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Refinery Process Stream Purification Refinery Process Catalysts Troubleshooting Refinery Process Catalyst Start-Up / Shutdown
Activation Reduction In-situ Ex-situ Sulfiding Specializing in Refinery Process Catalyst Performance Evaluation Heat & Mass
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CONTENTS
0
INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
SCOPE
FIELD OF APPLICATION
DEFINITIONS
3.1 units
SOURCES OF DATA
BASIC CONCEPTS
7
8
10
11
11
16
19
20
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FLOW IN BENDS
11
21
22
29
32
33
33
35
38
21
38
47
48
48
51
55
12
VALVES
64
12.1 General
12.2 Incompressible Flow in Valves
12.2 Compressible Flow in Valves
64
65
76
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13
78
78
84
14
86
15
NOMENCLATURE
86
16
REFERENCES
90
APPENDICES
BASIC THERMODYNAMICS
92
102
104
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TABLES
1
12
13
17
38
40
42
45
47
56
11
58
12
13
72
14
72
15
74
77
10
16
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FIGURES
1
18
19
22
26
STAGNATION PRESSURE
27
28
37
39
11
40
12
41
13
44
14
46
15
46
16
47
17
TYPES OF CONTRACTION
49
10
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18
CONTRACTION
51
19
ENLARGEMEN
52
20
54
21
55
22
60
23
61
24
63
64
26
66
27
67
28
68
29
69
30
70
31
71
32
73
33
73
34
75
35
75
36
76
25
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37
78
38
82
39
84
40
85
41
102
105
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INTRODUCTION / PURPOSE
This Process Engineering Guide is one of a series on fluid flow produced
by GBH Enterprises.
1 SCOPE
This guide recommends methods for the estimation of pressure drop for
the steady state flow of single phase Newtonian liquids and compressible
fluids (gases and vapors) in pipe systems. It covers most of the
geometries likely to be encountered in normal design cases. Further
information on more unusual geometries may be found in Miller [1990].
It does not cover liquids that are non-Newtonian in their behavior, that is,
liquids for which, when sheared in laminar flow, the shear stress is not
directly proportional to the shear rate. For general information on nonNewtonian behavior see GBHE-PEG-FLO-302. For estimation of the
pressure drop for pipeline flow of such fluids see GBHE-PEG-FLO-303
and GBHE-PEG-FLO-304.
It does not cover slurries. Slurries with low solids contents may be
Newtonian in behavior, but in general most slurries are non-Newtonian.
It does not cover pressure drop for two phase gas-liquid flow.
It does not cover the gravity driven flow of liquids in partially filled pipes
and open channels. Information on this subject can be found in GBHEPEG-FLO-301.
It does not cover unsteady fluid flow. An introduction to unsteady state
flow (pressure surge) in incompressible systems is given in GBHE-PEGFLO-305.
GBHE has access to proprietary computer programs, that may be used to
model unsteady state compressible and incompressible flows.
The data and methods given in this PEG are suitable for hand
calculations, or for incorporation into computer codes.
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2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
This guide applies to the process engineering community in GBH
Enterprises worldwide. GBHE-PEG-FLO-300
3
DEFINITIONS
For the purposes of this guide, the following definitions apply:
3.1
ESDU
HTFS
Units
All equations in this guide are in coherent units unless stated otherwise.
Normally, base units for the SI system are used. For example:
Length
Diameter
Time
Viscosity
Force
Pressure
Mass flow
Volume flow Temperature -
m
m
s
kg.m-1 s-1 (1 kg.m-1 s-1 = 1 N.s.m-2,
1 cP = 10-3 kg.m-1.s-1)
N (1 N = 1 kg.m.s-2)
N.m-2 (1 bar = 105 N.m-2)
kg.s-1
m3.s-1
K
Usually, symbols are defined after the equation in which they first occur,
and base SI units are given. However, the equations are, in general,
equally valid if the individual terms are expressed in any other coherent
set of units. Any constants in the equations will then be dimensionless.
There are a few equations that include dimensional constants. For these,
individual terms must be expressed in the appropriate units, which are
indicated with the equations.
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A full list of symbols, with the appropriate base SI units, is given in clause
15.
4
SOURCES OF DATA
The pressure losses through pipe fittings are dependent on the exact
geometry of the fitting. Whereas the geometry for straight pipes and bends
is readily definable, this is not the case for proprietary items such as
valves, where nominally similar items from different manufacturers may
have markedly different characteristics. If such components form a
significant portion of the total pressure drop, manufacturers data should if
possible be used in preference to those contained in this guide.
BASIC CONCEPTS
5.1 Equation for Pressure Change in a Flowing Fluid
The change in static pressure during the flow of a fluid in a pipe is the sum
of three factors:
(a)
(b)
(c)
The first two of these factors can result in either a pressure loss or a
pressure gain, and are known as reversible changes; the pressure change
can be reversed by reversing the process. Friction, on the other hand,
always results in a fall in pressure in the direction of flow, and is an
irreversible change. It is the process whereby mechanical energy is
degraded into heat.
