Classics - Mit.edu Aristotle Rhetoric - MB

15/03/2015
classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/rhetoric.mb.txt
ProvidedbyTheInternetClassicsArchive.
Seebottomforcopyright.Availableonlineat
http://classics.mit.edu//Aristotle/rhetoric.html
Rhetoric
ByAristotle
TranslatedbyW.RhysRoberts
BOOKI
Part1
RhetoricisthecounterpartofDialectic.Bothalikeareconcerned
withsuchthingsascome,moreorless,withinthegeneralkenof
allmenandbelongtonodefinitescience.Accordinglyallmenmake
use,moreorless,ofboth;fortoacertainextentallmenattempt
todiscussstatementsandtomaintainthem,todefendthemselvesand
toattackothers.Ordinarypeopledothiseitheratrandomorthrough
practiceandfromacquiredhabit.Bothwaysbeingpossible,thesubject
canplainlybehandledsystematically,foritispossibletoinquire
thereasonwhysomespeakerssucceedthroughpracticeandothersspontaneously;
andeveryonewillatonceagreethatsuchaninquiryisthefunction
ofanart.
Now,theframersofthecurrenttreatisesonrhetorichaveconstructed
butasmallportionofthatart.Themodesofpersuasionaretheonly
trueconstituentsoftheart:everythingelseismerelyaccessory.
Thesewriters,however,saynothingaboutenthymemes,whicharethe
substanceofrhetoricalpersuasion,butdealmainlywithnonessentials.
Thearousingofprejudice,pity,anger,andsimilaremotionshasnothing
todowiththeessentialfacts,butismerelyapersonalappealto
themanwhoisjudgingthecase.Consequentlyiftherulesfortrials
whicharenowlaiddownsomestatesespeciallyinwellgovernedstateswere
appliedeverywhere,suchpeoplewouldhavenothingtosay.Allmen,
nodoubt,thinkthatthelawsshouldprescribesuchrules,butsome,
asinthecourtofAreopagus,givepracticaleffecttotheirthoughts
andforbidtalkaboutnonessentials.Thisissoundlawandcustom.
Itisnotrighttopervertthejudgebymovinghimtoangerorenvy
orpityonemightaswellwarpacarpenter'srulebeforeusingit.
Again,alitiganthasclearlynothingtodobuttoshowthatthealleged
factissoorisnotso,thatithasorhasnothappened.Astowhether
athingisimportantorunimportant,justorunjust,thejudgemust
surelyrefusetotakehisinstructionsfromthelitigants:hemust
decideforhimselfallsuchpointsasthelawgiverhasnotalready
definedforhim.
Now,itisofgreatmomentthatwelldrawnlawsshouldthemselves
defineallthepointstheypossiblycanandleaveasfewasmaybe
tothedecisionofthejudges;andthisforseveralreasons.First,
tofindoneman,orafewmen,whoaresensiblepersonsandcapable
oflegislatingandadministeringjusticeiseasierthantofinda
largenumber.Next,lawsaremadeafterlongconsideration,whereas
decisionsinthecourtsaregivenatshortnotice,whichmakesit
hardforthosewhotrythecasetosatisfytheclaimsofjusticeand
expediency.Theweightiestreasonofallisthatthedecisionofthe
lawgiverisnotparticularbutprospectiveandgeneral,whereasmembers
oftheassemblyandthejuryfindittheirdutytodecideondefinite
casesbroughtbeforethem.Theywilloftenhaveallowedthemselves
tobesomuchinfluencedbyfeelingsoffriendshiporhatredorselfinterest
thattheyloseanyclearvisionofthetruthandhavetheirjudgement
http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/rhetoric.mb.txt
1/102
15/03/2015
obscuredbyconsiderationsofpersonalpleasureorpain.Ingeneral,
then,thejudgeshould,wesay,beallowedtodecideasfewthings
aspossible.Butquestionsastowhethersomethinghashappenedor
hasnothappened,willbeorwillnotbe,isorisnot,mustofnecessity
belefttothejudge,sincethelawgivercannotforeseethem.Ifthis
isso,itisevidentthatanyonewholaysdownrulesaboutother
matters,suchaswhatmustbethecontentsofthe'introduction'or
the'narration'oranyoftheotherdivisionsofaspeech,istheorizing
aboutnonessentialsasiftheybelongedtotheart.Theonlyquestion
withwhichthesewritersheredealishowtoputthejudgeintoa
givenframeofmind.Abouttheorator'spropermodesofpersuasion
theyhavenothingtotellus;nothing,thatis,abouthowtogain
skillinenthymemes.
Henceitcomesthat,althoughthesamesystematicprinciplesapply
topoliticalastoforensicoratory,andalthoughtheformerisa
noblerbusiness,andfitterforacitizen,thanthatwhichconcerns
therelationsofprivateindividuals,theseauthorssaynothingabout
politicaloratory,buttry,oneandall,towritetreatisesonthe
waytopleadincourt.Thereasonforthisisthatinpoliticaloratory
thereislessinducementtotalkaboutnonessentials.Politicaloratory
islessgiventounscrupulouspracticesthanforensic,becauseit
treatsofwiderissues.Inapoliticaldebatethemanwhoisforming
ajudgementismakingadecisionabouthisownvitalinterests.There
isnoneed,therefore,toproveanythingexceptthatthefactsare
whatthesupporterofameasuremaintainstheyare.Inforensicoratory
thisisnotenough;toconciliatethelisteneriswhatpayshere.
Itisotherpeople'saffairsthataretobedecided,sothatthejudges,
intentontheirownsatisfactionandlisteningwithpartiality,surrender
themselvestothedisputantsinsteadofjudgingbetweenthem.Hence
inmanyplaces,aswehavesaidalready,irrelevantspeakingisforbidden
inthelawcourts:inthepublicassemblythosewhohavetoforma
judgementarethemselveswellabletoguardagainstthat.
Itisclear,then,thatrhetoricalstudy,initsstrictsense,is
concernedwiththemodesofpersuasion.Persuasionisclearlyasort
ofdemonstration,sincewearemostfullypersuadedwhenweconsider
athingtohavebeendemonstrated.Theorator'sdemonstrationisan
enthymeme,andthisis,ingeneral,themosteffectiveofthemodes
ofpersuasion.Theenthymemeisasortofsyllogism,andtheconsideration
ofsyllogismsofallkinds,withoutdistinction,isthebusinessof
dialectic,eitherofdialecticasawholeorofoneofitsbranches.
Itfollowsplainly,therefore,thathewhoisbestabletoseehow
andfromwhatelementsasyllogismisproducedwillalsobebestskilled
intheenthymeme,whenhehasfurtherlearntwhatitssubjectmatter
isandinwhatrespectsitdiffersfromthesyllogismofstrictlogic.
Thetrueandtheapproximatelytrueareapprehendedbythesamefaculty;
itmayalsobenotedthatmenhaveasufficientnaturalinstinctfor
whatistrue,andusuallydoarriveatthetruth.Hencethemanwho
makesagoodguessattruthislikelytomakeagoodguessatprobabilities.
Ithasnowbeenshownthattheordinarywritersonrhetorictreat
ofnonessentials;ithasalsobeenshownwhytheyhaveinclinedmore
towardstheforensicbranchoforatory.
Rhetoricisuseful(1)becausethingsthataretrueandthingsthat
arejusthaveanaturaltendencytoprevailovertheiropposites,
sothatifthedecisionsofjudgesarenotwhattheyoughttobe,
thedefeatmustbeduetothespeakersthemselves,andtheymustbe
blamedaccordingly.Moreover,(2)beforesomeaudiencesnoteventhe
possessionoftheexactestknowledgewillmakeiteasyforwhatwe
saytoproduceconviction.Forargumentbasedonknowledgeimplies
instruction,andtherearepeoplewhomonecannotinstruct.Here,
then,wemustuse,asourmodesofpersuasionandargument,notions
possessedbyeverybody,asweobservedintheTopicswhendealing
2/102
15/03/2015
withthewaytohandleapopularaudience.Further,(3)wemustbe
abletoemploypersuasion,justasstrictreasoningcanbeemployed,
onoppositesidesofaquestion,notinorderthatwemayinpractice
employitinbothways(forwemustnotmakepeoplebelievewhatis
wrong),butinorderthatwemayseeclearlywhatthefactsare,and
that,ifanothermanarguesunfairly,weonourpartmaybeableto
confutehim.Nootheroftheartsdrawsoppositeconclusions:dialectic
andrhetoricalonedothis.Boththeseartsdrawoppositeconclusions
impartially.Nevertheless,theunderlyingfactsdonotlendthemselves
equallywelltothecontraryviews.No;thingsthataretrueandthings
thatarebetterare,bytheirnature,practicallyalwayseasierto
proveandeasiertobelievein.Again,(4)itisabsurdtoholdthat
amanoughttobeashamedofbeingunabletodefendhimselfwithhis
limbs,butnotofbeingunabletodefendhimselfwithspeechandreason,
whentheuseofrationalspeechismoredistinctiveofahumanbeing
thantheuseofhislimbs.Andifitbeobjectedthatonewhouses
suchpowerofspeechunjustlymightdogreatharm,thatisacharge
whichmaybemadeincommonagainstallgoodthingsexceptvirtue,
andaboveallagainstthethingsthataremostuseful,asstrength,
health,wealth,generalship.Amancanconferthegreatestofbenefits
byarightuseofthese,andinflictthegreatestofinjuriesbyusing
themwrongly.
Itisclear,then,thatrhetoricisnotboundupwithasingledefinite
classofsubjects,butisasuniversalasdialectic;itisclear,
also,thatitisuseful.Itisclear,further,thatitsfunctionis
notsimplytosucceedinpersuading,butrathertodiscoverthemeans
ofcomingasnearsuchsuccessasthecircumstancesofeachparticular
caseallow.Inthisitresemblesallotherarts.Forexample,itis
notthefunctionofmedicinesimplytomakeamanquitehealthy,but
toputhimasfarasmaybeontheroadtohealth;itispossible
togiveexcellenttreatmenteventothosewhocanneverenjoysound
health.Furthermore,itisplainthatitisthefunctionofoneand
thesamearttodiscerntherealandtheapparentmeansofpersuasion,
justasitisthefunctionofdialectictodiscerntherealandthe
apparentsyllogism.Whatmakesamana'sophist'isnothisfaculty,
buthismoralpurpose.Inrhetoric,however,theterm'rhetorician'
maydescribeeitherthespeaker'sknowledgeoftheart,orhismoral
purpose.Indialecticitisdifferent:amanisa'sophist'because
hehasacertainkindofmoralpurpose,a'dialectician'inrespect,
notofhismoralpurpose,butofhisfaculty.
Letusnowtrytogivesomeaccountofthesystematicprinciplesof
Rhetoricitselfoftherightmethodandmeansofsucceedinginthe
objectwesetbeforeus.Wemustmakeasitwereafreshstart,and
beforegoingfurtherdefinewhatrhetoricis.
Part2
Rhetoricmaybedefinedasthefacultyofobservinginanygivencase
theavailablemeansofpersuasion.Thisisnotafunctionofanyother
art.Everyotherartcaninstructorpersuadeaboutitsownparticular
subjectmatter;forinstance,medicineaboutwhatishealthyandunhealthy,
geometryaboutthepropertiesofmagnitudes,arithmeticaboutnumbers,
andthesameistrueoftheotherartsandsciences.Butrhetoric
welookuponasthepowerofobservingthemeansofpersuasionon
almostanysubjectpresentedtous;andthatiswhywesaythat,in
itstechnicalcharacter,itisnotconcernedwithanyspecialordefinite
classofsubjects.
Ofthemodesofpersuasionsomebelongstrictlytotheartofrhetoric
andsomedonot.BythelatterImeansuchthingsasarenotsupplied
bythespeakerbutarethereattheoutsetwitnesses,evidencegiven
undertorture,writtencontracts,andsoon.BytheformerImean
suchaswecanourselvesconstructbymeansoftheprinciplesofrhetoric.
3/102
15/03/2015
Theonekindhasmerelytobeused,theotherhastobeinvented.
Ofthemodesofpersuasionfurnishedbythespokenwordthereare
threekinds.Thefirstkinddependsonthepersonalcharacterofthe
speaker;thesecondonputtingtheaudienceintoacertainframeof
mind;thethirdontheproof,orapparentproof,providedbythewords
ofthespeechitself.Persuasionisachievedbythespeaker'spersonal
characterwhenthespeechissospokenastomakeusthinkhimcredible.
Webelievegoodmenmorefullyandmorereadilythanothers:this
istruegenerallywhateverthequestionis,andabsolutelytruewhere
exactcertaintyisimpossibleandopinionsaredivided.Thiskind
ofpersuasion,liketheothers,shouldbeachievedbywhatthespeaker
says,notbywhatpeoplethinkofhischaracterbeforehebeginsto
speak.Itisnottrue,assomewritersassumeintheirtreatiseson
rhetoric,thatthepersonalgoodnessrevealedbythespeakercontributes
nothingtohispowerofpersuasion;onthecontrary,hischaracter
mayalmostbecalledthemosteffectivemeansofpersuasionhepossesses.
Secondly,persuasionmaycomethroughthehearers,whenthespeech
stirstheiremotions.Ourjudgementswhenwearepleasedandfriendly
arenotthesameaswhenwearepainedandhostile.Itistowards
producingtheseeffects,aswemaintain,thatpresentdaywriters
onrhetoricdirectthewholeoftheirefforts.Thissubjectshall
betreatedindetailwhenwecometospeakoftheemotions.Thirdly,
persuasioniseffectedthroughthespeechitselfwhenwehaveproved
atruthoranapparenttruthbymeansofthepersuasivearguments
suitabletothecaseinquestion.
Thereare,then,thesethreemeansofeffectingpersuasion.Theman
whoistobeincommandofthemmust,itisclear,beable(1)to
reasonlogically,(2)tounderstandhumancharacterandgoodnessin
theirvariousforms,and(3)tounderstandtheemotionsthatis,to
namethemanddescribethem,toknowtheircausesandthewayinwhich
theyareexcited.Itthusappearsthatrhetoricisanoffshootof
dialecticandalsoofethicalstudies.Ethicalstudiesmayfairly
becalledpolitical;andforthisreasonrhetoricmasqueradesaspolitical
science,andtheprofessorsofitaspoliticalexpertssometimesfrom
wantofeducation,sometimesfromostentation,sometimesowingto
otherhumanfailings.Asamatteroffact,itisabranchofdialectic
andsimilartoit,aswesaidattheoutset.Neitherrhetoricnor
dialecticisthescientificstudyofanyoneseparatesubject:both
arefacultiesforprovidingarguments.Thisisperhapsasufficient
accountoftheirscopeandofhowtheyarerelatedtoeachother.
