacing. This interlaced scanning is used to reduce flicker while displaying the
image on a monitor.
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fields. Thus field rate is 50. i.e. CCIR /PAL std has 50 fields/sec rate .
Synchronisation pulses ensure that the video image is locked on a video monitor (or VCR
etc) vertically and horizontally without any jitter or rolling. If vertical sync is lost, picture
may move/tear vertically. If horizontal sync is lost, picture may move/tear horizontally.
Synchronisation pulse ensure that all the equipment used in a CCTV set up like VCRs,
Monitors, Multiplexers and cameras are locked together. Video information is carried on
each line except portions which are in blank periods (Horizontal & Vertical blanking /
retrace period).
pulses
have
an
amplitude
of
-0.3V
with
respect
to
blanking
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( Refer to the Application Note 3 on Characteristic impedance) Colour Video Signal
True components of colour video signals are R,G,B signals . This method of representing
colour signals requires 3 video channels or cables and are seldom used, (except in
From the R, G, B and Y signals, Colour - Difference signals (R-Y) and (B-Y) are
generated. These colour - difference signals are modulated on a colour sub-carrier signal
(4.43MHz for PAL standard ) and is added to the Y information. This mixed signal is
known as composite colour video signal. This composite signal requires only one cable
for transmission. At the monitor, special filter circuits are used to separate the luminance
and colour difference signals. From these signals R , G , B information is separated and is
fed to the RGB guns in the monitor.
To aid separation of colour signals from composite video signal , a colour burst signal is
added to the back porch of Horizontal synchronization signal.
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computer monitors). From the RGB signals, luminance can be represented as below.
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2.10.5 BANDWIDTH
A colour bar signal has a maximum bandwidth of 0-5.5 MHz. For
monochrome signals, the colour subcarrier and colour components are absent. For such a
signal the bandwidth depends on the resolution of the camera. Typically it may vary from
It may be noted that the colour information is carried on the sub-carrier which
is at high frequency portion of the video signal. Thus when video signal is transmitted
over long distances through coaxial cable, the colour saturation, contrast as well as
horizontal pixel resolution gets reduced. If the attenuation is too high, the colour video
signal may even appear as Black & White on a colour monitor.
2.10.6 RESOLUTION
Resolution is the property of a system to display fine details. The higher the
resolution, the more details we can see. The resolution of a TV picture depends on the no.
of active scanning lines ,the quality of the camera, the quality of the monitor and the
quality of the transmittingmedia. There are 2 types of resolutions - Vertical and
horizontal.
Vertical resolution is defined by the no: of horizontal lines / details that can be
resolved on a monitor screen.
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3 MHz for a low resolution camera to 5 MHz for a high resolution camera.
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approximately 2:1. The normal signal is split into two frequency bands, nominally zero to
1.5 Mc/s and 1.5 to 3.0 Mc/s. The latter is used to amplitude-modulate a sub-carrier,
whose frequency is an odd multiple of half the line scanning rate. The lower sideband of
the modulator output is selected and combined with the original zero-to-1.5 Mc/s band,
so that the spectra of the two signals interleave. The combined signal may now be sent
composite signal is applied to a synchronous demodulator, fed also with sub-carrier of the
same frequency as at the transmitter.
A system of transmitting black and white signals was already in place for several years
when it became possible to transmit color signals. If black and white did not exist before then
the logical approach to take would be to transmit red, green and blue signals. In order to make
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over a channel of 1.5 Mc/s nominal bandwidth. At the receiving end of the channel the
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the color signal usable by black and white receivers a different approach was used and is
illustrated above by the signals in one channel. The bandwidth for each channel remained at
6MHz as for black and white. Sound in black and white had been transmitted as an FM signal
with 25kHz deviation and this also was left unchanged. In b/w a bandwidth of 4.2MHz was
allowed for the luminance signal with only a portion of the lower sideband being
wide. VSB was used instead of SSB because of the importance of the low frequencies in the
luminance signal. This method of transmitting the luminance also remained unchanged for color
signals. For the color system the luminance signal was derived as a combination of red, green
and blue signals weighted according to the sensitivity of the eye.
In order to recover the red, green and blue signals at the receiver at least 3 signals which can be
linear combinations of red, green and blue must be transmitted. With the luminance already
chosen for b/w compatibility two other signals must still be chosen and transmitted within the
6MHz bandwidth. The 2 signals chosen were the I and the Q signals, both of which are linear
combinations of red, green and blue.
Both are transmitted as DSB signals with a 3.58MHz(suppressed) carrier. The carrier for the I and
Q are 90 out of phase. The upper sideband of the I signal is also truncated to fit within the
limited bandwidth. In order for the receiver to recover the carrier, a "color burst" of 8 to 10
cycles of the carrier is transmitted on the back porch of the horizontal sync pulse during the
blanking interval(see below).
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The relative phase of the color burst, I and Q signals are shown above. I and Q are
combined to produce a C(color) signal. The magnitude of C fixes the saturation of the color and
the
phase
of
fixes
the
hue
of
the
color.
When viewed in time one line of a video signal will have 3 characteristics, an average level which
fixes the luminance(b/w) signal, an oscillation at 3.58MHz whose magnitude fixes the saturation
and
whose
phase
fixes
the
hue
of
the
color.
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The lines in the luminance spectrum occur at nfH while those of the color spectrum occur at (n +
)fH
resulting
in
interleaving
of
the
spectra.
In the original ntsc monochrome signal the line frequency was 15750Hz and the vertical
scanning frequency was 60Hz. Like in the FM band the sound FM is preemphasised with a time
constant of 75s. The sound can be transmitted in stereo using a system similar to how it is
The image is produced by an electron beam scanning from left to right to produce a
line of the image. While each line is scanned, the beam is also scanned vertically so that a
complete field is produced. After the first field, a second is interlaced with the first to produce a
complete frame. When each line is scanned, the beam must return to the left side of the screen
without producing a trace. This is achieved during the line blanking interval (~10 microseconds)
as indicated above. The signal is brought to a reference level considered as the blanking level.
The vertical blanking interval enables the beam to return to the top of the screen after each
field without producing a line on the screen. L refers to the Line interval of ~ 63.5 microseconds
and V is 1/60 Seconds. Purple lines indicate the visible part of each line (~53.5 microseconds).
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As it would be quite awkward to handle these half lines on a computer, computer people
usually process the image as if the last and first lines were used in full. Hence, for
computer image processing purposes it can be thought there are 288 active scan lines in
the first field and 288 active scan lines in the second field, giving us a total of 576 active
lines (which is a familiar number for anyone who has ever captured "full frame" PAL
video encoder chip should automatically snip the second half of the first line off, as well
as the first half of the last line.)
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video signals.) (Once you output your 576-line computer-generated video images, the
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2.12.1 INTRODUCTION
Vertical Frequency 50 Hz 50 Hz
Video Bandwidth 5.0 MHz 6.0 MHz
Sound Carrier 5.5 MHz 6.5 MHz
SECAM is a compatible standard, which means that monochrome television receivers
predating its introduction are still able to show the programs. Because of this compatibility
requirement, color standards add a second signal to the basic monochrome signal, and this
signal carries the color information, called chrominance or C in short, while the black and white
information is called the luminance (Y in short). Old TV receivers only display the luminance,
while color receivers process both signals. Additionally, for compatibility, it is required to use no
more bandwidth than the monochrome signal alone; the color signal has to be somehow
inserted into the monochrome signal, without disturbing it. This insertion is possible because
the spectrum of the monochrome TV signal is not continuous, hence empty space exists which
can be utilized. This lack of continuity results from the discrete nature of the signal, which is
divided into frames and lines. Analogue color systems differ by the way in which empty space is
used. In all cases, the color signal is inserted at the end of the spectrum of the monochrome
signal.
In order to be able to separate the color signal from the monochrome one in the receiver,
a fixed frequency sub carrier has to be used, this sub carrier being modulated by the color
signal.
The color space is three dimensional by the nature of the human vision, so after
subtracting the luminance, which is carried by the base signal, the color sub carrier still
has to carry a two dimensional signal. Typically the red (R) and the blue (B) information
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are carried because their signal difference with luminance (R-Y and B-Y) is stronger than
that of green (G-Y).
SECAM differs from the other color systems by the way the R-Y and B-Y signals are
carried. First, SECAM uses frequency modulation to encode chrominance information on
Second, instead of transmitting the red and blue information together, it only sends one of
them at a time, and uses the information about the other color from the preceding line. It
uses a delay line, an analog memory device, for storing one line of color information.
This justifies the "Sequential, With Memory" name.
Because SECAM transmits only one color at a time, it is free of the color artifacts present
in NTSC and PAL resulting from the combined transmission of both signals.
This means that the vertical color resolution is halved relative to NTSC. It is however not
halved compared to PAL. Although PAL does not eliminate half of vertical color
information during encoding, it combines color information from adjacent lines at the
decoding stage, in order to compensate for "color sub carrier phase errors" occurring
during the transmission of the Amplitude-Modulated color sub carrier. This is normally
done using a delay line like in SECAM but can be accomplished "visually" in cheap TV
sets (PAL standard). Because the FM modulation of SECAM's color sub carrier is
insensitive to phase (or amplitude) errors, phase errors do not cause loss of color
saturation in SECAM, although they do in PAL. In NTSC, such errors cause color shifts.
The color difference signals in SECAM are actually calculated in the color space, which
is a scaled version of the YUV color space. This encoding is better suited to the
transmission of only one signal at a time.
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acquisition of raw footage for post-production. The design of a studio is similar to, and
derived from, movie studios, with a few amendments for the special requirements of
television production. A professional television studio generally has several rooms, which
are kept separate for noise and practicality reasons. These rooms are connected via
intercom, and personnel will be divided among these workplaces.