The basic equation for pressure change for any flowing fluid is:
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Where:
g
K
=
=
P
v
z
=
=
=
=
=
This equation can be deduced from basic thermodynamics for any fluid.
See Appendix A for details of the derivation.
The first of the terms on the right hand side of equation 5.1 is the change
in pressure due to changes in elevation, the second is the change due to
changes in kinetic energy and the third is the change due to frictional
losses.
The kinetic energy factor, , allows for the effects of a non-uniform velocity
profile, as explained in Appendix A. This is important for laminar flow,
where the value of for established flow in a straight pipe is equal to 2.
However, for established turbulent flow has a value of only about 1.05.
In common with most texts on the subject, will in general be omitted
from equations in the main body of this document. For most cases where
the effects of compressibility are important, the flow is likely to be
turbulent. For liquid flows, laminar flow is more of a possibility, and in
these cases the methods given should be modified. However, there are
few reliable data for laminar flow through fittings.
Equation 5.1 applies to all fluids. For an incompressible fluid, the density is
constant and the first two terms of equation 5.1 can be integrated directly:
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For a fitting where the cross sectional area is changing, the third term
cannot in general be integrated analytically. It is normal practice in this
case to express the loss coefficient for the fitting in terms of the velocity at
either the inlet or outlet position.
5.2
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This can be readily seen by applying equation 5.2, omitting the elevation and
frictional terms and putting v2 to zero. For an incompressible fluid, the term v2
is known as the "dynamic pressure" or the "velocity pressure", Pv
Some references work in terms of fluid head rather than pressure, particularly
when considering the flow of liquids. A vertical column of liquid exerts a pressure
at its base given by:
where:
g
Hs
Pg
=
=
=
If this column of liquid is connected at its base to a fluid system, then provided
that the fluid is at rest, or the base of the column is parallel to the local direction
of flow, the height Hs is a measure of the (gauge) static pressure at the point of
attachment, and is termed the "static head".
If working in terms of head rather than pressure, the quantity corresponding to
the dynamic pressure is the "velocity head" Hv and that corresponding to the
stagnation pressure is the "total head" H0.
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Note:
The dynamic pressure Pv is sometimes loosely referred to as the velocity head.
5.2.2 Compressible Flow
For a compressible fluid the relation between static and stagnation pressures is
more complex, as the density of the fluid changes as it is brought to rest. The
stagnation pressure is related to the static pressure by the equation:
where:
k
M
=
=
These two definitions are not equivalent, and do not give the same values.
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5.3
Sonic Flow
where:
k
R
T
v
W
Z
=
=
=
=
=
=
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6.1
where:
dP f
d
w
dL
=
=
=
=
where K is the frictional pressure loss coefficient. This form corresponds to the
last term of equation 5.4.
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where:
C
n
=
=
a friction factor
a constant, whose value depends on the form taken
by the friction factor.
Unfortunately, there is no general agreement on the form that the friction factor
should take. Table 1 shows the forms quoted in several sources commonly used
in GBH Enterprises. The 4th column of Table 1 shows the relationship between
the value of the friction factor in laminar flow, C lam and the Reynolds number Re.
The Reynolds number for flow in a circular pipe is defined as:
where:
The mass flux G is defined as the mass flow per unit cross sectional area.
TABLE 1
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It is obviously essential that, when a friction factor is quoted, the form used
should be clearly understood. An easy way to determine the form used is to look
at the variation of friction factor with Reynolds number for laminar flow, as given
in the last column of Table 1. This guide, to maintain continuity with V/CP/17 and
P/CP/4, uses the Moody form of the friction factor. Thus the frictional pressure
drop for straight pipe flow is given by:
The friction factor is a function of the Reynolds number, Re, and the relative
roughness, /d, where is the absolute roughness of the inside surface of the
pipe and d is the pipe inside diameter. Suggested values of for some typical
pipe materials are given in Table 2.
Note:
Different sources may quote different values for the same material.
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TABLE 2
A useful way of presenting friction factors is the Moody Chart, which shows the
friction factor as a function of the Reynolds number for a range of values of
relative roughness (Figure 1). Figure 1 is based on the Moody definition of friction
factor. Different sources may be based on different definitions of friction factor:
they will have different scales for the vertical axis, but may still refer to the chart
as a "Moody Chart".
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FIGURE 1
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Note:
For laminar flow, the friction factor is independent of roughness, and is given by:
This equation was derived from a systematic analysis of experimental data taken
on a range of smooth and artificially roughened pipes.
The Colebrook-White equation has the disadvantage that it cannot be solved
directly, as the friction factor appears on both sides of the equation. Several
equations that give the friction factor explicitly have been developed. V/CP/17
and Miller [1990] suggest the following equation, which agrees with the
Colebrook-White equation to within 2%:
Equations 6.6 and 6.7 apply for Reynolds numbers above about 4000. Between
2100 and 4000, the transition region, the friction factor is uncertain, and depends
amongst other things on the upstream flow conditions and also the past history of
the flow; hysteresis effects may occur. This region should be avoided for design if
possible. If calculations are required for this region, the recommendation is to
interpolate between the laminar value at Re = 2100 and the turbulent value at Re
= 4000.