Withregardtothepersuasionachievedbyprooforapparentproof:
justasindialecticthereisinductionontheonehandandsyllogism
orapparentsyllogismontheother,soitisinrhetoric.Theexample
isaninduction,theenthymemeisasyllogism,andtheapparententhymeme
isanapparentsyllogism.Icalltheenthymemearhetoricalsyllogism,
andtheexamplearhetoricalinduction.Everyonewhoeffectspersuasion
throughproofdoesinfactuseeitherenthymemesorexamples:there
isnootherway.Andsinceeveryonewhoprovesanythingatallis
boundtouseeithersyllogismsorinductions(andthisisclearto
usfromtheAnalytics),itmustfollowthatenthymemesaresyllogisms
andexamplesareinductions.Thedifferencebetweenexampleandenthymeme
ismadeplainbythepassagesintheTopicswhereinductionandsyllogism
havealreadybeendiscussed.Whenwebasetheproofofaproposition
onanumberofsimilarcases,thisisinductionindialectic,example
inrhetoric;whenitisshownthat,certainpropositionsbeingtrue,
afurtherandquitedistinctpropositionmustalsobetrueinconsequence,
whetherinvariablyorusually,thisiscalledsyllogismindialectic,
enthymemeinrhetoric.Itisplainalsothateachofthesetypesof
oratoryhasitsadvantages.Typesoforatory,Isay:forwhathas
beensaidintheMethodicsappliesequallywellhere;insomeoratorical
stylesexamplesprevail,inothersenthymemes;andinlikemanner,
someoratorsarebetterattheformerandsomeatthelatter.Speeches
4/102
15/03/2015
thatrelyonexamplesareaspersuasiveastheotherkind,butthose
whichrelyonenthymemesexcitethelouderapplause.Thesourcesof
examplesandenthymemes,andtheirproperuses,wewilldiscusslater.
Ournextstepistodefinetheprocessesthemselvesmoreclearly.
Astatementispersuasiveandcredibleeitherbecauseitisdirectly
selfevidentorbecauseitappearstobeprovedfromotherstatements
thatareso.Ineithercaseitispersuasivebecausethereissomebody
whomitpersuades.Butnoneoftheartstheorizeaboutindividual
cases.Medicine,forinstance,doesnottheorizeaboutwhatwillhelp
tocureSocratesorCallias,butonlyaboutwhatwillhelptocure
anyorallofagivenclassofpatients:thisaloneisbusiness:individual
casesaresoinfinitelyvariousthatnosystematicknowledgeofthem
ispossible.Inthesamewaythetheoryofrhetoricisconcernednot
withwhatseemsprobabletoagivenindividuallikeSocratesorHippias,
butwithwhatseemsprobabletomenofagiventype;andthisistrue
ofdialecticalso.Dialecticdoesnotconstructitssyllogismsout
ofanyhaphazardmaterials,suchasthefanciesofcrazypeople,but
outofmaterialsthatcallfordiscussion;andrhetoric,too,draws
upontheregularsubjectsofdebate.Thedutyofrhetoricistodeal
withsuchmattersaswedeliberateuponwithoutartsorsystemsto
guideus,inthehearingofpersonswhocannottakeinataglance
acomplicatedargument,orfollowalongchainofreasoning.Thesubjects
ofourdeliberationaresuchasseemtopresentuswithalternative
possibilities:aboutthingsthatcouldnothavebeen,andcannotnow
orinthefuturebe,otherthantheyare,nobodywhotakesthemto
beofthisnaturewasteshistimeindeliberation.
Itispossibletoformsyllogismsanddrawconclusionsfromtheresults
ofprevioussyllogisms;or,ontheotherhand,frompremisseswhich
havenotbeenthusproved,andatthesametimearesolittleaccepted
thattheycallforproof.Reasoningsoftheformerkindwillnecessarily
behardtofollowowingtotheirlength,forweassumeanaudience
ofuntrainedthinkers;thoseofthelatterkindwillfailtowinassent,
becausetheyarebasedonpremissesthatarenotgenerallyadmitted
orbelieved.
Theenthymemeandtheexamplemust,then,dealwithwhatisinthe
maincontingent,theexamplebeinganinduction,andtheenthymeme
asyllogism,aboutsuchmatters.Theenthymememustconsistoffew
propositions,feweroftenthanthosewhichmakeupthenormalsyllogism.
Forifanyofthesepropositionsisafamiliarfact,thereisnoneed
eventomentionit;theheareraddsithimself.Thus,toshowthat
Dorieushasbeenvictorinacontestforwhichtheprizeisacrown,
itisenoughtosay'ForhehasbeenvictorintheOlympicgames',
withoutadding'AndintheOlympicgamestheprizeisacrown',a
factwhicheverybodyknows.
Therearefewfactsofthe'necessary'typethatcanformthebasis
ofrhetoricalsyllogisms.Mostofthethingsaboutwhichwemakedecisions,
andintowhichthereforeweinquire,presentuswithalternativepossibilities.
Foritisaboutouractionsthatwedeliberateandinquire,andall
ouractionshaveacontingentcharacter;hardlyanyofthemaredetermined
bynecessity.Again,conclusionsthatstatewhatismerelyusualor
possiblemustbedrawnfrompremissesthatdothesame,justas'necessary'
conclusionsmustbedrawnfrom'necessary'premisses;thistoois
cleartousfromtheAnalytics.Itisevident,therefore,thatthe
propositionsformingthebasisofenthymemes,thoughsomeofthem
maybe'necessary',willmostofthembeonlyusuallytrue.Nowthe
materialsofenthymemesareProbabilitiesandSigns,whichwecan
seemustcorrespondrespectivelywiththepropositionsthataregenerally
andthosethatarenecessarilytrue.AProbabilityisathingthat
usuallyhappens;not,however,assomedefinitionswouldsuggest,
anythingwhateverthatusuallyhappens,butonlyifitbelongsto
theclassofthe'contingent'or'variable'.Itbearsthesamerelation
5/102
15/03/2015
tothatinrespectofwhichitisprobableastheuniversalbears
totheparticular.OfSigns,onekindbearsthesamerelationtothe
statementitsupportsastheparticularbearstotheuniversal,the
otherthesameastheuniversalbearstotheparticular.Theinfallible
kindisa'completeproof'(tekmerhiou);thefalliblekindhasno
specificname.ByinfalliblesignsImeanthoseonwhichsyllogisms
propermaybebased:andthisshowsuswhythiskindofSigniscalled
'completeproof':whenpeoplethinkthatwhattheyhavesaidcannot
berefuted,theythenthinkthattheyarebringingforwarda'complete
proof',meaningthatthematterhasnowbeendemonstratedandcompleted
(peperhasmeuou);fortheword'perhas'hasthesamemeaning(of'end'
or'boundary')astheword'tekmarh'intheancienttongue.Nowthe
onekindofSign(thatwhichbearstothepropositionitsupports
therelationofparticulartouniversal)maybeillustratedthus.
Supposeitweresaid,'ThefactthatSocrateswaswiseandjustis
asignthatthewisearejust'.HerewecertainlyhaveaSign;but
eventhoughthepropositionbetrue,theargumentisrefutable,since
itdoesnotformasyllogism.Suppose,ontheotherhand,itwere
said,'Thefactthathehasafeverisasignthatheisill',or,
'Thefactthatsheisgivingmilkisasignthatshehaslatelyborne
achild'.HerewehavetheinfalliblekindofSign,theonlykind
thatconstitutesacompleteproof,sinceitistheonlykindthat,
iftheparticularstatementistrue,isirrefutable.Theotherkind
ofSign,thatwhichbearstothepropositionitsupportstherelation
ofuniversaltoparticular,mightbeillustratedbysaying,'Thefact
thathebreathesfastisasignthathehasafever'.Thisargument
alsoisrefutable,evenifthestatementaboutthefastbreathing
betrue,sinceamanmaybreathehardwithouthavingafever.
Ithas,then,beenstatedabovewhatisthenatureofaProbability,
ofaSign,andofacompleteproof,andwhatarethedifferencesbetween
them.IntheAnalyticsamoreexplicitdescriptionhasbeengiven
ofthesepoints;itisthereshownwhysomeofthesereasoningscan
beputintosyllogismsandsomecannot.
The'example'hasalreadybeendescribedasonekindofinduction;
andthespecialnatureofthesubjectmatterthatdistinguishesit
fromtheotherkindshasalsobeenstatedabove.Itsrelationtothe
propositionitsupportsisnotthatofparttowhole,norwholeto
part,norwholetowhole,butofparttopart,orliketolike.When
twostatementsareofthesameorder,butoneismorefamiliarthan
theother,theformerisan'example'.Theargumentmay,forinstance,
bethatDionysius,inaskingashedoesforabodyguard,isscheming
tomakehimselfadespot.ForinthepastPeisistratuskeptasking
forabodyguardinordertocarryoutsuchascheme,anddidmake
himselfadespotassoonashegotit;andsodidTheagenesatMegara;
andinthesamewayallotherinstancesknowntothespeakeraremade
intoexamples,inordertoshowwhatisnotyetknown,thatDionysius
hasthesamepurposeinmakingthesamerequest:allthesebeinginstances
oftheonegeneralprinciple,thatamanwhoasksforabodyguard
isschemingtomakehimselfadespot.Wehavenowdescribedthesources
ofthosemeansofpersuasionwhicharepopularlysupposedtobedemonstrative.
Thereisanimportantdistinctionbetweentwosortsofenthymemes
thathasbeenwhollyoverlookedbyalmosteverybodyonethatalso
subsistsbetweenthesyllogismstreatedofindialectic.Onesort
ofenthymemereallybelongstorhetoric,asonesortofsyllogism
reallybelongstodialectic;buttheothersortreallybelongsto
otherartsandfaculties,whethertothosewealreadyexerciseor
tothosewehavenotyetacquired.Missingthisdistinction,people
failtonoticethatthemorecorrectlytheyhandletheirparticular
subjectthefurthertheyaregettingawayfrompurerhetoricordialectic.
Thisstatementwillbeclearerifexpressedmorefully.Imeanthat
thepropersubjectsofdialecticalandrhetoricalsyllogismsarethe
thingswithwhichwesaytheregularoruniversalLinesofArgument
6/102
15/03/2015
areconcerned,thatistosaythoselinesofargumentthatapplyequally
toquestionsofrightconduct,naturalscience,politics,andmany
otherthingsthathavenothingtodowithoneanother.Take,forinstance,
thelineofargumentconcernedwith'themoreorless'.Onthisline
ofargumentitisequallyeasytobaseasyllogismorenthymemeabout
anyofwhatneverthelessareessentiallydisconnectedsubjectsright
conduct,naturalscience,oranythingelsewhatever.Butthereare
alsothosespecialLinesofArgumentwhicharebasedonsuchpropositions
asapplyonlytoparticulargroupsorclassesofthings.Thusthere
arepropositionsaboutnaturalscienceonwhichitisimpossibleto
baseanyenthymemeorsyllogismaboutethics,andotherpropositions
aboutethicsonwhichnothingcanbebasedaboutnaturalscience.
Thesameprincipleappliesthroughout.ThegeneralLinesofArgument
havenospecialsubjectmatter,andthereforewillnotincreaseour
understandingofanyparticularclassofthings.Ontheotherhand,
thebettertheselectiononemakesofpropositionssuitableforspecial
LinesofArgument,theneareronecomes,unconsciously,tosetting
upasciencethatisdistinctfromdialecticandrhetoric.Onemay
succeedinstatingtherequiredprinciples,butone'ssciencewill
benolongerdialecticorrhetoric,butthesciencetowhichtheprinciples
thusdiscoveredbelong.Mostenthymemesareinfactbaseduponthese
particularorspecialLinesofArgument;comparativelyfewonthe
commonorgeneralkind.Asinthetherefore,sointhiswork,wemust
distinguish,indealingwithenthymemes,thespecialandthegeneral
LinesofArgumentonwhichtheyaretobefounded.ByspecialLines
ofArgumentImeanthepropositionspeculiartoeachseveralclass
ofthings,bygeneralthosecommontoallclassesalike.Wemaybegin
withthespecialLinesofArgument.But,firstofall,letusclassify
rhetoricintoitsvarieties.Havingdistinguishedthesewemaydeal
withthemonebyone,andtrytodiscovertheelementsofwhicheach
iscomposed,andthepropositionseachmustemploy.
Part3
Rhetoricfallsintothreedivisions,determinedbythethreeclasses
oflistenerstospeeches.Forofthethreeelementsinspeechmakingspeaker,
subject,andpersonaddresseditisthelastone,thehearer,that
determinesthespeech'sendandobject.Thehearermustbeeither
ajudge,withadecisiontomakeaboutthingspastorfuture,oran
observer.Amemberoftheassemblydecidesaboutfutureevents,a
jurymanaboutpastevents:whilethosewhomerelydecideontheorator's
skillareobservers.Fromthisitfollowsthattherearethreedivisions
oforatory(1)political,(2)forensic,and(3)theceremonialoratory
ofdisplay.
Politicalspeakingurgesuseithertodoornottodosomething:one
ofthesetwocoursesisalwaystakenbyprivatecounsellors,aswell
asbymenwhoaddresspublicassemblies.Forensicspeakingeither
attacksordefendssomebody:oneorotherofthesetwothingsmust
alwaysbedonebythepartiesinacase.Theceremonialoratoryof
displayeitherpraisesorcensuressomebody.Thesethreekindsof
rhetoricrefertothreedifferentkindsoftime.Thepoliticalorator
isconcernedwiththefuture:itisaboutthingstobedonehereafter
thatheadvises,fororagainst.Thepartyinacaseatlawisconcerned
withthepast;onemanaccusestheother,andtheotherdefendshimself,
withreferencetothingsalreadydone.Theceremonialoratoris,properly
speaking,concernedwiththepresent,sinceallmenpraiseorblame
inviewofthestateofthingsexistingatthetime,thoughtheyoften
finditusefulalsotorecallthepastandtomakeguessesatthe
future.