The studio floor is the actual stage on which the actions that will be recorded take place. A
studio floor has the following characteristics and installations:
microphones
several video monitors for visual feedback from the production control room
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productions take place, either for live television, for recording live to tape, or for the
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A glass window between production control room (PCR) and studio floor for direct visual
contact is usually desired, but not always possible
The on-screen "talent" themselves, and any guests - the subjects of the show.
A floor director or floor manager, who has overall charge of the studio area, and who
relays timing and other information from the director.
One or more camera operators who operate the television cameras, though in some
instances these can also be operated from PCR using remote heads.
makes the picture interesting. Flat, even lighting gives the video engineer the least amount of
trouble, but it also renders the least interesting picture. The most basic lighting set-up is called
"3-point" lighting. Lighting is always planned relative to the camera angles. Advanced students
are expected to practice basic 3-point lighting. Since lighting can be a very subjective medium,
there are no real hard and fast rules about lighting ratios and lighting setups. Talk shows tend to
be lit evenly and flat. The particular lighting set up depends on mood, purpose, or style of
lighting needed. There are many different ways to achieve this.
Fresnel Spotlight: So named for its ring-stepped lens. In our studio, most of the fresnel spots
contain 500-1000 watt lamps. A 1000 watt instrument is called a ONE-K. The instrument has a
spot/flood control on the side or rear which allows the light to be changed from a narrow, highly
focused beam of light, to a wider, less intense spread. This range is actually produced by the
movement of a reflector inside the instrument which moves closer to, or farther away from the
fresnel lens. On the other side of each fresnel spot is a knob called the "tilt lock". When tight,
the up and down motion of the instrument is locked.When loosened, the instrument may be
tilted up or down to any position. The tilt control is usually set tight enough to maintain the tilt
position, yet loose enough to allow the operator to move the light up or down. "Barn-doors" are
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While a production is in progress, the following people work in the studio floor.
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metal flags attached to a spotlight to confine the light to a given area, often to keep light off the
background.
Scoop Floodlight: A deep open-faced (no lens) floodlight with a diffused, generally elliptical
Key Light: The key light is defined as the apparent, main source of light. The position of the key
light can greatly impact the positioning of all the other lights. The key light is the modeling light.
A harsh, shadow producing instrument such as a Fresnel spotlight, is usually used as the key
light.
Fill Light: The fill light is the instrument used to soften the dark, well defined shadow produced
by the key light. Ideally, the fill light should not produce a shadow of its own. Therefore, an
instrument which produces a softer, more diffused type of light is usually used.
Back Light: Back light is illumination from behind the subject. Its main purpose is to show the
separation between the subject and the background. Since the television screen is a two
dimensional object, it is necessary to imply the third dimension with light. Without the
backlight, the subject and the background tend to blend together, but when correctly applied,
the back light subtly rims the subject with light, which visually separates the subject from the
background. The back light is set at about a 45 degree angle. It must be used with care, since its
intensity should vary according to the relative quality of the hair, etc. Blonds and bald people
get less back lighting than those having dark hair.
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contoured reflector. Often used as a fill light. Cyclorama Strip Light (cyc strip): An rectangular
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Side light: Side light is sometimes used as an alternative to the standard three point lighting set
up. It is helpful to light this way for people with glasses because there are no reflections of the
lights in the glasses. It still involves a main, key source, and a soft fill, except the lights are aimed
almost directly from the side.
Background light: The purpose of the background light is to establish a "base level of overall
dimmer than the lights on the performers. Background lights are similar to back lights in that
they are both used to create a feeling of depth and dimension in a two dimensional medium.
"Slashing" the drapes is to light them with an oblique beam of light that creates a highlight line
or "slash" across them.
Barndoors - The flaps attached to the front of the instrument, they are manipulated to prevent
light from striking unwanted areas.
Flags - A Device which can also block out light. Flags can be mounted on a light stand or in the
lighting grid. Flags create harder edges where the light is cut off, than barndoors do, and can
also block off unwanted light.
Diffusion - Diffusion scatters light, creating soft, somewhat blurred shadow edges, and less
severe modeling. Diffusion also act to reduce the intensity of an instrument without significantly
affecting the instruments color temperature. Diffusion is available in a variety of materials.
Diffusion can be mounted in a "gel frame" or attached to the instruments barndoors with
clothes pins.
Scrims - A wire screen used to cut down the amount of light emulating from an instrument. It is
inserted between the lens and the barndoors. They do not significantly alter the shadow pattern
or color temperature produced by a light.
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lighting" on the set, and to illuminate the set pieces. These lights are usually considerably
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Gels - The generic nickname for a vast array of colored tough, heat resistant, polyester, film-like
products used in front of lights. Their purpose is to alter the color characteristics of the lights to
which they are attached. Gels are mounted in a "gel frame" or attached to the instruments
Footcandle - Refers to the amount of light falling on a one-foot square surface from a candle
placed one foot away.
Light Meter - A device used to measure the quantity of light (in foot candles). The camera
requires a minimum amount of light to render an acceptable image.
Color Temperature - Color temperature refers to the redness or blue-white quality of light,
certain color temperatures are required for color TV. Cameras are calibrated for a specific color
temperature, the lighting should remain reasonably close to that temperature range. You should
also know that when you dim a light, its color temperature drops, becoming more red based.
Motivated Light Source - As an example, if a person were indoors near a desk lamp, the lamp
might appear to be the main source of subject illumination. "Regardless of the type of fixture or
its location on the set, if that light is the main, apparent source of subject illumination, it is by
default the key light".
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The production control room (PCR), also known as the "gallery" or Studio Control Room
(SCR), is the place in a television studio in which the composition of the outgoing
program takes place. Facilities in a PCR include:
A video monitor wall, with monitors for program, preview, VTRs, cameras, graphics and
other video sources. In some facilities, the monitor wall is a series of racks containing
with a virtual monitor wall (sometimes called a "glass cockpit"), one or more large video
screens, each capable of displaying multiple sources in a simulation of a monitor wall.
A vision mixer, a large control panel used to select the video sources to be seen on air
and, in many cases, in any monitors on the set. The term 'vision mixer' is primarily used
in Europe, while the term 'switcher' is usually used in North America.
An audio mixing console and other audio equipment such as effects devices.
A character generator, which creates the majority of the names and full screen graphics
that are inserted into the program
Digital video effects, or DVE, for manipulation of video sources. In newer vision mixers,
the DVE is integrated into the vision mixer; older models without built-in DVE's can
often control external DVE devices, or an external DVE can be manually run by an
operator.
A still store, or still frame, device for storage of graphics or other images. While the
name suggests that the device is only capable of storing still images, newer still stores can
store moving video clips.
The technical director's station, with waveform monitors, vectorscopes and the CCUs or
remote control panels for the CCUs.
In some facilities, VTRs may also be located in the PCR, but are also often found in the
central machine room
Intercom and IFB equipment for communication with talent and crew
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physical television and computer monitors; in others, the monitor wall has been replaced
The multi camera outputs are feed into the production switcher. We get a
finished video content from the production switcher. Similarly the finished audio content
from the audio mixer is obtained. The separate Video and Audio content are embedded or
mixed after the time correction.
Generally the video content passes through much more number of stages of processing so
there develops a time lag between the video and audio source. The time lag of video
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signals need to be eliminated by delaying the audio signal. So a time correction or audio
delay is done. The class of equipments which does time correction, embedding of audio
There could be other functions which could be required at this stage such as format
conversion, frame conversion, chroma keying etc all these are done by various types OF
glues. The finished content is transferred to a video server or a VTR (VTR is device
which record the content into tapes). The feature of production switcher and audio mixer
would be discussed later once I would have described the outline of the complex system.
2.14.1 CENTRAL APPARATUS ROOM
If I take the Kingdom analogy that far its akin to the armoury of fort. I am not saying it
the central armoury as there
is CAR
of MCR (Master
Control Room).
There are number of equipments which generates lot of heat and need to rack mounted
and separated from there control console. These parts of the equipment or equipments are
kept in CAR. A sample list could be CCU, RCP, MCP, Glues, Video server etc.
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The master control room houses equipment that is too noisy or runs too hot for the
production control room. It also makes sure that wire lengths and installation
requirements keep within manageable lengths, since most high-quality wiring runs only
between devices in this room. This can include:
The actual circuitry and connection boxes of the vision mixer, DVE and character
generator devices
VTRs
patch panels for reconfiguration of the wiring between the various pieces of equipment.
In a broadcast station in the US, master control room or "MCR" is the place where the
on-air signal is controlled. It may include controls to play back programs and
commercials, switch local or network feeds, record satellite feeds and monitor the
transmitter(s), or these items may be in an adjacent equipment rack room. The term
"studio" usually refers to a place where a particular local program is originated. If the
program is broadcast live, the signal goes from the production control room to MCR and
then out to the transmitter.
The integration team at TV Pro Gear handles every step of the creation of a
complete Master Control Room. There are many parts that need to work together
seamlessly in order for a Master Control Room to be a success. Our experts pay careful
attention to each aspect of the rooms we design in order to ensure a finished product that
fully suits the needs our clients.
We leave nothing out of our Master Control Rooms. We work with our clients to
develop the best possible solutions for each part of their project. We take care of
everything from the monitoring system, to storage solutions, to furniture, to setting up a
24-hour automated playout system.
As a systems integrator, we are entirely brand agnostic giving us the ability to choose
the equipment that best suits our clients' needs rather than worrying about loyalty to a
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specific manufacturer. Our team will work alongside you to select the gear that will
combine to create the finest solution available.
We handle very basic solutions for smaller clients to very large installations where
dozens of monitors and several workstations are required. Our integration team brings all
upon completion.