The pressure drop in a pipe is sensitive to the pipe diameter. Equation 6.4 may
be written as:
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where:
A
F
=
=
For a rough pipe at high Reynolds number, the friction factor is independent of
Reynolds number, and thus the pressure drop varies inversely with the fifth
power of the pipe diameter.
For a smooth pipe, the friction factor is reasonably represented by the Blasius
equation:
Hence, as the Reynolds number for a given mass flow is inversely proportional to
the diameter, for a smooth pipe the pressure drop varies inversely with the
diameter to the power 4.75.
For laminar flow, the friction factor varies as the inverse of the Reynolds number,
and thus the pressure drop is inversely proportional to the diameter raised to the
power 4. It is given by Poiseuilles equation:
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The main difficulty in calculating friction losses in straight pipes is the uncertainty
in selecting a value for the pipe roughness. Consider, for example, water at 20C
flowing at 2 m/s in a mild steel pipe of diameter 0.1 m. The Reynolds number in
this case is 2x10 5. Table 6.2 suggests three different values for the roughness of
carbon steel, corresponding to the conditions slightly corroded, moderate rust
layer and badly corroded. The values are 0.05, 0.25 and 1.0 mm respectively.
Using these values, the friction factors at Re = 2x105 are 0.19. 0.275 and 0.38
respectively. There is thus a factor of two between the extremes of calculated
pressure drop.
6.2
The friction factors given in Figure 1 or equations 6.5 to 6.7 may be used for
calculating pressure drops in non-circular straight ducts with the following
adjustments.
(a) The Reynolds number should be calculated based on the true mass flux
through the duct, i.e. the actual mass flowrate divided by the cross
sectional area for flow, but the characteristic dimension used in the
Reynolds number should be the hydraulic mean diameter de:
(b) The friction factor based on the above Reynolds number should be
corrected by a factor K2 to allow for geometric effects (see below)
(c) The pressure drop is then given by equation 6.4, with the diameter d
replaced by the hydraulic mean diameter de.
Table 3 shows the definition of hydraulic mean diameter for some common
non-circular channels. Note that for a circular cross-section, the hydraulic
mean diameter equates to the actual diameter.
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(2)
In general, the effects of K2 are greater for laminar flow than for turbulent
flow. For the concentric annulus and the rectangle, K2 is unity for turbulent
flow.
(3)
(4)
For other ducts having shapes which depart significantly from circular or
rectangular cross sections, consult section 8.3.4 of Miller [1990].
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FIGURE 2
6.3
Coils
Single phase flow in helically coiled tubes differs from that in straight tubes
because of the effects of centrifugal force on the fluid. This is greatest on the
fastest moving fluid at the centre of the tube; as a result, a secondary flow
pattern is set up, with two recirculation systems (see Figure 3).
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FIGURE 3
This secondary flow system tends to stabilize laminar flow, increasing the
transition Reynolds number between laminar and turbulent flow. The
recommended transition Reynolds number is given in HTFS Handbook [HTFS
1976].
where:
d
D
Rec
=
=
=
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Activation Reduction In-situ Ex-situ Sulfiding Specializing in Refinery Process Catalyst Performance Evaluation Heat & Mass
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Refinery Process Stream Purification Refinery Process Catalysts Troubleshooting Refinery Process Catalyst Start-Up / Shutdown
Activation Reduction In-situ Ex-situ Sulfiding Specializing in Refinery Process Catalyst Performance Evaluation Heat & Mass
Balance Analysis Catalyst Remaining Life Determination Catalyst Deactivation Assessment Catalyst Performance
Characterization Refining & Gas Processing & Petrochemical Industries Catalysts / Process Technology - Hydrogen Catalysts /
Process Technology Ammonia Catalyst Process Technology - Methanol Catalysts / process Technology Petrochemicals
Specializing in the Development & Commercialization of New Technology in the Refining & Petrochemical Industries
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Refinery Process Stream Purification Refinery Process Catalysts Troubleshooting Refinery Process Catalyst Start-Up / Shutdown
Activation Reduction In-situ Ex-situ Sulfiding Specializing in Refinery Process Catalyst Performance Evaluation Heat & Mass
Balance Analysis Catalyst Remaining Life Determination Catalyst Deactivation Assessment Catalyst Performance
Characterization Refining & Gas Processing & Petrochemical Industries Catalysts / Process Technology - Hydrogen Catalysts /
Process Technology Ammonia Catalyst Process Technology - Methanol Catalysts / process Technology Petrochemicals
Specializing in the Development & Commercialization of New Technology in the Refining & Petrochemical Industries
Web Site: www.GBHEnterprises.com