Rhetorichasthreedistinctendsinview,oneforeachofitsthree
kinds.Thepoliticaloratoraimsatestablishingtheexpediencyor
theharmfulnessofaproposedcourseofaction;ifheurgesitsacceptance,
hedoessoonthegroundthatitwilldogood;ifheurgesitsrejection,
7/102
15/03/2015
hedoessoonthegroundthatitwilldoharm;andallotherpoints,
suchaswhethertheproposalisjustorunjust,honourableordishonourable,
hebringsinassubsidiaryandrelativetothismainconsideration.
Partiesinalawcaseaimatestablishingthejusticeorinjustice
ofsomeaction,andtheytoobringinallotherpointsassubsidiary
andrelativetothisone.Thosewhopraiseorattackamanaimat
provinghimworthyofhonourorthereverse,andtheytootreatall
otherconsiderationswithreferencetothisone.
Thatthethreekindsofrhetoricdoaimrespectivelyatthethree
endswehavementionedisshownbythefactthatspeakerswillsometimes
nottrytoestablishanythingelse.Thus,thelitigantwillsometimes
notdenythatathinghashappenedorthathehasdoneharm.Butthat
heisguiltyofinjusticehewillneveradmit;otherwisetherewould
benoneedofatrial.Sotoo,politicaloratorsoftenmakeanyconcession
shortofadmittingthattheyarerecommendingtheirhearerstotake
aninexpedientcourseornottotakeanexpedientone.Thequestion
whetheritisnotunjustforacitytoenslaveitsinnocentneighbours
oftendoesnottroublethematall.Inlikemannerthosewhopraise
orcensureamandonotconsiderwhetherhisactshavebeenexpedient
ornot,butoftenmakeitagroundofactualpraisethathehasneglected
hisowninteresttodowhatwashonourable.Thus,theypraiseAchilles
becausehechampionedhisfallenfriendPatroclus,thoughheknew
thatthismeantdeath,andthatotherwiseheneednotdie:yetwhile
todiethuswasthenoblerthingforhimtodo,theexpedientthing
wastoliveon.
Itisevidentfromwhathasbeensaidthatitisthesethreesubjects,
morethananyothers,aboutwhichtheoratormustbeabletohave
propositionsathiscommand.NowthepropositionsofRhetoricare
CompleteProofs,Probabilities,andSigns.Everykindofsyllogism
iscomposedofpropositions,andtheenthymemeisaparticularkind
ofsyllogismcomposedoftheaforesaidpropositions.
Sinceonlypossibleactions,andnotimpossibleones,caneverhave
beendoneinthepastorthepresent,andsincethingswhichhave
notoccurred,orwillnotoccur,alsocannothavebeendoneorbe
goingtobedone,itisnecessaryforthepolitical,theforensic,
andtheceremonialspeakeraliketobeabletohaveattheircommand
propositionsaboutthepossibleandtheimpossible,andaboutwhether
athinghasorhasnotoccurred,willorwillnotoccur.Further,
allmen,ingivingpraiseorblame,inurgingustoacceptorreject
proposalsforaction,inaccusingothersordefendingthemselves,
attemptnotonlytoprovethepointsmentionedbutalsotoshowthat
thegoodortheharm,thehonourordisgrace,thejusticeorinjustice,
isgreatorsmall,eitherabsolutelyorrelatively;andtherefore
itisplainthatwemustalsohaveatourcommandpropositionsabout
greatnessorsmallnessandthegreaterorthelesserpropositions
bothuniversalandparticular.Thus,wemustbeabletosaywhich
isthegreaterorlessergood,thegreaterorlesseractofjustice
orinjustice;andsoon.
Such,then,arethesubjectsregardingwhichweareinevitablybound
tomasterthepropositionsrelevanttothem.Wemustnowdiscusseach
particularclassofthesesubjectsinturn,namelythosedealtwith
inpolitical,inceremonial,andlastlyinlegal,oratory.
Part4
First,then,wemustascertainwhatarethekindsofthings,good
orbad,aboutwhichthepoliticaloratorofferscounsel.Forhedoes
notdealwithallthings,butonlywithsuchasmayormaynottake
place.Concerningthingswhichexistorwillexistinevitably,or
whichcannotpossiblyexistortakeplace,nocounselcanbegiven.
Nor,again,cancounselbegivenaboutthewholeclassofthingswhich
8/102
15/03/2015
mayormaynottakeplace;forthisclassincludessomegoodthings
thatoccurnaturally,andsomethatoccurbyaccident;andaboutthese
itisuselesstooffercounsel.Clearlycounselcanonlybegiven
onmattersaboutwhichpeopledeliberate;matters,namely,thatultimately
dependonourselves,andwhichwehaveitinourpowertosetgoing.
Forweturnathingoverinourminduntilwehavereachedthepoint
ofseeingwhetherwecandoitornot.
Nowtoenumerateandclassifyaccuratelytheusualsubjectsofpublic
business,andfurthertoframe,asfaraspossible,truedefinitions
ofthemisataskwhichwemustnotattemptonthepresentoccasion.
Foritdoesnotbelongtotheartofrhetoric,buttoamoreinstructive
artandamorerealbranchofknowledge;andasitis,rhetorichas
beengivenafarwidersubjectmatterthanstrictlybelongstoit.
Thetruthis,asindeedwehavesaidalready,thatrhetoricisacombination
ofthescienceoflogicandoftheethicalbranchofpolitics;and
itispartlylikedialectic,partlylikesophisticalreasoning.But
themorewetrytomakeeitherdialecticrhetoricnot,whattheyreally
are,practicalfaculties,butsciences,themoreweshallinadvertently
bedestroyingtheirtruenature;forweshallberefashioningthem
andshallbepassingintotheregionofsciencesdealingwithdefinite
subjectsratherthansimplywithwordsandformsofreasoning.Even
here,however,wewillmentionthosepointswhichitisofpractical
importancetodistinguish,theirfullertreatmentfallingnaturally
topoliticalscience.
Themainmattersonwhichallmendeliberateandonwhichpolitical
speakersmakespeechesaresomefiveinnumber:waysandmeans,war
andpeace,nationaldefence,importsandexports,andlegislation.
AstoWaysandMeans,then,theintendingspeakerwillneedtoknow
thenumberandextentofthecountry'ssourcesofrevenue,sothat,
ifanyisbeingoverlooked,itmaybeadded,and,ifanyisdefective,
itmaybeincreased.Further,heshouldknowalltheexpenditureof
thecountry,inorderthat,ifanypartofitissuperfluous,itmay
beabolished,or,ifanyistoolarge,itmaybereduced.Formen
becomerichernotonlybyincreasingtheirexistingwealthbutalso
byreducingtheirexpenditure.Acomprehensiveviewofthesequestions
cannotbegainedsolelyfromexperienceinhomeaffairs;inorder
toadviseonsuchmattersamanmustbekeenlyinterestedinthemethods
workedoutinotherlands.
AstoPeaceandWar,hemustknowtheextentofthemilitarystrength
ofhiscountry,bothactualandpotential,andalsothematureof
thatactualandpotentialstrength;andfurther,whatwarshiscountry
haswaged,andhowithaswagedthem.Hemustknowthesefactsnot
onlyabouthisowncountry,butalsoaboutneighbouringcountries;
andalsoaboutcountrieswithwhichwarislikely,inorderthatpeace
maybemaintainedwiththosestrongerthanhisown,andthathisown
mayhavepowertomakewarornotagainstthosethatareweaker.He
shouldknow,too,whetherthemilitarypowerofanothercountryis
likeorunlikethatofhisown;forthisisamatterthatmayaffect
theirrelativestrength.Withthesameendinviewhemust,besides,
havestudiedthewarsofothercountriesaswellasthoseofhisown,
andthewaytheyended;similarcausesarelikelytohavesimilar
results.
WithregardtoNationalDefence:heoughttoknowallaboutthemethods
ofdefenceinactualuse,suchasthestrengthandcharacterofthe
defensiveforceandthepositionsofthefortsthislastmeansthat
hemustbewellacquaintedwiththelieofthecountryinorderthat
agarrisonmaybeincreasedifitistoosmallorremovedifitis
notwanted,andthatthestrategicpointsmaybeguardedwithspecial
care.
9/102
15/03/2015
WithregardtotheFoodSupply:hemustknowwhatoutlaywillmeet
theneedsofhiscountry;whatkindsoffoodareproducedathome
andwhatimported;andwhatarticlesmustbeexportedorimported.
Thislasthemustknowinorderthatagreementsandcommercialtreaties
maybemadewiththecountriesconcerned.Thereare,indeed,twosorts
ofstatetowhichhemustseethathiscountrymengivenocausefor
offence,statesstrongerthanhisown,andstateswithwhichitis
advantageoustotrade.
Butwhilehemust,forsecurity'ssake,beabletotakeallthisinto
account,hemustbeforeallthingsunderstandthesubjectoflegislation;
foritisonacountry'slawsthatitswholewelfaredepends.Hemust,
therefore,knowhowmanydifferentformsofconstitutionthereare;
underwhatconditionseachofthesewillprosperandbywhatinternal
developmentsorexternalattackseachofthemtendstobedestroyed.
WhenIspeakofdestructionthroughinternaldevelopmentsIrefer
tothefactthatallconstitutions,exceptthebestoneofall,are
destroyedbothbynotbeingpushedfarenoughandbybeingpushed
toofar.Thus,democracylosesitsvigour,andfinallypassesinto
oligarchy,notonlywhenitisnotpushedfarenough,butalsowhen
itispushedagreatdealtoofar;justastheaquilineandthesnub
nosenotonlyturnintonormalnosesbynotbeingaquilineorsnub
enough,butalsobybeingtooviolentlyaquilineorsnubarriveat
aconditioninwhichtheynolongerlooklikenosesatall.Itis
useful,inframinglaws,notonlytostudythepasthistoryofone's
owncountry,inordertounderstandwhichconstitutionisdesirable
foritnow,butalsotohaveaknowledgeoftheconstitutionsofother
nations,andsotolearnforwhatkindsofnationthevariouskinds
ofconstitutionaresuited.Fromthiswecanseethatbooksoftravel
areusefulaidstolegislation,sincefromthesewemaylearnthe
lawsandcustomsofdifferentraces.Thepoliticalspeakerwillalso
findtheresearchesofhistoriansuseful.Butallthisisthebusiness
ofpoliticalscienceandnotofrhetoric.
These,then,arethemostimportantkindsofinformationwhichthe
politicalspeakermustpossess.Letusnowgobackandstatethepremisses
fromwhichhewillhavetoargueinfavourofadoptingorrejecting
measuresregardingtheseandothermatters.
Part5
Itmaybesaidthateveryindividualmanandallmenincommonaim
atacertainendwhichdetermineswhattheychooseandwhattheyavoid.
Thisend,tosumitupbriefly,ishappinessanditsconstituents.
Letus,then,bywayofillustrationonly,ascertainwhatisingeneral
thenatureofhappiness,andwhataretheelementsofitsconstituent
parts.Foralladvicetodothingsornottodothemisconcerned
withhappinessandwiththethingsthatmakefororagainstit;whatever
createsorincreaseshappinessorsomepartofhappiness,weought
todo;whateverdestroysorhampershappiness,orgivesrisetoits
opposite,weoughtnottodo.
Wemaydefinehappinessasprosperitycombinedwithvirtue;oras
independenceoflife;orasthesecureenjoymentofthemaximumof
pleasure;orasagoodconditionofpropertyandbody,togetherwith
thepowerofguardingone'spropertyandbodyandmakinguseofthem.
Thathappinessisoneormoreofthesethings,prettywelleverybody
agrees.
Fromthisdefinitionofhappinessitfollowsthatitsconstituent
partsare:goodbirth,plentyoffriends,goodfriends,wealth,good
children,plentyofchildren,ahappyoldage,alsosuchbodilyexcellences
ashealth,beauty,strength,largestature,athleticpowers,together
withfame,honour,goodluck,andvirtue.Amancannotfailtobe
completelyindependentifhepossessestheseinternalandtheseexternal
10/102
15/03/2015
goods;forbesidesthesetherearenootherstohave.(Goodsofthe
soulandofthebodyareinternal.Goodbirth,friends,money,and
honourareexternal.)Further,wethinkthatheshouldpossessresources
andluck,inordertomakehislifereallysecure.Aswehavealready
ascertainedwhathappinessingeneralis,sonowletustrytoascertain
whatofthesepartsofitis.
Nowgoodbirthinaraceorastatemeansthatitsmembersareindigenous
orancient:thatitsearliestleadersweredistinguishedmen,and
thatfromthemhavesprungmanywhoweredistinguishedforqualities
thatweadmire.
Thegoodbirthofanindividual,whichmaycomeeitherfromthemale
orthefemaleside,impliesthatbothparentsarefreecitizens,and
that,asinthecaseofthestate,thefoundersofthelinehavebeen
notableforvirtueorwealthorsomethingelsewhichishighlyprized,
andthatmanydistinguishedpersonsbelongtothefamily,menand
women,youngandold.
Thephrases'possessionofgoodchildren'and'ofmanychildren'bear
aquiteclearmeaning.Appliedtoacommunity,theymeanthatits
youngmenarenumerousandofgoodaquality:goodinregardtobodily
excellences,suchasstature,beauty,strength,athleticpowers;and
alsoinregardtotheexcellencesofthesoul,whichinayoungman
aretemperanceandcourage.Appliedtoanindividual,theymeanthat
hisownchildrenarenumerousandhavethegoodqualitieswehave
described.Bothmaleandfemalearehereincluded;theexcellences
ofthelatterare,inbody,beautyandstature;insoul,selfcommand
andanindustrythatisnotsordid.Communitiesaswellasindividuals
shouldlacknoneoftheseperfections,intheirwomenaswellasin
theirmen.Where,asamongtheLacedaemonians,thestateofwomen
isbad,almosthalfofhumanlifeisspoilt.
Theconstituentsofwealthare:plentyofcoinedmoneyandterritory;
theownershipofnumerous,large,andbeautifulestates;alsothe
ownershipofnumerousandbeautifulimplements,livestock,andslaves.
Allthesekindsofpropertyareourown,aresecure,gentlemanly,
anduseful.Theusefulkindsarethosethatareproductive,thegentlemanly
kindsarethosethatprovideenjoyment.By'productive'Imeanthose
fromwhichwegetourincome;by'enjoyable',thosefromwhichwe
getnothingworthmentioningexcepttheuseofthem.Thecriterion
of'security'istheownershipofpropertyinsuchplacesandunder
suchConditionsthattheuseofitisinourpower;anditis'our
own'ifitisinourownpowertodisposeofitorkeepit.By'disposing
ofit'Imeangivingitawayorsellingit.Wealthasawholeconsists
inusingthingsratherthaninowningthem;itisreallytheactivitythat
is,theuseofpropertythatconstituteswealth.