In addition to constructing Master Control Rooms from the ground up, our team can
upgrade existing systems. Whether you are looking to just add a few monitors or give
you control room a complete makeover, we are certain to have a solution that fits your
needs. As high definition becomes the norm, upgrading is often an essential step in
keeping up with the rest of the pack. TV Pro Gear has tremendous experience in
handling these type of system upgrades and our expertise is certain to benefit you greatly.
A control room is a room serving as an operations centre where a facility or service can
be monitored and controlled. Examples include:
in television production, the master control room is an operations center for a network or
station, or the production control room of a television studio or color suite
each recording studio typically has its own control room where the recording is actually made.
many television programs originate from photographic cine films, usually of 35mm and
16mm.
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of the equipment together, finishing all of the wiring and cabling for a very clean look
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2. flying spot scanner
3. digital ccd telecine
The parts of a flying spot scanner: (A) Cathode-ray tube (CRT); (B) photon beam; (C) & (D)
dichroic mirrors; (E), (F) & (G) red-, green- and blue-sensitive photomultipliers.
The CRT emits a pixel-sized electron beam which is converted to a photon beam
through the phosphors coating the envelope. This dot of light is then focused by a lens
onto the film's emulsion, and finally collected by a pickup device. In 1950 the first Rank
flying spot monochrome telecine was installed at the BBC's Lime Grove Studios.[7] The
advantage of the FSS is that colour analysis is done after scanning, so there can be no
registration errors as can be produced by vidicon tubes where scanning is done after
colour separation it also allows simpler dichroics to be used.
In a flying spot scanner (FSS) or cathode-ray tube (CRT) telecine, a pixel-sized
light beam is projected through exposed and developed motion picture film (either
negative or positive) at a phosphor-coated envelope. This beam of light scans across
the film image from left to right to record the vertical frame information. Horizontal
scanning of the frame was then accomplished by moving the film past the CRT beam.
This beam passes through the film image, projecting it pixel-by-pixel onto the pickup
(phosphor-coated envelope). The light from the CRT passes through the film and is
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separated by dichroic mirrors and filters into red, green and blue bands. Photomultiplier
tubes or avalanche photodiodes convert the light into separate red, green and blue
electrical signals for further electronic processing. During this time advances were also
made in CRTs, with increased light output producing a better SNR and so allowing
The problem with flying-spot scanners was the difference in frequencies between
television field rates and film frame rates. This was solved first by the Mk. I Polygonal
Prism system, which was optically sychronised to the television frame rate by the rotating
prism and could be run at any frame rate.), the most popular of the series and used a next
generation Digiscan plus other improvements.
The parts of a CCD scanner: (A) Xenon bulb; (B) film plane; (C) & (D) prisms and/or dichroic
mirrors; (E) ,(F) & (G) red-, green- and blue-sensitive CCDs.
In a charge-coupled device Line Array CCD telecine, a white light is shone through the
exposed film image into a prism, which separates out the image into the three primary
colors, red, green and blue. Each beam of colored light is then projected at a different
CCD, one for each color. The CCD converts the light into electrical impulses which the
telecine electronics modulate into a video signal which can then be recorded onto video
tape or broadcast.
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2.17.1 THE HELICAL SCAN SYSTEM
In an audio cassette deck, which only registers audio signals, the tape passes over a static
recording/playback head at constant speed. The higher the speed of the tape, the more
tape particles pass the head opening and the higher the frequencies that can be registered.
entire tone range, up to 18,000 or 20,000 Hz, despite a slow tape speed of no more than
4.75 centimeters per second.
However, to register video signals, a range of 3.2 MHz is required and so a tape speed of
approximately 5 meters per second is a prerequisite. This is over 100 times as fast as the
tape speed for an audio cassette deck. The required high recording speed for video
recorders is realized by the helical scan system without such high tape speeds. The
system basically consists of a revolving head drum, that has a minimum of two video
heads.
The head drum has a diameter of approximately 5 cm and rotates at a speed of 1500
revolutions per minute. The 1/2" (12.65 mm) wide videotape is guided around half the
surface of this drum, in a slightly oblique manner. This is achieved by positioning the
head drum at a slight angle. The tape guidance mechanism then ensures that the tape is
guided through the device at a speed of approximately 2 cm per second (half of the low
tape speed that is used in audio cassette decks).
2.17.2 AST
AUTOMATIC TRACKING
Track-while-scan systems are tracking systems for surveillance radars
whose nominal scan time (revisit time) is from 4 to 12 s. If the probability of detection (WD) per
scan is high, if accurate target location measurements are made, if the target density is low, and
if there are only a few false alarms, the design of the correlation logic and tracking filter is
straightforward. However in a realistic radar environment these assumptions are seldom valid,
and the design of the automatic tracking system is complicated. In actual situations one
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Thanks to the extremely narrow head opening, it is possible to record and play back the
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encounters target fades (changes in signal strength caused by multipath propagation, blind
speeds, and atmospheric conditions), false alarms (caused by noise. clutter, interference, and
jamming), and poor radar parameter estimates (caused by noise, unstabilized antennas,
unresolved targets, target splits, multipath propagation, and propagation effects). The tracking
system must deal with all these problems. A generic track-white-scan will be considered first.
REFERENCE:
1. A-M-Dhake-" Television and video Engineering second Edition TMH 2003
2. R-R-Gulati-"Modern Television Practice -Technology and servicing -second
edition New age International publishes -2004.
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SYLLABUS
REQUIREMENTS OF TV Broadcast Transmission
Design principle of TV Transmitters
IF Modulation
power output stages
Block diagram of TV transmitters
visual exciter
Aural Exciter
Diplexer
Transmitting antennas
Radio wave Characteristics
propagation phenomena
space wave propagation
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UNIT III
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Line of sight range
space wave reception over smooth terrain
distance reception
Co channel interference
Ghost images
interference problem
Receiving antenna requirements
characteristics and types
parasitic elements
Yagi aerials
Feeders matching
booster amplifiers.
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Shadow zones
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VHF stations and about 60 km for UHF stations. Television broadcasting initially started with
monochrome picture but around 1952 colour transmission was introduced. Despite its
complexity and higher cost, colour television has become such a commercial success that it is
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3.3 IF MODULATION
Each IF stage is a tuned amplifier. Because of the selective properties of the tuned
amplifier the gain is quite large and falls off sharply at frequencies that lie on either side of the
other. This circuit arrangement is where Cin and Cout are the self shunting capacitances of the
input and output circuits respectively.
Several tuned amplifier stages are cascaded together to provide a large gain to amplify
the weak RF signal received from the mixer. Each stage operates under class A condition for
minimum distortion. At least one stage is AGC controlled to change the gain in accordance with
changes in the signal picked up by the antenna so as to deliver a signal of almost constant peak to
peak amplitude to the video detector. The last IF stage is not fed with AGC bias because here the
signal amplitude is quite large and any shift in the operating point by the AGC bias would result
in amplitude distortion. The overall design of the video IF strip becomes quite complex because
in addition to gain and bandwidth, matching of tuned circuits, stability, neutralizing and trap
circuits are also to be taken into account for proper functioning of the video IF section.
Neutralizing and matching of tuned circuits were discussed at length in the last chapter. The same
problems are there in the video IF stages. However, here matching and neutralization
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passband. In some IF circuit designs a double tuned circuit is used for coupling one stage to the
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3.4 POWER OUTPUT STAGES
The output power of VHF transmitter employs triodes or tetrodes in grid configuration
and re-entrant cavities.
Transmission line circuits also present their peculiar problems of coupling, etc. to avoid
Lower efficiency of klystron amplifier, cooling system must handle a large dissipation.
Modern UHF, employs multicavity klystrons or travelling wave tubes having high power
gain.
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It consists of video processing unit, visual,modulator, VSB filter and phase compensator
VSB filter and Phase delay compensator or Equaliser: VSB filter is design with lumped
components, consists four sections of low pass ladder network.
The phase compensator is in-built to compensate phase distortions.
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The maximum delay and frequency of m,aximum delay of all-pass sections varied continuously.
The audio signal voltage applied to varactor diode in paralled with tuned LC oscillator.
The junction capacitances varies with audio bias voltage, causes changes in frequency of
oscillator to produce FM of 33.4MHz.
The 33.4MHz oscillator frequency (f1) and 33.4MHz crystal controlled frequency (f2) are
compare in phase detector produces Vout is proportional to difference between two
frequencies.
The output of phase detector is directly coupled to second varactor diode through LPF.
3.8 DIPLEXER
The output of both aural and visual transmitters combined by means of diplexer unit.
CIN diplexer:
CIN Constant Impedance Notch
It provides a constant input impedance at input ports. It consists of 3dB DC, 2units of aural
notch cavities connected by coaxial transmission lines.
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3.8.3 FILTERPLEXER:
In high level modulated transmitter, the VSB filter is located at output ,
so filter and diplexer can integrated into single unit called filterplexer.
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1. When Pv is I port1 , half power appears in P2 and other half in P4, no power in P3
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Circular pattern in horizontal plane obtained by turnstile.
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3. Diffracted around tall massive objects.
4. Microwave frequency waves may absorbed and attenuated through media
containing water vapour, oxygen, etc.
1, the light absorption: the light is a flow of energy in the propagation of light through the
material will cause the material to make atomic valence electron transitions, or vibration, so
that part of light energy into heat, resulting in the attenuation of light energy, which
phenomenon is known as the light absorption. Absorbed light intensity is proportional to the
thickness of the absorber.
2, the reflection of light: light from a medium fired another cross-media interface, part of the
light back to the original medium, the light propagation direction is changed, a phenomenon
known as the reflection of light. Light of the law of reflection: reflection of light and incident
light, normal in the same plane; reflected light and incident light separated the sides in the
normal; angle of reflection equals angle of incidence can be summarized as: "three-coplanar,
two-line separation, the two angles are equal. "
3, the refraction of light: when light from one medium to another medium oblique, the direction
of change in its spread of this phenomenon is called refraction of light. Refraction of light, its
frequency unchanged, but the wavelength and velocity changes. Refraction, the refraction of
light, light rays, normal in the same plane, the refracted light and the normal incident light are
located on both sides. Refraction with the angle of incidence is changed, but the two months.
4, light scattering: a beam of light through the media outside the main part of the propagation
of light, a phenomenon known as light scattering. Is the essence of the phenomenon of
electromagnetic waves with the medium molecular interaction. Is the scattering of light atoms
or molecules to get energy from the incident light wave, the change in propagation direction
and phase, and even change the frequency of re-radiation process.
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2. Noise Occurrence
When a radio wave is weak, (when the electric signal is small), noise increases. For
example, the further the distance between the base unit and the portable unit (inverse
proportion to distance squared), the radio wave will become weaker And, at a certain
level, the noise (radio wave disturbance). There is also the possibility that the cordless
phone may receive interference when operated near a radio or TV station, electric cable,
etc. Even within a normal transmission range of 100m, if there is a building, a wall or
something that might cause interference, the transmission conditions become worse. In
cases that are extremely bad, the transmission range narrows extremely down to only 5 30m.
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With the spread of electrical products and the increase of wireless communication
products, noise and interference also occur in large quantities.
In some cases where noise is interfering with the cordless phone's radio waves, as the cause,
which is this noise, cannot be seen by the eye, many people think that the phone is no good or is
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The line of sight distance is that exact distance at which both the sender and
receiver antenna are in sight of each other. So, from the above line it is clear that if we
want to increase the transmission distance then this can be done by simply extending the
heights of both the sender as well as the receiver antenna. This type of propagation is
used basically in radar and television communication.
The frequency range for television signals is nearly 80 to 200MHz. These waves are not
reflected by the ionosphere of the earth. The property of following the earths curvature is
also missing in these waves. So, for the propagation of television signal, geostationary
satellites are used. The satellites complete the task of reflecting television signals towards
earth. If we need greater transmission then we have to build extremely tall antennas.
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3.14.1 Range (to horizon):
RNM= 1.23 hradar with h in ft
Range (beyond horizon / over earth curvature):
In obtaining the radar horizon equations, it is common practice to assume a value for
the Earth's radius that is 4/3 times the actual radius. This is done to account for the effect of the
atmosphere on radar propagation. For a true line of sight, such as used for optical search and
rescue, the constant in the equations changes from 1.23 to 1.06. A nomograph for determining
maximum target range. Although an aircraft is shown to the left, it could just as well be a ship,
with radars on a mast of height "h". Any target of height (or altitude) "H" is depicted on the right
side.
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It is due to 2 rays
1. direct LOS wave having pathlength,r0
2. reflected ray r1,r2 from point on earth surface.
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For horizontal polarization, E=0 close to ground , but rises almost linearly with hr above earth
Distance of TV signals , far beyond LOS range is sometimes possible due to bending or
diffraction.
Tropospheric propagation occurs mostly on band I and lower channels of band III.
ii)
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surface.
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and 9,670 miles) from the epicenter. The secondary seismic waves cannot pass through
the liquid outer core and are not detected more than 104 (approximately 11,570 km /
The reason for this is that the velocity for P-waves and S-waves is governed by both the
different properties in the material which they travel through and the different
mathematical relationships they share in each case. The three properties are:
incompressibility (k), density (p) and rigidity (u). P-wave velocity is equal to
where as S-wave velocity is equal to
is entirely dependent on the rigidity of the material it travels through. Liquids, however,
have zero rigidity, hence always making the S-wave velocity overall zero and as such Swaves lose all velocity when traveling through a liquid. P-waves, however, are only
partially dependent on rigidity and as such still maintain some velocity (if greatly
reduced) when traveling through a liquid. [3] Analysis of the seismology of various
recorded earthquakes and their shadow zones, led geologist Richard Oldham to deduce in
1906 the liquid nature of the Earth's outer core.
Cellular Mobile Networks: In cellular mobile communication (GSM & LTE Systems, for
instance), frequency spectrum is a precious resource which is divided into non-
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overlapping spectrum bands which are assigned to different cells (In cellular
communications, a cell refers to the hexagonal/circular area around the base station
antenna). However, after certain geographical distance, the frequency bands are reused, i.e. the same spectrum bands are re-assigned to other distant cells. The Cochannel interference arises in the cellular mobile networks owing to this phenomenon
same frequencies arrive at the receiver from the undesired transmitters located (far
away) in some other cells and lead to deterioration in receiver performance.
Poor frequency planning: Poor planning of frequencies by broadcasters can cause CCI,
although this is rare. A very localised example is Listowel in the south-west of Ireland.
The RTNL UHF television transmitter systems in Listowel and Knockmoyle (near Tralee)
are on the same frequencies but with opposite polarisation. However in some outskirts
of Listowel town, both transmitters can be picked up causing heavy CCI. This problem
forces residents in these areas to use alternative transmitters to receive RT
programming.
Overly-crowded radio spectrum: In many populated areas, there just isn't much room in
the radio spectrum. Stations will be jam-packed in, sometimes to the point that one can
hear loud and clear two, three, or more stations on the same frequency, at once. In the
USA, the FCC propagation models used to space stations on the same frequency are not
always accurate in prediction of signals and interference An example of this situation is
in some parts of Fayetteville, Arkansas the local 99.5 FM KAKS is displaced by KXBL 99.5
FM in Tulsa, particularly on the west side of significant hills. Another example would be
of Cleveland's WKKY 104.7 having interference from Toledo's WIOT 104.7 FM on the
Ontario shore of Lake Erie, as well as Woodstock's CIHR-FM (on rare occasions), which is
also on 104.7 FM, due to the signals travelling very far across Lake Erie.
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of Frequency reuse. Thus, besides the intended signal from with in the cell, signals at the
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Co-channel interference
schemes.
Nearly half of all reception problems are due to deficiencies or faults in the television
receiver, the aerial lead or the aerial. The following information will help you to check
whether the problem you are having is due to one of these causes.
Portable television sets fitted with an inbuilt aerial or a set-top aerial are prone to a
number of reception problems. Where these reception problems are experienced, the set
should be fitted with an aerial lead and an externally mounted aerial. The following
advice applies only to television sets having an outside aerial.
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3.19.1 INTRODUCTION
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Radio transmitters are used for communication by Citizens' Band enthusiasts, radio
amateurs, radio taxis and many other licensed and authorized services. Strong radio
transmissions from any of these sources could affect your set.
In many cases there is no fault with the radio transmitter and the radio operator is not to
signals which it should not receive. In such cases, the TV set is said to be lacking in
immunity.
The FM radio band goes from 88 to 108 MHz (megahertz, or millions of cycles per
second). Again, you can see these numbers on your FM radio dial.
To keep from interfering with each other FM stations must be 200kHz apart within the
same geographic area. However, since the signals of FM stations cover only limited
distances, the same frequencies can be used in different geographic areas of the country.
Unlike AM radio stations, FM stations, at least in the United States, don't end up being
assigned frequencies with nice round numbers like 820 or 1240. Thus, an FM station may
be at 88.7 on the dial.
You may have noticed that FM stations don't reduce power or sign off the air at
sunset. Because of their higher frequency ionospheric refraction doesn't appreciably
affect FM or TV signals.
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blame. The problem occurs because the TV set is not designed well enough to resist
For the most part, FM and TV signals are line-of-sight. Although this means that FM
stations don't interfere with each other, this characteristic creates a couple of other
problems.
First, these waves go in a straight line and don't bend around the earth as AM ground
waves do. Thus, they can quickly disappear into space.
So, the farther away from the FM or TV station you are, the higher you have to have an
antenna to receive the FM or TV signal. Note that the earth is round we hope this
doesn't come as a shock to anyone and, therefore, these signals will literally leave the
earth after 50 miles or so.
And, there's another problem. Since FM and TV signals are line-of-sight, they can be
stopped or reflected by things like mountains and buildings. In the case of solid objects
like buildings, reflections create ghost images in TV pictures and that "swishing sound"
when you listen to FM radio while driving around tall structures.
The higher the FM or TV transmitter antennas are the greater area they will cover
which explains why these antennas are commonly very tall, or placed on the top of
mountains. AM radio doesn't need that kind of advantage, since, as we've seen, AM
radio waves don't behave in the same way.
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Note also from the drawing above that FM and TV signals tend to go through the
ionosphere rather than being refracted form it. Again, this means that no matter what the
station's power, it's signal will at some point leave the earth.
Antenna Gain
Independent of the use of a given antenna for transmitting or receiving, an important
characteristic of this antenna is the gain. Some antennas are highly directional; that is,
more energy is propagated in certain directions than in others. The ratio between the
amount of energy propagated in these directions compared to the energy that would be
propagated if the antenna were not directional (Isotropic Radiation) is known as its gain.
When a transmitting antenna with a certain gain is used as a receiving antenna, it will
also have the same gain for receiving.
Antenna Pattern
Most radiators emit (radiate) stronger radiation in one direction than in another. A
radiator such as this is referred to as anisotropic. However, a standard method allows the
positions around a source to be marked so that one radiation pattern can easily be
compared with another.
The energy radiated from an antenna forms a field having a definite radiation pattern. A
radiation pattern is a way of plotting the radiated energy from an antenna. This energy is
measured at various angles at a constant distance from the antenna. The shape of this
pattern depends on the type of antenna used.