Famemeansbeingrespectedbyeverybody,orhavingsomequalitythat
isdesiredbyallmen,orbymost,orbythegood,orbythewise.
Honouristhetokenofaman'sbeingfamousfordoinggood.itis
chieflyandmostproperlypaidtothosewhohavealreadydonegood;
butalsotothemanwhocandogoodinfuture.Doinggoodreferseither
tothepreservationoflifeandthemeansoflife,ortowealth,or
tosomeotherofthegoodthingswhichitishardtogeteitheralways
oratthatparticularplaceortimeformanygainhonourforthings
whichseemsmall,buttheplaceandtheoccasionaccountforit.The
constituentsofhonourare:sacrifices;commemoration,inverseor
prose;privileges;grantsofland;frontseatsatciviccelebrations;
stateburial;statues;publicmaintenance;amongforeigners,obeisances
andgivingplace;andsuchpresentsasareamongvariousbodiesof
menregardedasmarksofhonour.Forapresentisnotonlythebestowal
ofapieceofproperty,butalsoatokenofhonour;whichexplains
whyhonourlovingaswellasmoneylovingpersonsdesireit.Thepresent
11/102
15/03/2015
bringstobothwhattheywant;itisapieceofproperty,whichis
whattheloversofmoneydesire;anditbringshonour,whichiswhat
theloversofhonourdesire.
Theexcellenceofthebodyishealth;thatis,aconditionwhichallows
us,whilekeepingfreefromdisease,tohavetheuseofourbodies;
formanypeopleare'healthy'aswearetoldHerodicuswas;andthese
noonecancongratulateontheir'health',fortheyhavetoabstain
fromeverythingornearlyeverythingthatmendo.Beautyvarieswith
thetimeoflife.Inayoungmanbeautyisthepossessionofabody
fittoenduretheexertionofrunningandofcontestsofstrength;
whichmeansthatheispleasanttolookat;andthereforeallround
athletesarethemostbeautiful,beingnaturallyadaptedbothfor
contestsofstrengthandforspeedalso.Foramaninhisprime,beauty
isfitnessfortheexertionofwarfare,togetherwithapleasantbut
atthesametimeformidableappearance.Foranoldman,itistobe
strongenoughforsuchexertionasisnecessary,andtobefreefrom
allthosedeformitiesofoldagewhichcausepaintoothers.Strength
isthepowerofmovingsomeoneelseatwill;todothis,youmust
eitherpull,push,lift,pin,orgriphim;thusyoumustbestrong
inallofthosewaysoratleastinsome.Excellenceinsizeisto
surpassordinarypeopleinheight,thickness,andbreadthbyjust
asmuchaswillnotmakeone'smovementsslowerinconsequence.Athletic
excellenceofthebodyconsistsinsize,strength,andswiftness;
swiftnessimplyingstrength.Hewhocanflingforwardhislegsin
acertainway,andmovethemfastandfar,isgoodatrunning;he
whocangripandholddownisgoodatwrestling;hewhocandrive
anadversaryfromhisgroundwiththerightblowisagoodboxer:
hewhocandoboththelastisagoodpancratiast,whilehewhocan
doallisan'allround'athlete.
Happinessinoldageisthecomingofoldageslowlyandpainlessly;
foramanhasnotthishappinessifhegrowsoldeitherquickly,or
tardilybutpainfully.Itarisesbothfromtheexcellencesofthe
bodyandfromgoodluck.Ifamanisnotfreefromdisease,orif
heisstrong,hewillnotbefreefromsuffering;norcanhecontinue
tolivealongandpainlesslifeunlesshehasgoodluck.Thereis,
indeed,acapacityforlonglifethatisquiteindependentofhealth
orstrength;formanypeoplelivelongwholacktheexcellencesof
thebody;butforourpresentpurposethereisnouseingoinginto
thedetailsofthis.
Theterms'possessionofmanyfriends'and'possessionofgoodfriends'
neednoexplanation;forwedefinea'friend'asonewhowillalways
try,foryoursake,todowhathetakestobegoodforyou.Theman
towardswhommanyfeelthushasmanyfriends;iftheseareworthy
men,hehasgoodfriends.
'Goodluck'meanstheacquisitionorpossessionofallormost,or
themostimportant,ofthosegoodthingswhichareduetoluck.Some
ofthethingsthatareduetoluckmayalsobeduetoartificialcontrivance;
butmanyareindependentofart,asforexamplethosewhicharedue
tonaturethough,tobesure,thingsduetoluckmayactuallybecontrary
tonature.Thushealthmaybeduetoartificialcontrivance,butbeauty
andstatureareduetonature.Allsuchgoodthingsasexciteenvy
are,asaclass,theoutcomeofgoodluck.Luckisalsothecause
ofgoodthingsthathappencontrarytoreasonableexpectation:as
when,forinstance,allyourbrothersareugly,butyouarehandsome
yourself;orwhenyoufindatreasurethateverybodyelsehasoverlooked;
orwhenamissilehitsthenextmanandmissesyou;orwhenyouare
theonlymannottogotoaplaceyouhavegonetoregularly,while
theothersgothereforthefirsttimeandarekilled.Allsuchthings
arereckonedpiecesofgoodluck.
Astovirtue,itismostcloselyconnectedwiththesubjectofEulogy,
12/102
15/03/2015
andthereforewewillwaittodefineituntilwecometodiscussthat
subject.
Part6
Itisnowplainwhatouraims,futureoractual,shouldbeinurging,
andwhatindepreciating,aproposal;thelatterbeingtheopposite
oftheformer.Nowthepoliticalordeliberativeorator'saimisutility:
deliberationseekstodeterminenotendsbutthemeanstoends,i.e.
whatitismostusefultodo.Further,utilityisagoodthing.We
oughtthereforetoassureourselvesofthemainfactsaboutGoodness
andUtilityingeneral.
Wemaydefineagoodthingasthatwhichoughttobechosenforits
ownsake;orasthatforthesakeofwhichwechoosesomethingelse;
orasthatwhichissoughtafterbyallthings,orbyallthingsthat
havesensationorreason,orwhichwillbesoughtafterbyanythings
thatacquirereason;orasthatwhichmustbeprescribedforagiven
individualbyreasongenerally,orisprescribedforhimbyhisindividual
reason,thisbeinghisindividualgood;orasthatwhosepresence
bringsanythingintoasatisfactoryandselfsufficingcondition;
orasselfsufficiency;oraswhatproduces,maintains,orentails
characteristicsofthiskind,whilepreventinganddestroyingtheir
opposites.Onethingmayentailanotherineitheroftwoways(1)
simultaneously,(2)subsequently.Thuslearningentailsknowledge
subsequently,healthentailslifesimultaneously.Thingsareproductive
ofotherthingsinthreesenses:firstasbeinghealthyproduceshealth;
secondly,asfoodproduceshealth;andthirdly,asexercisedoesi.e.
itdoessousually.Allthisbeingsettled,wenowseethatboththe
acquisitionofgoodthingsandtheremovalofbadthingsmustbegood;
thelatterentailsfreedomfromtheevilthingssimultaneously,while
theformerentailspossessionofthegoodthingssubsequently.The
acquisitionofagreaterinplaceofalessergood,orofalesser
inplaceofagreaterevil,isalsogood,forinproportionasthe
greaterexceedsthelesserthereisacquisitionofgoodorremoval
ofevil.Thevirtues,too,mustbesomethinggood;foritisbypossessing
thesethatweareinagoodcondition,andtheytendtoproducegood
worksandgoodactions.Theymustbeseverallynamedanddescribed
elsewhere.Pleasure,again,mustbeagoodthing,sinceitisthe
natureofallanimalstoaimatit.Consequentlybothpleasantand
beautifulthingsmustbegoodthings,sincetheformerareproductive
ofpleasure,whileofthebeautifulthingssomearepleasantandsome
desirableinandforthemselves.
Thefollowingisamoredetailedlistofthingsthatmustbegood.
Happiness,asbeingdesirableinitselfandsufficientbyitself,
andasbeingthatforwhosesakewechoosemanyotherthings.Also
justice,courage,temperance,magnanimity,magnificence,andallsuch
qualities,asbeingexcellencesofthesoul.Further,health,beauty,
andthelike,asbeingbodilyexcellencesandproductiveofmanyother
goodthings:forinstance,healthisproductivebothofpleasureand
oflife,andthereforeisthoughtthegreatestofgoods,sincethese
twothingswhichitcauses,pleasureandlife,aretwoofthethings
mosthighlyprizedbyordinarypeople.Wealth,again:foritisthe
excellenceofpossession,andalsoproductiveofmanyothergoodthings.
Friendsandfriendship:forafriendisdesirableinhimselfandalso
productiveofmanyothergoodthings.So,too,honourandreputation,
asbeingpleasant,andproductiveofmanyothergoodthings,andusually
accompaniedbythepresenceofthegoodthingsthatcausethemto
bebestowed.Thefacultyofspeechandaction;sinceallsuchqualities
areproductiveofwhatisgood.Furthergoodparts,strongmemory,
receptiveness,quicknessofintuition,andthelike,forallsuch
facultiesareproductiveofwhatisgood.Similarly,allthesciences
andarts.Andlife:since,evenifnoothergoodweretheresultof
life,itisdesirableinitself.Andjustice,asthecauseofgood
13/102
15/03/2015
tothecommunity.
Theaboveareprettywellallthethingsadmittedlygood.Indealing
withthingswhosegoodnessisdisputed,wemayargueinthefollowing
ways:Thatisgoodofwhichthecontraryisbad.Thatisgoodthe
contraryofwhichistotheadvantageofourenemies;forexample,
ifitistotheparticularadvantageofourenemiesthatweshould
becowards,clearlycourageisofparticularvaluetoourcountrymen.
Andgenerally,thecontraryofthatwhichourenemiesdesire,orof
thatatwhichtheyrejoice,isevidentlyvaluable.Hencethepassage
beginning:
"SurelywouldPriamexult."
Thisprincipleusuallyholdsgood,butnotalways,sinceitmaywell
bethatourinterestissometimesthesameasthatofourenemies.
Henceitissaidthat'evilsdrawmentogether';thatis,whenthe
samethingishurtfultothemboth.
Further:thatwhichisnotinexcessisgood,andthatwhichisgreater
thanitshouldbeisbad.Thatalsoisgoodonwhichmuchlabouror
moneyhasbeenspent;themerefactofthismakesitseemgood,and
suchagoodisassumedtobeanendanendreachedthroughalong
chainofmeans;andanyendisagood.Hencethelinesbeginning:
"AndforPriam(andTroytown'sfolk)should
"theyleavebehindthemaboast;"
and
"Oh,itwereshame
"Tohavetarriedsolongandreturnemptyhanded
"aserstwecame;"
andthereisalsotheproverbabout'breakingthepitcheratthe
door'.
Thatwhichmostpeopleseekafter,andwhichisobviouslyanobject
ofcontention,isalsoagood;for,ashasbeenshown,thatisgood
whichissoughtafterbyeverybody,and'mostpeople'istakento
beequivalentto'everybody'.Thatwhichispraisedisgood,since
noonepraiseswhatisnotgood.So,again,thatwhichispraised
byourenemies[orbytheworthless]forwheneventhosewhohave
agrievancethinkathinggood,itisatoncefeltthateveryone
mustagreewiththem;ourenemiescanadmitthefactonlybecause
itisevident,justasthosemustbeworthlesswhomtheirfriends
censureandtheirenemiesdonot.(ForthisreasontheCorinthians
conceivedthemselvestobeinsultedbySimonideswhenhewrote:
"AgainsttheCorinthianshathIliumnocomplaint.)"
Again,thatisgoodwhichhasbeendistinguishedbythefavourof
adiscerningorvirtuousmanorwoman,asOdysseuswasdistinguished
byAthena,HelenbyTheseus,Parisbythegoddesses,andAchilles
byHomer.And,generallyspeaking,allthingsaregoodwhichmendeliberately
choosetodo;thiswillincludethethingsalreadymentioned,and
alsowhatevermaybebadfortheirenemiesorgoodfortheirfriends,
andatthesametimepracticable.Thingsare'practicable'intwo
senses:(1)itispossibletodothem,(2)itiseasytodothem.
Thingsaredone'easily'whentheyaredoneeitherwithoutpainor
quickly:the'difficulty'ofanactlieseitherinitspainfulness
orinthelongtimeittakes.Again,athingisgoodifitisasmen
14/102
15/03/2015
wish;andtheywishtohaveeithernoevilatanoratleastabalance
ofgoodoverevil.Thislastwillhappenwherethepenaltyiseither
imperceptibleorslight.Good,too,arethingsthatareaman'svery
own,possessedbynooneelse,exceptional;forthisincreasesthe
creditofhavingthem.Soarethingswhichbefitthepossessors,such
aswhateverisappropriatetotheirbirthorcapacity,andwhatever
theyfeeltheyoughttohavebutlacksuchthingsmayindeedbetrifling,
butnonethelessmendeliberatelymakethemthegoaloftheiraction.
Andthingseasilyeffected;forthesearepracticable(inthesense
ofbeingeasy);suchthingsarethoseinwhicheveryone,ormost
people,orone'sequals,orone'sinferiorshavesucceeded.Goodalso
arethethingsbywhichweshallgratifyourfriendsorannoyour
enemies;andthethingschosenbythosewhomweadmire:andthethings
forwhichwearefittedbynatureorexperience,sincewethinkwe
shallsucceedmoreeasilyinthese:andthoseinwhichnoworthless
mancansucceed,forsuchthingsbringgreaterpraise:andthosewhich
wedoinfactdesire,forwhatwedesireistakentobenotonlypleasant
butalsobetter.Further,amanofagivendispositionmakeschiefly
forthecorrespondingthings:loversofvictorymakeforvictory,
loversofhonourforhonour,moneylovingmenformoney,andsowith
therest.These,then,arethesourcesfromwhichwemustderiveour
meansofpersuasionaboutGoodandUtility.
Part7
Since,however,itoftenhappensthatpeopleagreethattwothings
arebothusefulbutdonotagreeaboutwhichisthemoreso,thenext
stepwillbetotreatofrelativegoodnessandrelativeutility.