To plot this pattern, two different types of graphs, rectangular-and polar-coordinate
graphs are used. The polar-coordinated graph has proved to be of great use in studying
radiation patterns. In the polar-coordinate graph, points are located by projection along a
rotating axis (radius) to an intersection with one of several concentric, equally-spaced
circles. The polar-coordinate graph of the measured radiation is shown in Figure 1.
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The main beam (or main lobe ) is the region around the direction of maximum radiation
(usually the region that is within 3 dB of the peak of the main beam). The main beam in
Figure 1 is northbound.
The sidelobes are smaller beams that are away from the main beam. These sidelobes are
sidelobe level (or sidelobe ratio) is an important parameter used to characterize radiation
patterns. It is the maximum value of the sidelobes away from the main beam and is
expressed in Decibels. One sidelobe is called backlobe. This is the portion of radiation
pattern that is directed opposing the main beam direction.
Beam Width
The angular range of the antenna pattern in which at least half of the maximum power is
still emitted is described as a Beam With. Bordering points of this major lobe are
therefore the points at which the field strength has fallen in the room around 3 dB
regarding the maximum field strength. This angle is then described as beam width or
aperture angle or half power (- 3 dB) angle - with notation (also ). The beamwidth
is exactly the angle between the 2 red marked directions in the upper pictures. The angle
can be determined in the horizontal plane (with notation AZ) as well as in the vertical
plane .
Front-to-Back Ratio
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usually radiation in undesired directions which can never be completely eliminated. The
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The front-to-back ratio of an antenna is the proportion of energy radiated in the principal
direction of radiation to the energy radiated in the opposite direction. A high front-toback ratio is desirable because this means that a minimum amount of energy is radiated in
the undesired direction.
The effective aperture of an antenna Ae is the area presented to the radiated or received
signal. It is a key parameter, which governs the performance of the antenna.
Ae = KaA
The aperture efficiency depends on the distribution of the illumination across the
aperture. If this is linear then Ka= 1. This high efficiency is offset by the relatively high
level of sidelobes obtained with linear illumination. Therefore, antennas with more
practical levels of sidelobes have an antenna aperture efficiency less than one (Ae< A).
3.21.1 TYPES
HDTV Antenna
An antenna made for analog TV will work fine for DTV. There is nothing different about an
antenna for DTV or HDTV. Unscrupulous people have labeled their antennas HDTV Antennas
as a marketing ploy. The honest antenna makers have had to re-label their products likewise to
avoid losing sales.
Some terms
Gain a measure of how much signal the antenna will collect.
Beam width how directional an antenna is.
Bandwidth how the gain varies with frequency. A narrowband antenna will receive some
channels well, but other channels poorly.
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Aperture
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The Dipole
This is the simplest TV antenna. Variations on the dipole are the bowtie (which has wider
bandwidth), the folded-dipole (which can solve an efficiency problem) and the loop (a variation
(doughnut shape). The gain is generally 2.15 dBi. dBi means dB of improvement over an
isotropic radiator, which is an antenna that radiates equally in all directions. This sounds like a
discussion of transmitting antennas, and it could be. An antenna will have the same gain when
receiving as when transmitting, and also the same radiation pattern.
The dipole has positive gain because it does not radiate equally in all directions. This is a
universal truth. To get more gain, an antenna must radiate in fewer directions. Imagine a
spherical balloon. Now press on it from opposite sides with a finger of each hand. Push in until
your fingers meet. The result looks like the torroid above. But more importantly, the balloon
expanded in the other directions. A-hah! Gain! Thats the way antennas work.
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on the folded dipole). All four have the same gain and the same radiation field: a torroid
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Keep this balloon analogy in mind. More complicated antennas work by reducing radiation in
most directions. They distort the balloon considerably, but the volume of the balloon remains
Another rating system for antennas uses dBd, which means dB of improvement over a dipole
antenna. To convert dBd to dBi, just add 2.15. Antenna makers specify their gains in dB. They
actually mean dBd, but given the way they exaggerate their claims, dBi is usually closer to the
truth.
In the US, TV antennas are always horizontal. If you rotate an antenna about the forward axis (a
line from the transmitting antenna) the signal strength will vary as the cosine of the angle. In
other words, when the antenna elements are vertical, no signal is received because TV signals
have horizontal polarization.
Stacked Dipoles
Two heads are better than one, and so it is with dipoles. N dipoles will take in N times as much
RF power as one dipole, provided they are not too close to each other. Thus a 4-dipole antenna
would have a gain of 8.15 dBi. (That is 2.15 dBi doubled once (plus 3 dB) and doubled again
(plus another 3 dB).) This assumes their positions and cable lengths are adjusted so that their
signals add in-phase. This explanation of gain may seem at odds with the balloon explanation,
but ultimately they are equivalent. (Adding dipoles does not increase the volume of the balloon
because phase cancellation occurs in some directions.)
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constant.
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Dipoles are commonly stacked horizontally (collinearly), vertically (broadside), and in echelon
When dipoles are stacked horizontally, the horizontal beam width becomes very narrow. This is
because they do not add in-phase for directions not straight ahead. Similarly, when stacked
vertically, the vertical beam width becomes narrower.
Lets say you are 20 miles from a city and TV transmitters are scattered all over the city. A
medium gain antenna might be too weak, but a high gain antenna would be so directional you
would need a rotor. Solution: A bunch of dipoles stacked vertically would give you the gain you
need. The vertical narrowness of the resulting beam is of little importance, but the horizontal
broadness of the beam means no rotor needed.
Reflector Antennas
Radio waves will reflect off of a large conducting plane as if it was a mirror. A coarse screen
works just as as well. Reflector antennas are very common.
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(end-fire).
The double bow-tie above has an average gain of 6 dBi. With a bigger screen it would have
more. The parabolic reflector focuses the signal onto a single dipole, but its bandwidth is a little
disappointing. The corner reflector has a little less gain but much greater bandwidth. The
corner reflector has roughly the gain of three dipoles. It is a good medium gain antenna, widely
used for UHF. If you need more than 25 dBi then the paraboloid dish is the only practical choice,
but they are huge.
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Log-Periodic Dipole Arrays (LPDA)
The LPDA has several dipoles arranged in echelon and criss-cross fed from the front. The name
This is a very wideband antenna with a gain of up to about 7 dBi. For any frequency, only about
three of the elements are carrying much current. The other elements are inactive. As frequency
increases, the active elements move toward the front of the array. Most VHF TV antennas are
LPDAs.
TV LPDAs come in two types: straight and Vee. The Vee type (LPVA) has a very slightly higher
gain for channels 7-13. But this author often favors the straight type since it has nulls 90 to
each side that can be used to cancel out interference.
Yagi Antennas
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A Yagi antenna has several elements arranged in echelon. They are connected together by a
long element, called the boom. The boom carries no current. If the boom is an insulator, the
The rear-most element is called the reflector. The next element is called the driven
element. All the remaining elements are called directors. The directors are about 5% shorter
than the driven element. The reflector is about 5% longer than the driven element. The driven
element is usually a folded dipole or a loop. It is the only element connected to the cable. Yet
the other elements carry almost as much current.
The Yagi is the most magical of all antennas. The more directors you add, the higher the gain
becomes. Gains above 20 dBi are possible. But the Yagi is a narrowband antenna, often
intended for a single frequency. As frequency increases above the design frequency, the gain
declines abruptly. Below the design frequency, the gain falls off more gradually. When a Yagi is
to cover a band of frequencies, it must be designed for the highest frequency of the band.
An antenna has an aperture area, from which it captures all incoming radiation. The aperture of
a Yagi is round and its area is proportional to the gain. As the leading elements absorb power,
diffraction bends the adjacent rays in toward the antenna.
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The driven element
The driven element(s) is/are connected to the feed line. In yagi antennas for ham radio,
there is usually just one driven element. This element is sometimes physically shortened
by inductive loading. It might contain traps so that it resonates on more than one band. It
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is half wave resonant, is center fed, and by itself would be a dipole antenna.
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The driven element in a parasitic array is always resonant at the operating frequency. The
parasitic elements are usually (but not always) slightly off resonance; the directors are
generally tuned to a higher frequency than that of the driven element, and the reflector is
generally set to a lower frequency (thus longer). The impedance of the driven element, at
the feed point, is a pure resistance when the antenna is operated at its resonant frequency.
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When parasitic elements are near the driven elemt, the impedance of the driven element
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At high frequencies, parasitic elements are often used in directional antennas. The most
common of these are the quad antenna and the Yagi antenna.
REFERENCE:
1. A-M-Dhake-" Television and video Engineering second Edition TMH 2003
2. R-R-Gulati-"Modern Television Practice -Technology and servicing -second
edition New age International publishes -2004.
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sensitive. Early TV receivers needed 200 to 300 V of signal for a picture of reasonable quality.
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UNIT IV
TELEVISION RECEIVER SYSTEM
SYLLABUS
Specifications
VHF/UHF tuner with AFT
Digital tuning
Video If amplifier requirements
trap circuit
IF amplifier design SAW filter
video amplifier requirements
design of sound IF Takeoff
Sound If amplifier
FM discriminators.
Picture Tube
Electron Gun
Deflection system characteristics
colour picture tubes
shadow mask
Trinitron
PIL picture tubes
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Purity convergence
automatic degaussing
pincushion correction
plasma displays
LCD
Horizontal vertical deflection systems- requirementsEHT generation and regulation
synch separators
SMPS
colour killer
colour decoders
CCD techniques.