Athingwhichsurpassesanothermayberegardedasbeingthatother
thingplussomethingmore,andthatotherthingwhichissurpassed
asbeingwhatiscontainedinthefirstthing.Nowtocallathing
'greater'or'more'alwaysimpliesacomparisonofitwithonethat
is'smaller'or'less',while'great'and'small','much'and'little',
aretermsusedincomparisonwithnormalmagnitude.The'great'is
thatwhichsurpassesthenormal,the'small'isthatwhichissurpassed
bythenormal;andsowith'many'and'few'.
Nowweareapplyingtheterm'good'towhatisdesirableforitsown
sakeandnotforthesakeofsomethingelse;tothatatwhichall
thingsaim;towhattheywouldchooseiftheycouldacquireunderstanding
andpracticalwisdom;andtothatwhichtendstoproduceorpreserve
suchgoods,orisalwaysaccompaniedbythem.Moreover,thatforthe
sakeofwhichthingsaredoneistheend(anendbeingthatforthe
sakeofwhichallelseisdone),andforeachindividualthatthing
isagoodwhichfulfilstheseconditionsinregardtohimself.It
follows,then,thatagreaternumberofgoodsisagreatergoodthan
oneorthanasmallernumber,ifthatoneorthatsmallernumberis
includedinthecount;forthenthelargernumbersurpassesthesmaller,
andthesmallerquantityissurpassedasbeingcontainedinthelarger.
Again,ifthelargestmemberofoneclasssurpassesthelargestmember
ofanother,thentheoneclasssurpassestheother;andifoneclass
surpassesanother,thenthelargestmemberoftheonesurpassesthe
largestmemberoftheother.Thus,ifthetallestmanistallerthan
thetallestwoman,thenmeningeneralaretallerthanwomen.Conversely,
ifmeningeneralaretallerthanwomen,thenthetallestmanistaller
thanthetallestwoman.Forthesuperiorityofclassoverclassis
proportionatetothesuperioritypossessedbytheirlargestspecimens.
Again,whereonegoodisalwaysaccompaniedbyanother,butdoesnot
alwaysaccompanyit,itisgreaterthantheother,fortheuseof
thesecondthingisimpliedintheuseofthefirst.Athingmaybe
accompaniedbyanotherinthreeways,eithersimultaneously,subsequently,
orpotentially.Lifeaccompanieshealthsimultaneously(butnothealth
life),knowledgeaccompaniestheactoflearningsubsequently,cheating
15/102
15/03/2015
accompaniessacrilegepotentially,sinceamanwhohascommittedsacrilege
isalwayscapableofcheating.Again,whentwothingseachsurpass
athird,thatwhichdoessobythegreateramountisthegreaterof
thetwo;foritmustsurpassthegreateraswellasthelessofthe
othertwo.Athingproductiveofagreatergoodthananotherisproductive
ofisitselfagreatergoodthanthatother.Forthisconceptionof
'productiveofagreater'hasbeenimpliedinourargument.Likewise,
thatwhichisproducedbyagreatergoodisitselfagreatergood;
thus,ifwhatiswholesomeismoredesirableandagreatergoodthan
whatgivespleasure,healthtoomustbeagreatergoodthanpleasure.
Again,athingwhichisdesirableinitselfisagreatergoodthan
athingwhichisnotdesirableinitself,asforexamplebodilystrength
thanwhatiswholesome,sincethelatterisnotpursuedforitsown
sake,whereastheformeris;andthiswasourdefinitionofthegood.
Again,ifoneoftwothingsisanend,andtheotherisnot,theformer
isthegreatergood,asbeingchosenforitsownsakeandnotfor
thesakeofsomethingelse;as,forexample,exerciseischosenfor
thesakeofphysicalwellbeing.Andoftwothingsthatwhichstands
lessinneedoftheother,orofotherthings,isthegreatergood,
sinceitismoreselfsufficing.(Thatwhichstands'less'inneed
ofothersisthatwhichneedseitherfeweroreasierthings.)Sowhen
onethingdoesnotexistorcannotcomeintoexistencewithoutasecond,
whilethesecondcanexistwithoutthefirst,thesecondisthebetter.
Thatwhichdoesnotneedsomethingelseismoreselfsufficingthan
thatwhichdoes,andpresentsitselfasagreatergoodforthatreason.
Again,thatwhichisabeginningofotherthingsisagreatergood
thanthatwhichisnot,andthatwhichisacauseisagreatergood
thanthatwhichisnot;thereasonbeingthesameineachcase,namely
thatwithoutacauseandabeginningnothingcanexistorcomeinto
existence.Again,wheretherearetwosetsofconsequencesarising
fromtwodifferentbeginningsorcauses,theconsequencesofthemore
importantbeginningorcausearethemselvesthemoreimportant;and
conversely,thatbeginningorcauseisitselfthemoreimportantwhich
hasthemoreimportantconsequences.Nowitisplain,fromallthat
hasbeensaid,thatonethingmaybeshowntobemoreimportantthan
anotherfromtwooppositepointsofview:itmayappearthemoreimportant
(1)becauseitisabeginningandtheotherthingisnot,andalso
(2)becauseitisnotabeginningandtheotherthingisontheground
thattheendismoreimportantandisnotabeginning.SoLeodamas,
whenaccusingCallistratus,saidthatthemanwhopromptedthedeed
wasmoreguiltythanthedoer,sinceitwouldnothavebeendoneif
hehadnotplannedit.Ontheotherhand,whenaccusingChabriashe
saidthatthedoerwasworsethantheprompter,sincetherewould
havebeennodeedwithoutsomeonetodoit;men,saidhe,plota
thingonlyinordertocarryitout.
Further,whatisrareisagreatergoodthanwhatisplentiful.Thus,
goldisabetterthingthaniron,thoughlessuseful:itisharder
toget,andthereforebetterworthgetting.Reversely,itmaybeargued
thattheplentifulisabetterthingthantherare,becausewecan
makemoreuseofit.Forwhatisoftenusefulsurpasseswhatisseldom
useful,whencethesaying:
"Thebestofthingsiswater."
Moregenerally:thehardthingisbetterthantheeasy,becauseit
israrer:andreversely,theeasythingisbetterthanthehard,for
itisaswewishittobe.Thatisthegreatergoodwhosecontrary
isthegreaterevil,andwhoselossaffectsusmore.Positivegoodness
andbadnessaremoreimportantthanthemereabsenceofgoodnessand
badness:forpositivegoodnessandbadnessareends,whichthemere
absenceofthemcannotbe.Further,inproportionasthefunctions
ofthingsarenobleorbase,thethingsthemselvesaregoodorbad:
conversely,inproportionasthethingsthemselvesaregoodorbad,
theirfunctionsalsoaregoodorbad;forthenatureofresultscorresponds
16/102
15/03/2015
withthatoftheircausesandbeginnings,andconverselythenature
ofcausesandbeginningscorrespondswiththatoftheirresults.Moreover,
thosethingsaregreatergoods,superiorityinwhichismoredesirable
ormorehonourable.Thus,keennessofsightismoredesirablethan
keennessofsmell,sightgenerallybeingmoredesirablethansmell
generally;andsimilarly,unusuallygreatloveoffriendsbeingmore
honourablethanunusuallygreatloveofmoney,ordinaryloveoffriends
ismorehonourablethanordinaryloveofmoney.Conversely,ifone
oftwonormalthingsisbetterornoblerthantheother,anunusual
degreeofthatthingisbetterornoblerthananunusualdegreeof
theother.Again,onethingismorehonourableorbetterthananother
ifitismorehonourableorbettertodesireit;theimportanceof
theobjectofagiveninstinctcorrespondstotheimportanceofthe
instinctitself;andforthesamereason,ifonethingismorehonourable
orbetterthananother,itismorehonourableandbettertodesire
it.Again,ifonescienceismorehonourableandvaluablethananother,
theactivitywithwhichitdealsisalsomorehonourableandvaluable;
asisthescience,soistherealitythatisitsobject,eachscience
beingauthoritativeinitsownsphere.So,also,themorevaluable
andhonourabletheobjectofascience,themorevaluableandhonourable
thescienceitselfisinconsequence.Again,thatwhichwouldbejudged,
orwhichhasbeenjudged,agoodthing,orabetterthingthansomething
else,byallormostpeopleofunderstanding,orbythemajorityof
men,orbytheablest,mustbeso;eitherwithoutqualification,or
insofarastheyusetheirunderstandingtoformtheirjudgement.
Thisisindeedageneralprinciple,applicabletoallotherjudgements
also;notonlythegoodnessofthings,buttheiressence,magnitude,
andgeneralnatureareinfactjustwhatknowledgeandunderstanding
willdeclarethemtobe.Heretheprincipleisappliedtojudgements
ofgoodness,sinceonedefinitionof'good'was'whatbeingsthat
acquireunderstandingwillchooseinanygivencase':fromwhichit
clearlyfollowsthatthatthingishetterwhichunderstandingdeclares
tobeso.That,again,isabetterthingwhichattachestobetter
men,eitherabsolutely,orinvirtueoftheirbeingbetter;ascourage
isbetterthanstrength.Andthatisagreatergoodwhichwouldbe
chosenbyabetterman,eitherabsolutely,orinvirtueofhisbeing
better:forinstance,tosufferwrongratherthantodowrong,for
thatwouldbethechoiceofthejusterman.Again,thepleasanter
oftwothingsisthebetter,sinceallthingspursuepleasure,and
thingsinstinctivelydesirepleasurablesensationforitsownsake;
andthesearetwoofthecharacteristicsbywhichthe'good'andthe
'end'havebeendefined.Onepleasureisgreaterthananotherifit
ismoreunmixedwithpain,ormorelasting.Again,thenoblerthing
isbetterthanthelessnoble,sincethenobleiseitherwhatispleasant
orwhatisdesirableinitself.Andthosethingsalsoaregreater
goodswhichmendesiremoreearnestlytobringaboutforthemselves
orfortheirfriends,whereasthosethingswhichtheyleastdesire
tobringaboutaregreaterevils.Andthosethingswhicharemore
lastingarebetterthanthosewhicharemorefleeting,andthemore
securethantheless;theenjoymentofthelastinghastheadvantage
ofbeinglonger,andthatofthesecurehastheadvantageofsuiting
ourwishes,beingthereforuswheneverwelike.Further,inaccordance
withtheruleofcoordinatetermsandinflexionsofthesamestem,
whatistrueofonesuchrelatedwordistrueofall.Thusifthe
actionqualifiedbytheterm'brave'ismorenobleanddesirablethan
theactionqualifiedbytheterm'temperate',then'bravery'ismore
desirablethan'temperance'and'beingbrave'than'beingtemperate'.
That,again,whichischosenbyallisagreatergoodthanthatwhich
isnot,andthatchosenbythemajoritythanthatchosenbytheminority.
Forthatwhichalldesireisgood,aswehavesaid;'andso,themore
athingisdesired,thebetteritis.Further,thatisthebetter
thingwhichisconsideredsobycompetitorsorenemies,or,again,
byauthorizedjudgesorthosewhomtheyselecttorepresentthem.
Inthefirsttwocasesthedecisionisvirtuallythatofeveryone,
inthelasttwothatofauthoritiesandexperts.Andsometimesit
17/102
15/03/2015
maybearguedthatwhatallshareisthebetterthing,sinceitis
adishonournottoshareinit;atothertimes,thatwhatnoneor
fewshareisbetter,sinceitisrarer.Themorepraiseworthythings
are,thenoblerandthereforethebettertheyare.Sowiththethings
thatearngreaterhonoursthanothershonouris,asitwere,ameasure
ofvalue;andthethingswhoseabsenceinvolvescomparativelyheavy
penalties;andthethingsthatarebetterthanothersadmittedor
believedtobegood.Moreover,thingslookbettermerelybybeing
dividedintotheirparts,sincetheythenseemtosurpassagreater
numberofthingsthanbefore.HenceHomersaysthatMeleagerwasroused
tobattlebythethoughtof
"Allhorrorsthatlightonafolkwhosecity
"ista'enoftheirfoes,
"Whentheyslaughterthemen,whentheburgis
"wastedwithraveningflame,
"Whenstrangersarehalingyoungchildrentothraldom,
"(fairwomentoshame.)"
Thesameeffectisproducedbypilingupfactsinaclimaxafterthe
mannerofEpicharmus.Thereasonispartlythesameasinthecase
ofdivision(forcombinationtoomakestheimpressionofgreatsuperiority),
andpartlythattheoriginalthingappearstobethecauseandorigin
ofimportantresults.Andsinceathingisbetterwhenitisharder
orrarerthanotherthings,itssuperioritymaybeduetoseasons,
ages,places,times,orone'snaturalpowers.Whenamanaccomplishes
somethingbeyondhisnaturalpower,orbeyondhisyears,orbeyond
themeasureofpeoplelikehim,orinaspecialway,orataspecial
placeortime,hisdeedwillhaveahighdegreeofnobleness,goodness,
andjustice,oroftheiropposites.Hencetheepigramonthevictor
attheOlympicgames:
"Intimepast,hearingaYokeonmyshoulders,
"ofwoodunshaven,
"Icarriedmyloadsoffishfrom,ArgostoTegeatown."
SoIphicratesusedtoextolhimselfbydescribingthelowestatefrom
whichhehadrisen.Again,whatisnaturalisbetterthanwhatis
acquired,sinceitishardertocomeby.HencethewordsofHomer:
"Ihavelearntfromnonebutmysell."
Andthebestpartofagoodthingisparticularlygood;aswhenPericles
inhisfuneralorationsaidthatthecountry'slossofitsyoungmen
inbattlewas'asifthespringweretakenoutoftheyear'.Sowith
thosethingswhichareofservicewhentheneedispressing;forexample,
inoldageandtimesofsickness.Andoftwothingsthatwhichleads
moredirectlytotheendinviewisthebetter.Sotooisthatwhich
isbetterforpeoplegenerallyaswellasforaparticularindividual.
Again,whatcanbegotisbetterthanwhatcannot,foritisgood
inagivencaseandtheotherthingisnot.Andwhatisattheend
oflifeisbetterthanwhatisnot,sincethosethingsareendsin
agreaterdegreewhicharenearertheend.Whataimsatrealityis
betterthanwhataimsatappearance.Wemaydefinewhataimsatappearance
aswhatamanwillnotchooseifnobodyistoknowofhishavingit.