4.1.1MONOCHROME RECEIVERS
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NTSC colour television receivers have two additional controls, known as Colour
and Hue controls. These are provided at the front panel along with other controls. The colour or
saturation control varies the intensity or amount of colour in the reproduced picture. For
example, this control determines whether the leaves of a tree in the picture are dark green or
light green, and whether the sky in the picture is dark blue or light blue. The tint or hue control
selects the correct colour to be displayed. This is primarily used to set the correct skin colour,
since when flesh tones are correct, all other colours are correctly reproduced. It may be noted
that PAL colour receivers do not need any tint control while in SECAM colour receivers, both tint
and saturation controls are not necessary. The reasons for such differences are explained in
chapters exclusively devoted to colour television.
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They are adaptable to pretuned channel selection, AFT and synthesized digital tuning
ii.
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locks it to a stable value. The microprocessor can also arrange to display the tuned channel on
the screen itself/LED panel.
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4.4.1 GAIN
Contrast in black and white saturation in reproduced picture. For full contrast, video
voltages drive about 80 Vp-p. Thus minimum gain is of order 16 to 40. The gain is usually
variable by a negligible feedback in cathode circuit/screen voltage control.
For good reproduction of picture the shape and waveform of video waveform must
preserved. The shape of waveform depends upon frequencies and phase. It is necessary,
i.
ii.
It must be noted that phase shift introduced by a system should either be zero or proportional
to the frequency. In practical, video amplifier with two stages having adequate bandwidth, the
phase shift difficulties are not possible. But in multistage amplifier have to employ phase
equalizing circuits to give required phase shift.
4.4.2 BANDWIDTH
The lowest frequency for picture information in the horizontal direction can be
considered as 10 KHz when the camera beam scans all white and all black lines alternately. Note
that the active line period has been taken as 50 s instead of the actual
period of 52 s. Similarly when the beam scans half white and half black lines in succession, the
video frequency generated is 20 KMz.
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called frequency distortion. Excessive frequency distortion cannot be tolerated because it
changes picture information. If high frequency content of the video signal is lost due to poor
high frequency response the rapid changes between black and white for small adjacent picture
elements in the horizontal line cannot be reproduced. This results in loss of horizontal detail.
Phase distortion is not important in audio amplifiers, because the ear does not detect
changes in relative phases of the various frequency components present in a given sound signal.
Shunt Traps
series Traps
Absorption Traps
Degenerative Traps
Bridged-T Traps
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Shunt traps
Series tuned circuits connected in shunt with path of signal acting as low impedance
short circuit.L1 and C1 forms a high Q resonant circuit with step rising response at frequency.
Series traps
Parallel tuned circuits connected input lead. At resonant frequency the impedance is
very high equal to 0LQ.
Absorption traps
Parallel tuned circuits coupled to input or output coils of tuned amplifier. This acts as
load circuit of amplifier to increase effective load impedance.
Degenerative traps
A parallel resonant circuit in un bypassed emitter introduces large negative feedback
offers T impedance.
Bridging- t traps
It consists of series trap in a resistance bridged across the centre trap of coil. This shunt
resistance R of the bridge can be adjusted to cancel the loses in tuned circuit.
IF amplifier design SAW filter
SAW-surface Acoustic Wave Fibers
Transistors are commonly used in IF amplifiers in TV receiver. to obtain a compact and
reliable circuit design for power consumption.
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Fr=1/2L1C1
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SAW are waves propagating along the surface or boundary of media, similar to
elastic waves caused by earthquakes.
The surface is piezoelectric surface, then it acts as frequency selective filtering.
Construction:
Consists of piezoelectric surface of side 4 to 8mm, deposited with interdigital transducers(IDTs)
of 10 to 20 m width of comb shaped electrodes.
Working:
The travelling wave towards right of output IDT are converted back into electrical
signals.
When the pitch of output IDT is constant, the output is maximum for SAW ,
havinghalf wavelength= pitch.
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The wave reflected by output IDT, sent back towards input IDT, again reflect by
input IDT towards output as triple transit echo (TTE), leads ghost images.
This reduces by splitting the transducer fingers and use of resin absorbers.
Electrical characteristics:
1. Amplitude characteristics
2. Group delay
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fo =SAW velocity/ o
Fequency Distortion
The gain at high frequencies falls-off because of shunting effect of the devices output
capacitance, stray capacitances and input capacitance of the picture tube. When ac coupling is
employed the gain decreases at low frequencies on account of increasing reactance of the
coupling capacitor.
Video detector also acts as frequency converter for sound carrier in the signal.
sound carrier IF = 33.4 MHz difference IF of 5.5 MHz which carries the FM of sound
signal.
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The sound IF lies just beyond the video band and if allowed to reach the picture
tube, produces picture modulation in the form of interference like pattern as
Moire pattern.
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monochrome
picture
tubes
employ
electrostatic
focusing
and
electromagnetic deflection.. The deflection coils are mounted externally in a specially designed
and horizontal scanning currents deflect the beam at a fast rate to produce the raster. The
composite video signal that is injected either at the grid or cathode of the tube, modulates the
electron beam to produce brightness variations of the tube, modulates the electron beam to
produce brightness variations on the screen. This results in reconstruction of the picture on the
raster, bit by bit, as a function of time.
.
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yoke that is fixed close to the neck of the tube. The coils when fed simultaneously with vertical
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the influence of the high voltage anode area, attain very high velocities before they hit the
screen.
the atoms of the phosphor coating. Because of this the electrons of the beam remain under the
influence of the deflecting field for a very short time. This necessitates application of high
deflecting fields to achieve the desired deflection. For example with an anode voltage of about 1
kV, as would be the case in most oscilloscopes, some 10 V would be necessary for 1 cm
deflection of the beam on the screen, whereas in a picture tube with 15 kV at the final anode,
about 7500 V would be necessary to get full deflection on a 50 cm screen. It is very difficult to
generate such high voltages at the deflection frequencies.
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already stated the electron beam must attain a very high velocity to deliver enough energy to
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The magnetic field of the coils reacts with the electron beam to cause its deflection. The
horizontal deflection coil which sweeps the beam across the face of the tube from left to right is
split into two sections and mounted above and below the beam axis.
This is the maximum angle through which the beam can be deflected without striking
the side of the bulb. Typical values of deflection angles are 70, 90, 110 and 114. The
advantage of a large deflection angle is that for equal picture size the picture tube is shorter and
can be installed in a smaller cabinet. However, a large deflection angle requires more power
from the deflection circuits. For this reason the tubes are made with a narrow neck to put the
deflection yoke closer to the electron beam.
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for optimum average brightness of the picture on the screen. The video signal that finally
controls the brightness variations on the screen may be applied either at the grid or cathode of
the picture tube. Each method has its own merits and demerits and are discussed in another
chapter. This method of varying the beam current to control the instantaneous screen
brightness is called intensity or Z axis modulation. The peak-to-peak amplitude of the ac video
and black at cut-off. The contrast control is in the video amplifier, which controls the peak-topeak amplitude of the video signal applied to the picture tube. At cut-off the grid voltage is
negative enough to reduce the beam current to a value low enough to extinguish the beam, and
this corresponds to the black level in the picture. The parts of the screen without any
luminescence look black in comparison with the adjacent white areas.
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signal determines the contrast in the picture, between peak white with maximum beam current
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colour information to convey the sensation of the hue at each part of the picture. Based on the
gun configuration and the manner in which phosphors are arranged on the screen, three
different types of colour picture tubes have been developed. These are:
1. Delta-gun colour picture tube
This tube was first developed by the Radio Corporation of America (R.C.A.). It employs
three separate guns , one for each phosphor. The guns are equally spaced at 120 interval with
respect to each other and tilted inwards in relation to the axis of the tube. They form an
equilateral triangular configuration. As shown in Fig. the tube employs a screen where three
colour phosphor dots are arranged in groups known as triads. Each phosphor dot corresponds to
one of the three primary colours. The triads are repeated and depending on the size of the
picture tube, approximately 1,000,000 such dots forming nearly 333,000 triads are deposited on
the glass face plate. About one cm behind the tube screen is located a thin perforated metal
sheet known as the shadow mask. The mask has one hole for every phosphor dot triad on the
screen.
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strengths of the two beams. When all the three guns are active simultaneously, lighter shades
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In some receiver designs the Y signal is subtracted in the matrix and resulting colour
voltages are directly applied to the corresponding control grids. The cathode is then returned to
a fixed negative voltage.
This tube as the name suggests has three guns which are aligned precisely in a horizontal
line. The gun and mask structure of the P.I.L. tube together with yoke mounting details. The inline gun configuration helps in simplifying convergence adjustments.
THE vertical strips in triads. (R, G, B) which are repeated along the breadth of the tube. To
obtain the same colour fineness as in a delta-gun tube the horizontal spacing between the strips
of the same colour in adjacent triads is made equal to that between the dots of the same colour
in the delta-gun tube. One vertical line of slots is for one group of fine strips of red green and
blue phosphors. Since all the three electron beams are on the same plane, the beam in the
centre (green) moves along the axis of the tube. However, because of inward tilt of the right and
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left guns the blue and red beams travel at an angle and meet the central beam at the aperture
grille mask. The slots in the mask are so designed that each beam strikes its own phosphor and
is prevented from landing on other colour phosphors. The P.I.L. tube is more efficient, i.e., has
higher electron transparency and needs fewer convergence adjustments on account of the inline gun structure. It is manufactured with minor variations under different trade names in
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several countries and is the most used tube in present day colour receivers.
4.19.2 CONVERGENCE
The technique of bringing the beams together so that they hit the same part of the
screen at the same time to produce three coincident rasters is referred to as convergence.
Convergence errors are caused by (i) non-coincident convergence planes, (ii) nonuniformity of
the deflection field and (iii) flat surface of the picture tube screen.
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Proper convergence is achieved by postional adjustment of the individual beams. It falls
into two parts referred to as (i) static and (ii) dynamic convergence. Static convergence involves
movement of the beams by permanent magnetic fields which, once
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Correctly set, bring the beams into convergence in the central area of the screen.