Thiswouldseemtoshowthattoreceivebenefitsismoredesirable
thantoconferthem,sinceamanwillchoosetheformerevenifnobody
istoknowofit,butitisnotthegeneralviewthathewillchoose
18/102
15/03/2015
thelatterifnobodyknowsofit.Whatamanwantstobeisbetter
thanwhatamanwantstoseem,forinaimingatthatheisaiming
moreatreality.Hencemensaythatjusticeisofsmallvalue,since
itismoredesirabletoseemjustthantobejust,whereaswithhealth
itisnotso.Thatisbetterthanotherthingswhichismoreuseful
thantheyareforanumberofdifferentpurposes;forexample,that
whichpromoteslife,goodlife,pleasure,andnobleconduct.Forthis
reasonwealthandhealtharecommonlythoughttobeofthehighest
value,aspossessingalltheseadvantages.Again,thatisbetterthan
otherthingswhichisaccompaniedbothwithlesspainandwithactual
pleasure;forherethereismorethanoneadvantage;andsoherewe
havethegoodoffeelingpleasureandalsothegoodofnotfeeling
pain.Andoftwogoodthingsthatisthebetterwhoseadditionto
athirdthingmakesabetterwholethantheadditionoftheother
tothesamethingwillmake.Again,thosethingswhichweareseen
topossessarebetterthanthosewhichwearenotseentopossess,
sincetheformerhavetheairofreality.Hencewealthmayberegarded
asagreatergoodifitsexistenceisknowntoothers.Thatwhich
isdearlyprizedisbetterthanwhatisnotthesortofthingthat
somepeoplehaveonlyoneof,thoughothershavemorelikeit.Accordingly,
blindingaoneeyedmaninflictsworseinjurythanhalfblindinga
manwithtwoeyes;fortheoneeyedmanhasbeenrobbedofwhathe
dearlyprized.
Thegroundsonwhichwemustbaseourarguments,whenwearespeaking
fororagainstaproposal,havenowbeensetforthmoreorlesscompletely.
Part8
Themostimportantandeffectivequalificationforsuccessinpersuading
audiencesandspeakingwellonpublicaffairsistounderstandall
theformsofgovernmentandtodiscriminatetheirrespectivecustoms,
institutions,andinterests.Forallmenarepersuadedbyconsiderations
oftheirinterest,andtheirinterestliesinthemaintenanceofthe
establishedorder.Further,itrestswiththesupremeauthorityto
giveauthoritativedecisions,andthisvarieswitheachformofgovernment;
thereareasmanydifferentsupremeauthoritiesastherearedifferent
formsofgovernment.Theformsofgovernmentarefourdemocracy,oligarchy,
aristocracy,monarchy.Thesupremerighttojudgeanddecidealways
rests,therefore,witheitherapartorthewholeofoneorother
ofthesegoverningpowers.
ADemocracyisaformofgovernmentunderwhichthecitizensdistribute
theofficesofstateamongthemselvesbylot,whereasunderoligarchy
thereisapropertyqualification,underaristocracyoneofeducation.
ByeducationImeanthateducationwhichislaiddownbythelaw;
foritisthosewhohavebeenloyaltothenationalinstitutionsthat
holdofficeunderanaristocracy.Theseareboundtobelookedupon
as'thebestmen',anditisfromthisfactthatthisformofgovernment
hasderiveditsname('theruleofthebest').Monarchy,astheword
implies,istheconstitutionainwhichonemanhasauthorityover
all.Therearetwoformsofmonarchy:kingship,whichislimitedby
prescribedconditions,and'tyranny',whichisnotlimitedbyanything.
Wemustalsonoticetheendswhichthevariousformsofgovernment
pursue,sincepeoplechooseinpracticesuchactionsaswilllead
totherealizationoftheirends.Theendofdemocracyisfreedom;
ofoligarchy,wealth;ofaristocracy,themaintenanceofeducation
andnationalinstitutions;oftyranny,theprotectionofthetyrant.
Itisclear,then,thatwemustdistinguishthoseparticularcustoms,
institutions,andinterestswhichtendtorealizetheidealofeach
constitution,sincemenchoosetheirmeanswithreferencetotheir
ends.Butrhetoricalpersuasioniseffectednotonlybydemonstrative
butbyethicalargument;ithelpsaspeakertoconvinceus,ifwe
believethathehascertainqualitieshimself,namely,goodness,or
19/102
15/03/2015
goodwilltowardsus,orbothtogether.Similarly,weshouldknowthe
moralqualitiescharacteristicofeachformofgovernment,forthe
specialmoralcharacterofeachisboundtoprovideuswithourmost
effectivemeansofpersuasionindealingwithit.Weshalllearnthe
qualitiesofgovernmentsinthesamewayaswelearnthequalities
ofindividuals,sincetheyarerevealedintheirdeliberateactsof
choice;andthesearedeterminedbytheendthatinspiresthem.
Wehavenowconsideredtheobjects,immediateordistant,atwhich
wearetoaimwhenurginganyproposal,andthegroundsonwhichwe
aretobaseourargumentsinfavourofitsutility.Wehavealsobriefly
consideredthemeansandmethodsbywhichweshallgainagoodknowledge
ofthemoralqualitiesandinstitutionspeculiartothevariousforms
ofgovernmentonly,however,totheextentdemandedbythepresent
occasion;adetailedaccountofthesubjecthasbeengiveninthe
Politics.
Part9
WehavenowtoconsiderVirtueandVice,theNobleandtheBase,since
thesearetheobjectsofpraiseandblame.Indoingso,weshallat
thesametimebefindingouthowtomakeourhearerstaketherequired
viewofourowncharactersoursecondmethodofpersuasion.Theways
inwhichtomakethemtrustthegoodnessofotherpeoplearealso
thewaysinwhichtomakethemtrustourown.Praise,again,maybe
seriousorfrivolous;norisitalwaysofahumanordivinebeing
butoftenofinanimatethings,orofthehumblestoftheloweranimals.
Heretoowemustknowonwhatgroundstoargue,andmust,therefore,
nowdiscussthesubject,thoughbywayofillustrationonly.
TheNobleisthatwhichisbothdesirableforitsownsakeandalso
worthyofpraise;orthatwhichisbothgoodandalsopleasantbecause
good.IfthisisatruedefinitionoftheNoble,itfollowsthatvirtue
mustbenoble,sinceitisbothagoodthingandalsopraiseworthy.
Virtueis,accordingtotheusualview,afacultyofprovidingand
preservinggoodthings;orafacultyofconferringmanygreatbenefits,
andbenefitsofallkindsonalloccasions.TheformsofVirtueare
justice,courage,temperance,magnificence,magnanimity,liberality,
gentleness,prudence,wisdom.Ifvirtueisafacultyofbeneficence,
thehighestkindsofitmustbethosewhicharemostusefultoothers,
andforthisreasonmenhonourmostthejustandthecourageous,since
courageisusefultoothersinwar,justicebothinwarandinpeace.
Nextcomesliberality;liberalpeoplelettheirmoneygoinsteadof
fightingforit,whereasotherpeoplecaremoreformoneythanfor
anythingelse.Justiceisthevirtuethroughwhicheverybodyenjoys
hisownpossessionsinaccordancewiththelaw;itsoppositeisinjustice,
throughwhichmenenjoythepossessionsofothersindefianceofthe
law.Courageisthevirtuethatdisposesmentodonobledeedsin
situationsofdanger,inaccordancewiththelawandinobedience
toitscommands;cowardiceistheopposite.Temperanceisthevirtue
thatdisposesustoobeythelawwherephysicalpleasuresareconcerned;
incontinenceistheopposite.Liberalitydisposesustospendmoney
forothers'good;illiberalityistheopposite.Magnanimityisthe
virtuethatdisposesustodogoodtoothersonalargescale;[its
oppositeismeannessofspirit].Magnificenceisavirtueproductive
ofgreatnessinmattersinvolvingthespendingofmoney.Theopposites
ofthesetwoaresmallnessofspiritandmeannessrespectively.Prudence
isthatvirtueoftheunderstandingwhichenablesmentocometowise
decisionsabouttherelationtohappinessofthegoodsandevilsthat
havebeenpreviouslymentioned.
Theaboveisasufficientaccount,forourpresentpurpose,ofvirtue
andviceingeneral,andoftheirvariousforms.Astofurtheraspects
ofthesubject,itisnotdifficulttodiscernthefacts;itisevident
thatthingsproductiveofvirtuearenoble,astendingtowardsvirtue;
20/102
15/03/2015
andalsotheeffectsofvirtue,thatis,thesignsofitspresence
andtheactstowhichitleads.Andsincethesignsofvirtue,and
suchactsasitisthemarkofavirtuousmantodoorhavedoneto
him,arenoble,itfollowsthatalldeedsorsignsofcourage,and
everythingdonecourageously,mustbenoblethings;andsowithwhat
isjustandactionsdonejustly.(Not,however,actionsjustlydone
tous;herejusticeisunliketheothervirtues;'justly'doesnot
alwaysmean'nobly';whenamanispunished,itismoreshamefulthat
thisshouldbejustlythanunjustlydonetohim).Thesameistrue
oftheothervirtues.Again,thoseactionsarenobleforwhichthe
rewardissimplyhonour,orhonourmorethanmoney.Soarethosein
whichamanaimsatsomethingdesirableforsomeoneelse'ssake;
actionsgoodabsolutely,suchasthoseamandoesforhiscountry
withoutthinkingofhimself;actionsgoodintheirownnature;actions
thatarenotgoodsimplyfortheindividual,sinceindividualinterests
areselfish.Noblealsoarethoseactionswhoseadvantagemaybeenjoyed
afterdeath,asopposedtothosewhoseadvantageisenjoyedduring
one'slifetime:forthelatteraremorelikelytobeforone'sown
sakeonly.Also,allactionsdoneforthesakeofothers,sinceless
thanotheractionsaredoneforone'sownsake;andallsuccesses
whichbenefitothersandnotoneself;andservicesdonetoone'sbenefactors,
forthisisjust;andgooddeedsgenerally,sincetheyarenotdirected
toone'sownprofit.Andtheoppositesofthosethingsofwhichmen
feelashamed,formenareashamedofsaying,doing,orintendingto
doshamefulthings.SowhenAlcacussaid
"SomethingIfainwouldsaytothee,
"Onlyshamerestrainethme,"
Sapphowrote
"Ifforthingsgoodandnoblethouwertyearning,
"Iftospeakbasenesswerethytonguenotburning,
"Noloadofshamewouldonthineeyelidsweigh;
"Whatthouwithhonourwishestthouwouldstsay."
Thosethings,also,arenobleforwhichmenstriveanxiously,without
feelingfear;fortheyfeelthusaboutthegoodthingswhichlead
tofairfame.Again,onequalityoractionisnoblerthananother
ifitisthatofanaturallyfinerbeing:thusaman'swillbenobler
thanawoman's.Andthosequalitiesarenoblewhichgivemorepleasure
tootherpeoplethantotheirpossessors;hencethenoblenessofjustice
andjustactions.Itisnobletoavengeoneselfonone'senemiesand
nottocometotermswiththem;forrequitalisjust,andthejust
isnoble;andnottosurrenderisasignofcourage.Victory,too,
andhonourbelongtotheclassofnoblethings,sincetheyaredesirable
evenwhentheyyieldnofruits,andtheyproveoursuperiorityin
goodqualities.Thingsthatdeservetoberememberedarenoble,and
themoretheydeservethis,thenoblertheyare.Soarethethings
thatcontinueevenafterdeath;thosewhicharealwaysattendedby
honour;thosewhichareexceptional;andthosewhicharepossessed
byonepersonalonetheselastaremorereadilyrememberedthanothers.
Soagainarepossessionsthatbringnoprofit,sincetheyaremore
fittingthanothersforagentleman.Soarethedistinctivequalities
ofaparticularpeople,andthesymbolsofwhatitspeciallyadmires,
likelonghairinSparta,wherethisisamarkofafreeman,asit
isnoteasytoperformanymenialtaskwhenone'shairislong.Again,
itisnoblenottopractiseanysordidcraft,sinceitisthemark
ofafreemannottoliveatanother'sbeckandcall.Wearealso
toassumewhenwewisheithertopraiseamanorblamehimthatqualities
closelyalliedtothosewhichheactuallyhasareidenticalwiththem;
21/102
15/03/2015
forinstance,thatthecautiousmaniscoldbloodedandtreacherous,
andthatthestupidmanisanhonestfelloworthethickskinnedman
agoodtemperedone.Wecanalwaysidealizeanygivenmanbydrawing
onthevirtuesakintohisactualqualities;thuswemaysaythat
thepassionateandexcitablemanis'outspoken';orthatthearrogant
manis'superb'or'impressive'.Thosewhoruntoextremeswillbe
saidtopossessthecorrespondinggoodqualities;rashnesswillbe
calledcourage,andextravagancegenerosity.Thatwillbewhatmost
peoplethink;andatthesametimethismethodenablesanadvocate
todrawamisleadinginferencefromthemotive,arguingthatifa
manrunsintodangerneedlessly,muchmorewillhedosoinanoble
cause;andifamanisopenhandedtoanyoneandeveryone,hewill
besotohisfriendsalso,sinceitistheextremeformofgoodness
tobegoodtoeverybody.
Wemustalsotakeintoaccountthenatureofourparticularaudience
whenmakingaspeechofpraise;for,asSocratesusedtosay,'it
isnotdifficulttopraisetheAthenianstoanAthenianaudience.'
Iftheaudienceesteemsagivenquality,wemustsaythatourhero
hasthatquality,nomatterwhetherweareaddressingScythiansor
Spartansorphilosophers.Everything,infact,thatisesteemedwe
aretorepresentasnoble.Afterall,peopleregardthetwothings
asmuchthesame.
Allactionsarenoblethatareappropriatetothemanwhodoesthem:
if,forinstance,theyareworthyofhisancestorsorofhisownpast
career.Foritmakesforhappiness,andisanoblething,thathe
shouldaddtothehonourhealreadyhas.Eveninappropriateactions
arenobleiftheyarebetterandnoblerthantheappropriateones
wouldbe;forinstance,ifonewhowasjustanaveragepersonwhen
allwentwellbecomesaheroinadversity,orifhebecomesbetter
andeasiertogetonwiththehigherherises.Comparethesaying
oflphicrates,'ThinkwhatIwasandwhatIam';andtheepigramon
thevictorattheOlympicgames,
"Intimepast,bearingayokeonmyshoulders,
"ofwoodunshaven,"
andtheencomiumofSimonides,
"Awomanwhosefather,whosehusband,whose
"brethrenwereprincesall."
Sincewepraiseamanforwhathehasactuallydone,andfineactions
aredistinguishedfromothersbybeingintentionallygood,wemust
trytoprovethatourhero'snobleactsareintentional.Thisisall
theeasierifwecanmakeoutthathehasoftenactedsobefore,and
thereforewemustassertcoincidencesandaccidentstohavebeenintended.