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A very thin display screen used in portable computers. Nearly all modern flat-panel
displays use LCD technologies. Most LCD screens are backlit to make them easier to
read in bright environments.
4.23.1 CRT
move across your screen either interlaced or non-interlaced hiting phosphor dots on the
inside glass tube. To the right is an example of the inside of a computer monitor
including the CRT, thanks goes out to for sharing this image.
Within the CRT are three electron guns, red, green and blue. Each of these guns
streams a steady flow of electrons, left to right, for each line of your monitor. As the
electrons hit the phosphors on the CRT, the phosphor will glow certain intensities. As a
new line begins, the guns will then begin at the left and continue right; these guns will
repeat this process sometimes thousands of times until the screen has been completely
drawn line by line. Once the phosphors on the CRT have been hit with an electron they
will only glow for a short period of time; because of this, the CRT must be refreshed,
which means the process will be repeated as explained above. If the video card's refresh
rate is not set high enough, you may encounter a flicker or a noticeable steady line
scrolling from the top to the bottom of your screen. If you are encountering this issue,
resolutions have been described on our video card page.
4.23.2 MONITOR
Also called a video display terminal (VDT) and video display unit (VDU), a
monitor is a video display screen and the hard shell that holds it. In its most common
usage, monitor refers only to devices that contain no electronic equipment other than
what is essentially needed to display and adjust the characteristics of an image.
Like most TVs, the computer monitor has a CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) that is found inside
the computer monitor as illustrated in the picture to the right. The CRT is the main
component and most expensive part within your computer monitor.
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Short for Cathode-Ray Tube, CRT is the electron beams within a monitor that
During flyback periods the magnitude of induced voltage across the primary (windings L1
to L3 in Fig. 20.4) coil is very high. In typical vacuum tube circuits it varies between 3 to 6 KV. By
placing a suitably wound coil (L4) in the magnetic circuit and connecting it to the primary
winding in a series aiding fashion, an additional voltage of about 6 to 8 KV is developed by
autotransformer action. This circuit arrangement results in a total voltage of 9 to 14 KV across
two ends of the combined winding. Further, by suitably controlling the distributed parameters
of the primary and secondary circuits and utilizing the technique of third harmonic tuning, the
total voltage can be enhanced by about 10 to 15 percent. Thus a pulse of the order of 11 to 16
KV is generated. This is fed to the high voltage rectifier D2 which conducts to charge the filter
capacitor to provide EHT supply. It may be noted that the high voltage rectifier conducts for a
short time during the flyback period because D2 is reverse biased at other times on account of
11 to 16 KV dc at its cathode (filament). The conduction of D2 partially dicharges CB but it is
soon made up when D1 conducts. Note that while D2 conducts both V1 and D1 remain cut-off to
avoid any loading.
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4.25 SMPS
SWITCH MODE POWER SUPPLY (SMPS)
The use of ICs and modular construction is very common is modern television
receivers. This has led to the introduction of switching mode power supplies to meet the dc
requirements of such receivers. These are smaller, lighter and dissipate less power than
equivalent series regulated supplies.
BASIC PRINCIPLE
In a switched mode supply the regulating elements consist of series connected
transistors that act as rapidly opening and closing switches. The input ac is first converted to
unregulated dc, which, in turn is chopped by the switching elements operating at a rapid rate,
typically 20 KHz. The resultant 20 KHz pulse train is transformer coupled to an output network
which provides final rectification and smoothing of the dc output. Regulation is accomplished by
control circuits which vary the duty cycle (on-off periods) of the switching elements if the output
voltage tends to vary.
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special shields are provided around those sections of the receiver circuitry which are highly
susceptible to electromagnetic interference.
input resistance
4.26.2 Description
The LM1881 Video sync separator extracts timing information including
composite and vertical sync, burst/back porch timing, and odd/even field information
from standard negative going sync NTSC, PAL* and SECAM video signals with
amplitude from 0.5V to 2V p-p. The integrated circuit is also capable of providing sync
separation for non-standard, faster horizontal rate video signals. The vertical output is
produced on the rising edge of the first serration in the vertical sync period. A default
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(ii) The control circuitry is expensive, quite complex and somewhat less reliable.
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vertical output is produced after a time delay if the rising edge mentioned above does not
occur within the externally set delay period, such as might be the case for a non-standard
When the frequencies of these signals equals the frequency of the color subcarrier
wave, they may create an irritating color dot pattern like confetti, which interferes with
the monochrome picture.
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video signal.
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The Basic CCD Characteristic Principle CCD cameras are based on strange electronic
chips, called CCD sensors. These components provide a higher sensitivity to light than common
films, allowing it to store the pictures on computers. A CCD chip, is an array of light-sensitive
elements. These are, in fact, very small electronic capacitors. These capacitors are charged by
the electrons generated by the light. In fact, each light element (commonly called photon), that
current source. These current sources, are localized in small delimited areas (the capacitors),
called pixels. Common CCD chips are composed of several pixels, for instance, 192*165,
512*512, 1024*1024, or much more for rich people! It's easy to understand that it is physically
impossible to access each pixel individually. In fact, a CCD sensor provides only one serial output
which each capacitor can be discharged through (each pixel can be read). CCD array can be read
through only one output.
The capacitors are discharged in lines and there are some control gates that
allow the transfer of one pixel line into the next one. The last line of the array can be
transferred into a horizontal shift register. This Shift register allows the transfer of one
pixel to the next one, and the last pixel of this horizontal register is connected to the
output gate.
The output gate of the CCD array can either be connected to an analogue or to a
digital converter in order to digitize the picture, or it can provide a standard video signal
if the clock's timing is according to the video norms. If the image is digitized, it will be
easy to store it in a computer memory. So, its processing will be easy to perform. Noise
Reduction If a CCD array is used in a warm environment (20 C), the photosensitive area
atoms produce a current, which produces noise on the picture. To reduce this noise, the
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reaches the CCD array's atoms, displaces some electrons. This displacement provides the
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CCD array atoms should be cooled, so that their thermal excitation is reduced. In
Cooling a CCD with liquid gas, is the most efficient method, but this is still reserved for
professional purposes. This is mainly due to the equipment needed to store and use such
liquids. So, the most commonly used process is the use of a thermoelectric cooler, also
known as Peltier cells. They are devices that work as a heat pump. The heat contained in
one face of the cell, is transferred to the other face. These cells, should be powered by
direct current.
The efficiency of such cells can be improved by cooling their hot face. In order to
provide a great cooling to the CCD, it is possible to use 2 Peltier cells, plus a water or
glycol cooling system. The first cell, cools down the CCD, the second cools the first one,
and the liquid circuit evacuates the heat provided by the second Peltier cell.
REFERENCE:
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astronomical use, the CCDs are cooled to temperatures like -50C or -70C.
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1. A-M-Dhake-" Television and video Engineering second Edition TMH 2003
2. R-R-Gulati-"Modern Television Practice -Technology and servicing -second
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UNIT V
ADVANCED TELEVISION SYSTEMS
( Qualitative treatment only)
SYLLABUS
Wobbuloscope
pattern generators
Cam corders
Cable TV Types, processors, scrambling and conditional access systemsSatellite Television system
Tele text of video text systems
digital TV systemHDTV
3DTV
VCR
Videodisc system.
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ratchets besides a reversible motor and gear trains. In electronic systems dc voltages are
used to vary the controlling functions. For example, volume and colour controls are
obtained by varying the operating bias of the amplifiers that form part of these circuits.
DC control of channel selection makes use of varactor tuning. In later designs of remote
control, digital ICs have been used to process the signals received from the transmitting
synthesizer approach applicable to television tuning and this has considerably simplified
design of remote control units.
FIG:5.1
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box. In addition, recent developments in high speed IC counters have made the frequency
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5.1.2 CONTROL FREQUENCIES
There are no standard values but the frequency range normally employed for
remote control functions lies between 37 KHz to 44 KHz. Some typical values for the
main functions are:
41.25 KHzChannel selection
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37.75 KHzVolume up
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Such units also provide a variable dc bias source for feeding a fixed bias to the RF and IF
sections of the receiver. This is necessary during alignment when the internal AGC bias
must be disabled for correct tuning.
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A CRO provides a visual display of any time varying electrical signal and so it may
Fig: 5.2
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Fig: 5.3
The generator employs two stable chains of multivibrators, dividers and pulse
shaping circuits, one below the line frequency to produce a series of horizontal bars and
the other above 15625 Hz to produce vertical bars. The signals are modified into short
duration pulses which when fed to the video section of the receiver along with the sync
pulse train produce fine lines on the screen. Multivibrators produce square wave video
signal at m times the horizontal frequency to provide m vertical black and white bars.
After every m cycles, the horizontal blanking pulse triggers the multivibrator for
synchronizing the bar signal on every line. A control on the front panel of the pattern
generator enables variation of multivibrator frequency to change the number of bars.
Similarly square wave pulses derived either from 50 Hz mains or from the master
oscillator are used to trigger another set of multivibrators to generate squarewave video
signal that is n times the vertical frequency. These on feeding the video amplifier produce
horizontal black and white bars. The number of horizontal bars can also be varied by a
potentiometer that controls the switching rate of the corresponding multivibrator. The bar
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pattern signal is combined with the sync and blanking pulses in the video adder to
produce composite video signals before feeding it to the modulator. Provision of switches
in the signal paths of the two multivibrators enables generation of various patterns. If
both mH and nV switches are off, there will be a blank white raster. With mH switch on,
vertical bars will be produced and when only nV switch is on, horizontal bars are
The horizontal bar pattern is used for checking vertical linearity. These bars should be
equally spaced throughout the screen for linearity. If necessary frame linearity preset
controls in the receiver can be varied to get best possible results. Similarly the vertical bar
pattern can be used for checking and setting horizontal linearity. With the cross-hatch
pattern formed by vertical and horizontal lines, the linearity may be adjusted more
precisely because any unequal spacing of the lines is easily discernible. If the pattern rolls
up or down or loses horizontal synchronization, the frequency preset controls in the
receiver oscillator circuits can be adjusted till the pattern becomes stationary. Picture
centering and aspect ratio can also be checked with the cross-hatch pattern by counting
the number of squares on the vertical and horizontal sides of the screen.