Produceanumberofgoodactions,allofthesamekind,andpeople
willthinkthattheymusthavebeenintended,andthattheyprove
thegoodqualitiesofthemanwhodidthem.
Praiseistheexpressioninwordsoftheeminenceofaman'sgood
qualities,andthereforewemustdisplayhisactionsastheproduct
ofsuchqualities.Encomiumreferstowhathehasactuallydone;the
mentionofaccessories,suchasgoodbirthandeducation,merelyhelps
tomakeourstorycrediblegoodfathersarelikelytohavegoodsons,
andgoodtrainingislikelytoproducegoodcharacter.Henceitis
onlywhenamanhasalreadydonesomethingthatwebestowencomiums
uponhim.Yettheactualdeedsareevidenceofthedoer'scharacter:
evenifamanhasnotactuallydoneagivengoodthing,weshallbestow
praiseonhim,ifwearesurethatheisthesortofmanwhowould
doit.Tocallanyoneblestis,itmaybeadded,thesamethingas
22/102
15/03/2015
tocallhimhappy;butthesearenotthesamethingastobestowpraise
andencomiumuponhim;thetwolatterareapartof'callinghappy',
justasgoodnessisapartofhappiness.
Topraiseamanisinonerespectakintourgingacourseofaction.
Thesuggestionswhichwouldbemadeinthelattercasebecomeencomiums
whendifferentlyexpressed.Whenweknowwhatactionorcharacter
isrequired,then,inordertoexpressthesefactsassuggestions
foraction,wehavetochangeandreverseourformofwords.Thus
thestatement'Amanshouldbeproudnotofwhatheowestofortune
butofwhatheowestohimself',ifputlikethis,amountstoasuggestion;
tomakeitintopraisewemustputitthus,'Sinceheisproudnot
ofwhatheowestofortunebutofwhatheowestohimself.'Consequently,
wheneveryouwanttopraiseanyone,thinkwhatyouwouldurgepeople
todo;andwhenyouwanttourgethedoingofanything,thinkwhat
youwouldpraiseamanforhavingdone.Sincesuggestionmayormay
notforbidanaction,thepraiseintowhichweconvertitmusthave
oneorotheroftwooppositeformsofexpressionaccordingly.
Thereare,also,manyusefulwaysofheighteningtheeffectofpraise.
Wemust,forinstance,pointoutthatamanistheonlyone,orthe
first,oralmosttheonlyonewhohasdonesomething,orthathehas
doneitbetterthananyoneelse;allthesedistinctionsarehonourable.
Andwemust,further,makemuchoftheparticularseasonandoccasion
ofanaction,arguingthatwecouldhardlyhavelookedforitjust
then.Ifamanhasoftenachievedthesamesuccess,wemustmention
this;thatisastrongpoint;hehimself,andnotluck,willthen
begiventhecredit.So,too,ifitisonhisaccountthatobservances
havebeendevisedandinstitutedtoencourageorhonoursuchachievements
ashisown:thuswemaypraiseHippolochusbecausethefirstencomium
evermadewasforhim,orHarmodiusandAristogeitonbecausetheir
statueswerethefirsttobeputupinthemarketplace.Andwemay
censurebadmenfortheoppositereason.
Again,ifyoucannotfindenoughtosayofamanhimself,youmay
pithimagainstothers,whichiswhatIsocratesusedtodoowingto
hiswantoffamiliaritywithforensicpleading.Thecomparisonshould
bewithfamousmen;thatwillstrengthenyourcase;itisanoble
thingtosurpassmenwhoarethemselvesgreat.Itisonlynatural
thatmethodsof'heighteningtheeffect'shouldbeattachedparticularly
tospeechesofpraise;theyaimatprovingsuperiorityoverothers,
andanysuchsuperiorityisaformofnobleness.Henceifyoucannot
compareyourherowithfamousmen,youshouldatleastcomparehim
withotherpeoplegenerally,sinceanysuperiorityisheldtoreveal
excellence.And,ingeneral,ofthelinesofargumentwhicharecommon
toallspeeches,this'heighteningofeffect'ismostsuitablefor
declamations,wherewetakeourhero'sactionsasadmittedfacts,
andourbusinessissimplytoinvestthesewithdignityandnobility.
'Examples'aremostsuitabletodeliberativespeeches;forwejudge
offutureeventsbydivinationfrompastevents.Enthymemesaremost
suitabletoforensicspeeches;itisourdoubtsaboutpastevents
thatmostadmitofargumentsshowingwhyathingmusthavehappened
orprovingthatitdidhappen.
Theabovearethegenerallinesonwhichall,ornearlyall,speeches
ofpraiseorblameareconstructed.Wehaveseenthesortofthing
wemustbearinmindinmakingsuchspeeches,andthematerialsout
ofwhichencomiumsandcensuresaremade.Nospecialtreatmentof
censureandvituperationisneeded.Knowingtheabovefacts,weknow
theircontraries;anditisoutofthesethatspeechesofcensure
aremade.
Part10
WehavenexttotreatofAccusationandDefence,andtoenumerate
23/102
15/03/2015
anddescribetheingredientsofthesyllogismsusedtherein.There
arethreethingswemustascertainfirst,thenatureandnumberof
theincentivestowrongdoing;second,thestateofmindofwrongdoers;
third,thekindofpersonswhoarewronged,andtheircondition.We
willdealwiththesequestionsinorder.Butbeforethatletusdefine
theactof'wrongdoing'.
Wemaydescribe'wrongdoing'asinjuryvoluntarilyinflictedcontrary
tolaw.'Law'iseitherspecialorgeneral.ByspeciallawImean
thatwrittenlawwhichregulatesthelifeofaparticularcommunity;
bygenerallaw,allthoseunwrittenprincipleswhicharesupposed
tobeacknowledgedeverywhere.Wedothings'voluntarily'whenwe
dothemconsciouslyandwithoutconstraint.(Notallvoluntaryacts
aredeliberate,butalldeliberateactsareconsciousnooneisignorant
ofwhathedeliberatelyintends.)Thecausesofourdeliberatelyintending
harmfulandwickedactscontrarytolaware(1)vice,(2)lackof
selfcontrol.Forthewrongsamandoestootherswillcorrespond
tothebadqualityorqualitiesthathehimselfpossesses.Thusit
isthemeanmanwhowillwrongothersaboutmoney,theprofligate
inmattersofphysicalpleasure,theeffeminateinmattersofcomfort,
andthecowardwheredangerisconcernedhisterrormakeshimabandon
thosewhoareinvolvedinthesamedanger.Theambitiousmandoes
wrongforsakeofhonour,thequicktemperedfromanger,thelover
ofvictoryforthesakeofvictory,theembitteredmanforthesake
ofrevenge,thestupidmanbecausehehasmisguidednotionsofright
andwrong,theshamelessmanbecausehedoesnotmindwhatpeople
thinkofhim;andsowiththerestanywrongthatanyonedoesto
otherscorrespondstohisparticularfaultsofcharacter.
However,thissubjecthasalreadybeenclearedupinpartinourdiscussion
ofthevirtuesandwillbefurtherexplainedlaterwhenwetreatof
theemotions.Wehavenowtoconsiderthemotivesandstatesofmind
ofwrongdoers,andtowhomtheydowrong.
Letusfirstdecidewhatsortofthingspeoplearetryingtogetor
avoidwhentheysetaboutdoingwrongtoothers.Foritisplainthat
theprosecutormustconsider,outofalltheaimsthatcaneverinduce
ustodowrongtoourneighbours,howmany,andwhich,affecthis
adversary;whilethedefendantmustconsiderhowmany,andwhich,
donotaffecthim.Noweveryactionofeverypersoneitherisoris
notduetothatpersonhimself.Ofthosenotduetohimselfsomeare
duetochance,theotherstonecessity;oftheselatter,again,some
areduetocompulsion,theotherstonature.Consequentlyallactions
thatarenotduetoamanhimselfaredueeithertochanceortonature
ortocompulsion.Allactionsthatareduetoamanhimselfandcaused
byhimselfaredueeithertohabitortorationalorirrationalcraving.
Rationalcravingisacravingforgood,i.e.awishnobodywishes
foranythingunlesshethinksitgood.Irrationalcravingistwofold,
viz.angerandappetite.
Thuseveryactionmustbeduetooneorotherofsevencauses:chance,
nature,compulsion,habit,reasoning,anger,orappetite.Itissuperfluous
furthertodistinguishactionsaccordingtothedoers'ages,moral
states,orthelike;itisofcoursetruethat,forinstance,young
mendohavehottempersandstrongappetites;still,itisnotthrough
youththattheyactaccordingly,butthroughangerorappetite.Nor,
again,isactionduetowealthorpoverty;itisofcoursetruethat
poormen,beingshortofmoney,dohaveanappetiteforit,andthat
richmen,beingabletocommandneedlesspleasures,dohaveanappetite
forsuchpleasures:buthere,again,theiractionswillbeduenot
towealthorpovertybuttoappetite.Similarly,withjustmen,and
unjustmen,andallotherswhoaresaidtoactinaccordancewith
theirmoralqualities,theiractionswillreallybeduetooneof
thecausesmentionedeitherreasoningoremotion:due,indeed,sometimes
togooddispositionsandgoodemotions,andsometimestobad;but
24/102
15/03/2015
thatgoodqualitiesshouldbefollowedbygoodemotions,andbadby
bad,ismerelyanaccessoryfactitisnodoubttruethatthetemperate
man,forinstance,becauseheistemperate,isalwaysandatonce
attendedbyhealthyopinionsandappetitesinregardtopleasantthings,
andtheintemperatemanbyunhealthyones.Sowemustignoresuch
distinctions.Stillwemustconsiderwhatkindsofactionsandof
peopleusuallygotogether;forwhiletherearenodefinitekinds
ofactionassociatedwiththefactthatamanisfairordark,tall
orshort,itdoesmakeadifferenceifheisyoungorold,justor
unjust.And,generallyspeaking,allthoseaccessoryqualitiesthat
causedistinctionsofhumancharacterareimportant:e.g.thesense
ofwealthorpoverty,ofbeingluckyorunlucky.Thisshallbedealt
withlaterletusnowdealfirstwiththerestofthesubjectbefore
us.
Thethingsthathappenbychanceareallthosewhosecausecannot
bedetermined,thathavenopurpose,andthathappenneitheralways
norusuallynorinanyfixedway.Thedefinitionofchanceshowsjust
whattheyare.Thosethingshappenbynaturewhichhaveafixedand
internalcause;theytakeplaceuniformly,eitheralwaysorusually.
Thereisnoneedtodiscussinexactdetailthethingsthathappen
contrarytonature,nortoaskwhethertheyhappeninsomesensenaturally
orfromsomeothercause;itwouldseemthatchanceisatleastpartly
thecauseofsuchevents.Thosethingshappenthroughcompulsionwhich
takeplacecontrarytothedesireorreasonofthedoer,yetthrough
hisownagency.Actsaredonefromhabitwhichmendobecausethey
haveoftendonethembefore.Actionsareduetoreasoningwhen,in
viewofanyofthegoodsalreadymentioned,theyappearusefuleither
asendsorasmeanstoanend,andareperformedforthatreason:
'forthatreason,'sinceevenlicentiouspersonsperformacertain
numberofusefulactions,butbecausetheyarepleasantandnotbecause
theyareuseful.Topassionandangeraredueallactsofrevenge.
Revengeandpunishmentaredifferentthings.Punishmentisinflicted
forthesakeofthepersonpunished;revengeforthatofthepunisher,
tosatisfyhisfeelings.(Whatangeriswillbemadeclearwhenwe
cometodiscusstheemotions.)Appetiteisthecauseofallactions
thatappearpleasant.Habit,whetheracquiredbymerefamiliarity
orbyeffort,belongstotheclassofpleasantthings,forthereare
manyactionsnotnaturallypleasantwhichmenperformwithpleasure,
oncetheyhavebecomeusedtothem.Tosumupthen,allactionsdue
toourselveseitherareorseemtobeeithergoodorpleasant.Moreover,
asallactionsduetoourselvesaredonevoluntarilyandactionsnot
duetoourselvesaredoneinvoluntarily,itfollowsthatallvoluntary
actionsmusteitherbeorseemtobeeithergoodorpleasant;for
Ireckonamonggoodsescapefromevilsorapparentevilsandtheexchange
ofagreaterevilforaless(sincethesethingsareinasensepositively
desirable),andlikewiseIcountamongpleasuresescapefrompainful
orapparentlypainfulthingsandtheexchangeofagreaterpainfor
aless.Wemustascertain,then,thenumberandnatureofthethings
thatareusefulandpleasant.Theusefulhasbeenpreviouslyexamined
inconnexionwithpoliticaloratory;letusnowproceedtoexamine
thepleasant.Ourvariousdefinitionsmustberegardedasadequate,
eveniftheyarenotexact,providedtheyareclear.
Part11
WemaylayitdownthatPleasureisamovement,amovementbywhich
thesoulasawholeisconsciouslybroughtintoitsnormalstateof
being;andthatPainistheopposite.Ifthisiswhatpleasureis,
itisclearthatthepleasantiswhattendstoproducethiscondition,
whilethatwhichtendstodestroyit,ortocausethesoultobebrought
intotheoppositestate,ispainful.Itmustthereforebepleasant
asaruletomovetowardsanaturalstateofbeing,particularlywhen
anaturalprocesshasachievedthecompleterecoveryofthatnatural
state.Habitsalsoarepleasant;forassoonasathinghasbecome
25/102
15/03/2015
habitual,itisvirtuallynatural;habitisathingnotunlikenature;
whathappensoftenisakintowhathappensalways,naturalevents
happeningalways,habitualeventsoften.Again,thatispleasantwhich
isnotforcedonus;forforceisunnatural,andthatiswhywhat
iscompulsory,painful,andithasbeenrightlysaid
"Allthatisdoneoncompulsionisbitternessuntothesoul.