5.4 CAMCORDERS
With improved quality in small size, a compact combination of video camera
and recorder camcorder.
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generated. With both switches on, a cross hatch pattern will be produced.
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*A separate time code track is positioned below the control track to ensure a more
reliable servo system.
5.5 CABLE TV
5.5.1 TYPES
Co-axial Cables
CO-AXIAL CABLE
*Advantages: Easy interfacing with existing equipment lower initial costs.
* The trunk cable with diameter 20 to 25mm has inside aluminum tubing. Thick copperclad aluminum conductor with polyethylene foam as spacers.
*For wafer proof of strength, protective polyethylene jacket and steel armar is used .
*Thinner cable is used for branch lines.
FIBRE OPTIC CABLES
*Glass fibre optic cable: Thin glass fibre 50-100m dia, enclosed with low refractive
index cladding about 30 m thickness.
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*The modulated light along glass fibre via process of total internal reflections from inner
surfaces, called step-index fibre.
*Multimode transmission in step-index fibers with relatively large core diameter.
*Single mode fibre: The diameter is very small, less than 10 m propagates along the
*Graded index fibre: The refractive index along the radius is gradually varied to give
graded index profile.
5.5.2 PROCESSORS
*All signals caused on cable TV network originals at head end, where they are frequency
multiplexed and combined for transmission over the cable.
*For reception of distant stations, directional arrials of high gain are installed on tall
towers and minimum interference.
IF
Converter
IF
filter
IF
amplifier
Carrier
Level
OSC lock-inAGC
control
LP
IF filter
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IF
Converter
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SIF
Metrodyne
processor
VIF
Fig 5.4 : Schematic of a heterodyne processor
independently.
*Then recombined, heterodyne up converted to desired output channel.
*2 pilot carriers are generally transmitted near the ends of cable spectrum to provide
reference levels.
*All channels are grouped together in combining networks into a common cable.
*The demodulated video and audio baseband signals first modulate 38.9MHz for picture
and 33.4MHz for sound.
Advantages
Better selectivity
Flexibility
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*The video and audio IF carriers are amplified filtered and level controlled
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*Scrambling is possible by digital processing of video and audio and introducing
complex encryption and smart keyboard for controlled access.
*Now Addressable converters: includes tunable converters and address recognization
circuitry which is controlled by computer so specific channels are turned OFF or ON to
View data systems use all kinds of host computers, from minicomputers to
mainframes depends upon power require for service.
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subscriber.
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CRT displays are used to display the information for viewing and editing.
Microcomputers with software for data storage and local processing capability.
5.7.1 Sampling:
The TV signal is sampled at rate of twice the maximum band limit frequencyNyquist criteria.
Fourier transform of band limit signal at T seconds is scaled by 1/T and given by
wo = 2/T.
If input signal is not band limited or sampling frequency does not meet the
requirement of sampling theorem, the various components of spectrum overlap.
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It suffers from distortion called aliasing effect and moir patterns appear in
picture.
5.7.2 Quantization:
5.7.3 Encoder:
The sampled value is assign a binary code along with additional coding like parity
for error detection , scrambling,etc.
Block coding and convolution coding are two approaches in this direction.
5.8 HDTV
High definition TV
For 625 or 525 scanning lines , the HDTV system offers a wide screen format and
fineness of definition.
According to CCIR, a HDTV system allows 3 times the picture height, such that
virtuality and transparent to quality as motion and perception of depth in original
scene.
This implies large screen display of cinema quality and it is defined as system
having twice the horizontal and vertical spatial resolution of HDTV.
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The sampled output, discrete in time in continuous in amplitude and assigned a discrete
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These include HDTV recording and transmission of pictures and wide range of
applications in motion picture production, video theatres, film processing and
electronic high quality image printing and publishing.
Applications -
diagnostic, etc.
5.9 3DTV
For 3D picture, we have to show the depth also along with length and breadth.
( L + B + H)
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5.9.1 Principle:
The left and right eye of human see a different image of same object, so brain
Two different images are generated by 2 cameras, like our eyes located.
For stereo sound transmitter, the left and right channel signals are FM at 5.5MHz
audio carrier.
The combined audio and video signals are amplitude modulated by channel
carrier using separate modulators.
First method:
All green color phosphor strips excited by green(G) video signal right. Similarly
red color phosphor strips excited by red(R) video signal left.
If viewer wears, G filter at right eye and R filter at left eye, than brain combined
to form various Y shades.
Second method:
Two video display units(VDU) are used, to create 3D pictures in natural colors.
A polarizing film is fitted in front of VDU and light outputs are reflected using a
mirror arrangement on screen.
Third method:
In this, R color information are delayed by nearly 600ns and it is obtain by using
delay circuits.
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signals. Although built-in tuners and timers have become integral parts of the average
video recorder, they are not prerequisites for reaching the main goal: audio and video
registration and playback.
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The main purpose of the video recorder is recording and replaying video and audio
Fig:5.5
Tape guidance along the head drum with the video heads writing tracks on the tape.
In the meantime, the rapidly revolving video heads write narrow tape tracks of no more
than 0.020 to 0.050 mm wide on the tape, next to each other, diagonally. Every half
revolution, each of the two heads writes one diagonal track which equals half an image.
The first head writes one track, i.e., the first field (the odd numbered scanning lines). The
second head writes a second track, i.e., the other half of the image (the second field: the
even numbered scanning lines), which precisely fits in the first image. This corresponds
to the interlacing principle, as applied in television (see Chapter 2: TV set). One full
revolution of both heads results in two diagonal tracks right next to each other, together
forming one entire image scan (a frame). This means that two apparently contradictory
requirements can be realized simultaneously: low tape speed of only 2 cm per second and
at the same time a high registration speed (relative tape speed) of no less than 5 meters
per second. These two requirements make it possible to record the high video frequencies
up to 3.2 MHz. At the same time, the low tape speed gives a time capacity up to three
hours.
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during playback in precisely the same way as they were recorded. Each tape track is
synchronized at the recording stage by means of field synchronization pulses. These
pulses are generated in the video recorder by a separate head which are recorded on a
separate narrow track at the side of the video tape. This is called the synchronization,
Fig:5.6
Position of the video, audio and synchronization tracks on the tape.
Fig: 5.7
Position of the audio, sync and erase heads inside the VCR.
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5.11 VIDEO DISC SYSTEMS
There are three major video systems in use today:
Video Home System (VHS)
Video Hi8
When the video recorders were first introduced, Philips also developed a system
called V2000. Despite the fact that is was a high quality system, it was not successful in
the market. Although Betamax was reasonably successful at first, its popularity waned
and VHS was adopted as the world standard.
5.11.1 BETAMAX
The Sony Betamax System, launched in 1975, was based on the pre-existing
professional Sony U-matic-system. In the Betamax system, the video tape is guided along
the head drum in a U-shape for all tape guidance functions, such as recording, playback
and fast forward/backward. When the cassette is inserted, the tape is guided around the
head drum (called threading). Threading the tape takes a few seconds, but once the tape is
threaded, shifting from one tape function to another can be achieved rapidly and
smoothly.
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Betamax
Fig: 5.8
The Betamax U-system before (top) and after (bottom) threading.
JVC's VHS System was introduced one year after the launch of Betamax. In
VHS, the tape is guided through in an M-shape; the so-called M-tape guidance system. It
is considered simpler and more compact than the U-system. Threading is faster and is
done every time the tape guidance function is changed. It is therefore somewhat slower
and noisier than the U-system. This problem is being solved by "Quick-start" VHS video
recorders, which allow fast and silent changes in tape guidance functions. To avoid
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excessive wear, M-tape guidance system recorders are provided with an automatic
switch-off feature, activated some minutes after the recorder is put on hold, which
automatically unthreads the tape. An improvement of the basic VHS system is HQ (High
Quality) VHS.
track size and relative speed. VHS has rather wide video tracks, but a slightly lower
relative tape speed, and that also counts for the audio track. In general, the advantages of
one aspect are tempered by the disadvantages of the other. The end result is that there is
not too much difference between the sound and image qualities of both systems.
Fig: 5.9
The VHS M-system before (top) and after (bottom) threading.
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In the VHS system different starting points were used than in Betamax, such as
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As a direct addition to the Video-8 camcorders, there is a third system: Video Hi8,
which uses a smaller cassette than VHS and Betamax. The sound recording takes place
digitally, making its sound quality very good. When using the special Hi8 Metal Tape,
the quality of both image and sound are equivalent to that of Super-VHS. The Video-Hi8-
minute cassette, one can record 6 x 90 minutes, making a total of 18 hours of continuous
music. The video Hi8-system also allows manipulating digital images, such as picture-inpicture and editing. Video Hi8 uses a combination of the M- and U-tape guidance system.
Fig:5.10
Cassette sizes compared.
REFERENCE:
1. A-M-Dhake-" Television and video Engineering second Edition TMH 2003.
2. R-R-Gulati-"Modern Television Practice -Technology and servicing -second
edition New age International publishes -2004.
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recorder can also be used to make audio recordings (digital stereo) only. Using a 90
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