"
Soallactsofconcentration,strongeffort,andstrainarenecessarily
painful;theyallinvolvecompulsionandforce,unlessweareaccustomed
tothem,inwhichcaseitiscustomthatmakesthempleasant.The
oppositestothesearepleasant;andhenceease,freedomfromtoil,
relaxation,amusement,rest,andsleepbelongtotheclassofpleasant
things;fortheseareallfreefromanyelementofcompulsion.Everything,
too,ispleasantforwhichwehavethedesirewithinus,sincedesire
isthecravingforpleasure.Ofthedesiressomeareirrational,some
associatedwithreason.ByirrationalImeanthosewhichdonotarise
fromanyopinionheldbythemind.Ofthiskindarethoseknownas
'natural';forinstance,thoseoriginatinginthebody,suchasthe
desirefornourishment,namelyhungerandthirst,andaseparatekind
ofdesireansweringtoeachkindofnourishment;andthedesiresconnected
withtasteandsexandsensationsoftouchingeneral;andthoseof
smell,hearing,andvision.Rationaldesiresarethosewhichweare
inducedtohave;therearemanythingswedesiretoseeorgetbecause
wehavebeentoldofthemandinducedtobelievethemgood.Further,
pleasureistheconsciousnessthroughthesensesofacertainkind
ofemotion;butimaginationisafeeblesortofsensation,andthere
willalwaysbeinthemindofamanwhoremembersorexpectssomething
animageorpictureofwhatheremembersorexpects.Ifthisisso,
itisclearthatmemoryandexpectationalso,beingaccompaniedby
sensation,maybeaccompaniedbypleasure.Itfollowsthatanything
pleasantiseitherpresentandperceived,pastandremembered,or
futureandexpected,sinceweperceivepresentpleasures,remember
pastones,andexpectfutureones.Nowthethingsthatarepleasant
torememberarenotonlythosethat,whenactuallyperceivedaspresent,
werepleasant,butalsosomethingsthatwerenot,providedthattheir
resultshavesubsequentlyprovednobleandgood.Hencethewords
"Sweet'tiswhenrescuedtorememberpain,"
and
"Evenhisgriefsareajoylongaftertoonethatremembers
"Allthathewroughtandendured."
Thereasonofthisisthatitispleasanteventobemerelyfree
fromevil.Thethingsitispleasanttoexpectarethosethatwhen
presentarefelttoafforduseithergreatdelightorgreatbutnot
painfulbenefit.Andingeneral,allthethingsthatdelightuswhen
theyarepresentalsodoso,asarule,whenwemerelyrememberor
expectthem.HenceevenbeingangryispleasantHomersaidofwrath
that
"Sweeteritisbyfarthanthehoneycombdrippingwithsweetness
"
fornoonegrowsangrywithapersononwhomthereisnoprospect
oftakingvengeance,andwefeelcomparativelylittleanger,ornone
atall,withthosewhoaremuchoursuperiorsinpower.Somepleasant
feelingisassociatedwithmostofourappetitesweareenjoyingeither
thememoryofapastpleasureortheexpectationofafutureone,
justaspersonsdownwithfever,duringtheirattacksofthirst,enjoy
rememberingthedrinkstheyhavehadandlookingforwardtohaving
26/102
15/03/2015
more.Soalsoaloverenjoystalkingorwritingabouthislovedone,
ordoinganylittlethingconnectedwithhim;allthesethingsrecall
himtomemoryandmakehimactuallypresenttotheeyeofimagination.
Indeed,itisalwaysthefirstsignoflove,thatbesidesenjoying
someone'spresence,werememberhimwhenheisgone,andfeelpain
aswellaspleasure,becauseheistherenolonger.Similarlythere
isanelementofpleasureeveninmourningandlamentationforthe
departed.Thereisgrief,indeed,athisloss,butpleasureinremembering
himandasitwereseeinghimbeforeusinhisdeedsandinhislife.
Wecanwellbelievethepoetwhenhesays
"Hespake,andineachman'sheartheawakened
"theloveoflament."
Revenge,too,ispleasant;itispleasanttogetanythingthatit
ispainfultofailtoget,andangrypeoplesufferextremepainwhen
theyfailtogettheirrevenge;buttheyenjoytheprospectofgetting
it.Victoryalsoispleasant,andnotmerelyto'badlosers',but
toeveryone;thewinnerseeshimselfinthelightofachampion,
andeverybodyhasamoreorlesskeenappetiteforbeingthat.The
pleasantnessofvictoryimpliesofcoursethatcombativesportsand
intellectualcontestsarepleasant(sinceintheseitoftenhappens
thatsomeonewins)andalsogameslikeknucklebones,ball,dice,
anddraughts.Andsimilarlywiththeserioussports;someofthese
becomepleasantwhenoneisaccustomedtothem;whileothersarepleasant
fromthefirst,likehuntingwithhounds,orindeedanykindofhunting.
Forwherethereiscompetition,thereisvictory.Thatiswhyforensic
pleadinganddebatingcontestsarepleasanttothosewhoareaccustomed
tothemandhavethecapacityforthem.Honourandgoodreputeare
amongthemostpleasantthingsofall;theymakeamanseehimself
inthecharacterofafinefellow,especiallywhenheiscredited
withitbypeoplewhomhethinksgoodjudges.Hisneighboursarebetter
judgesthanpeopleatadistance;hisassociatesandfellowcountrymen
betterthanstrangers;hiscontemporariesbetterthanposterity;sensible
personsbetterthanfoolishones;alargenumberofpeoplebetter
thanasmallnumber:thoseoftheformerclass,ineachcase,are
themorelikelytobegoodjudgesofhim.Honourandcreditbestowed
bythosewhomyouthinkmuchinferiortoyourselfe.g.childrenor
animalsyoudonotvalue:notforitsownsake,anyhow:ifyoudo
valueit,itisforsomeotherreason.Friendsbelongtotheclass
ofpleasantthings;itispleasanttoloveifyoulovewine,youcertainly
finditdelightful:anditispleasanttobeloved,forthistoomakes
amanseehimselfasthepossessorofgoodness,athingthatevery
beingthathasafeelingforitdesirestopossess:tobelovedmeans
tobevaluedforone'sownpersonalqualities.Tobeadmiredisalso
pleasant,simplybecauseofthehonourimplied.Flatteryandflatterers
arepleasant:theflattererisamanwho,youbelieve,admiresand
likesTodothesamethingoftenispleasant,since,aswesaw,anything
habitualispleasant.Andtochangeisalsopleasant:changemeans
anapproachtonature,whereasinvariablerepetitionofanythingcauses
theexcessiveprolongationofasettledcondition:therefore,says
thepoet,
"Changeisinallthingssweet."
Thatiswhywhatcomestousonlyatlongintervalsispleasant,
whetheritbeapersonorathing;foritisachangefromwhatwe
hadbefore,and,besides,whatcomesonlyatlongintervalshasthe
valueofrarity.Learningthingsandwonderingatthingsarealso
pleasantasarule;wonderingimpliesthedesireoflearning,sothat
theobjectofwonderisanobjectofdesire;whileinlearningone
isbroughtintoone'snaturalcondition.Conferringandreceiving
benefitsbelongtotheclassofpleasantthings;toreceiveabenefit
istogetwhatonedesires;toconferabenefitimpliesbothposses
27/102
15/03/2015
sionandsuperiority,bothofwhicharethingswetrytoattain.It
isbecausebeneficentactsarepleasantthatpeoplefinditpleasant
toputtheirneighboursstraightagainandtosupplywhattheylack.
Again,sincelearningandwonderingarepleasant,itfollowsthat
suchthingsasactsofimitationmustbepleasantforinstance,painting,
sculpture,poetryandeveryproductofskilfulimitation;thislatter,
eveniftheobjectimitatedisnotitselfpleasant;foritisnot
theobjectitselfwhichheregivesdelight;thespectatordrawsinferences
('Thatisasoandso')andthuslearnssomethingfresh.Dramatic
turnsoffortuneandhairbreadthescapesfromperilsarepleasant,
becausewefeelallsuchthingsarewonderful.
Andsincewhatisnaturalispleasant,andthingsakintoeachother
seemnaturaltoeachother,thereforeallkindredandsimilarthings
areusuallypleasanttoeachother;forinstance,oneman,horse,
oryoungpersonispleasanttoanotherman,horse,oryoungperson.
Hencetheproverbs'matedelightsmate','liketolike','beastknows
beast','jackdawtojackdaw',andtherestofthem.Butsinceeverything
likeandakintooneselfispleasant,andsinceeverymanishimself
morelikeandakintohimselfthananyoneelseis,itfollowsthat
allofusmustbemoreorlessfondofourselves.Forallthisresemblance
andkinshipispresentparticularlyintherelationofanindividual
tohimself.Andbecauseweareallfondofourselves,itfollowsthat
whatisourownispleasanttoallofus,asforinstanceourown
deedsandwords.Thatiswhyweareusuallyfondofourflatterers,
[ourlovers,]andhonour;alsoofourchildren,forourchildrenare
ourownwork.Itisalsopleasanttocompletewhatisdefective,for
thewholethingthereuponbecomesourownwork.Andsincepowerover
othersisverypleasant,itispleasanttobethoughtwise,forpractical
wisdomsecuresuspoweroverothers.(Scientificwisdomisalsopleasant,
becauseitistheknowledgeofmanywonderfulthings.)Again,since
mostofusareambitious,itmustbepleasanttodisparageourneighbours
aswellastohavepoweroverthem.Itispleasantforamantospend
histimeoverwhathefeelshecandobest;justasthepoetsays,
"Tothathebendshimself,
"Tothateachdayallotsmosttime,wherein
"Heisindeedthebestpartofhimself."
Similarly,sinceamusementandeverykindofrelaxationandlaughter
toobelongtotheclassofpleasantthings,itfollowsthatludicrous
thingsarepleasant,whethermen,words,ordeeds.Wehavediscussed
theludicrousseparatelyinthetreatiseontheArtofPoetry.
Somuchforthesubjectofpleasantthings:byconsideringtheiropposites
wecaneasilyseewhatthingsareunpleasant.
Part12
Theabovearethemotivesthatmakemendowrongtoothers;weare
nexttoconsiderthestatesofmindinwhichtheydoit,andthepersons
towhomtheydoit.
Theymustthemselvessupposethatthethingcanbedone,anddone
bythem:eitherthattheycandoitwithoutbeingfoundout,orthat
iftheyarefoundouttheycanescapebeingpunished,orthatifthey
arepunishedthedisadvantagewillbelessthanthegainforthemselves
orthosetheycarefor.Thegeneralsubjectofapparentpossibility
andimpossibilitywillbehandledlateron,sinceitisrelevantnot
onlytoforensicbuttoallkindsofspeaking.Butitmayherebe
saidthatpeoplethinkthattheycanthemselvesmosteasilydowrong
tootherswithoutbeingpunishedforitiftheypossesseloquence,
orpracticalability,ormuchlegalexperience,oralargebodyof
28/102
15/03/2015
friends,oragreatdealofmoney.Theirconfidenceisgreatestif
theypersonallypossesstheadvantagesmentioned:butevenwithout
themtheyaresatisfiediftheyhavefriendsorsupportersorpartners
whodopossessthem:theycanthusbothcommittheircrimesandescape
beingfoundoutandpunishedforcommittingthem.Theyarealsosafe,
theythink,iftheyareongoodtermswiththeirvictimsorwiththe
judgeswhotrythem.Theirvictimswillinthatcasenotbeontheir
guardagainstbeingwronged,andwillmakesomearrangementwiththem
insteadofprosecuting;whiletheirjudgeswillfavourthembecause
theylikethem,eitherlettingthemoffaltogetherorimposinglight
sentences.Theyarenotlikelytobefoundoutiftheirappearance
contradictsthechargesthatmightbebroughtagainstthem:forinstance,
aweaklingisunlikelytobechargedwithviolentassault,orapoor
anduglymanwithadultery.Publicandopeninjuriesaretheeasiest
todo,becausenobodycouldatallsupposethempossible,andtherefore
noprecautionsaretaken.Thesameistrueofcrimessogreatand
terriblethatnomanlivingcouldbesuspectedofthem:heretoono
precautionsaretaken.Forallmenguardagainstordinaryoffences,
justastheyguardagainstordinarydiseases;butnoonetakesprecautions
againstadiseasethatnobodyhaseverhad.Youfeelsafe,too,if
youhaveeithernoenemiesoragreatmany;ifyouhavenone,you
expectnottobewatchedandthereforenottobedetected;ifyou
haveagreatmany,youwillbewatched,andthereforepeoplewill
thinkyoucanneverriskanattemptonthem,andyoucandefendyour
innocencebypointingoutthatyoucouldneverhavetakensucharisk.
Youmayalsotrusttohideyourcrimebythewayyoudoitorthe
placeyoudoitin,orbysomeconvenientmeansofdisposal.
Youmayfeelthatevenifyouarefoundoutyoucanstaveoffatrial,
orhaveitpostponed,orcorruptyourjudges:orthatevenifyou
aresentencedyoucanavoidpayingdamages,orcanatleastpostpone
doingsoforalongtime:orthatyouaresobadlyoffthatyouwill
havenothingtolose.Youmayfeelthatthegaintobegotbywrongdoing
isgreatorcertainorimmediate,andthatthepenaltyissmallor
uncertainordistant.Itmaybethattheadvantagetobegainedis
greaterthananypossibleretribution:asinthecaseofdespotic
power,accordingtothepopularview.Youmayconsideryourcrimes
asbringingyousolidprofit,whiletheirpunishmentisnothingmore
thanbeingcalledbadnames.Ortheoppositeargumentmayappealto
you:yourcrimesmaybringyousomecredit(thusyoumay,incidentally,
beavengingyourfatherormother,likeZeno),whereasthepunishment
mayamounttoafine,orbanishment,orsomethingofthatsort.People
maybeledontowrongothersbyeitherofthesemotivesorfeelings;
butnomanbyboththeywillaffectpeopleofquiteoppositecharacters.
Youmaybeencouragedbyhavingoftenescapeddetectionorpunishment
already;orbyhavingoftentriedandfailed;forincrime,asin
war,therearemenwhowillalwaysrefusetogiveupthestruggle.
Youmaygetyourpleasureonthespotandthepainlater,orthegain
onthespotandthelosslater.Thatiswhatappealstoweakwilled
personsandweaknessofwillmaybeshownwithregardtoallthe
objectsofdesire.Itmayonthecontraryappealtoyouasitdoes
appealtoselfcontrolledandsensiblepeoplethatthepainandloss
areimmediate,whilethepleasureandprofitcomelaterandlastlonger.
Youmayfeelabletomakeitappearthatyourcrimewasduetochance,
ortonecessity,ortonaturalcauses,ortohabit:infact,toput
itgenerally,asifyouhadfailedtodorightratherthanactually
donewrong.Youmaybeabletotrustotherpeopletojudgeyouequitably.
Youmaybestimulatedbybeinginwant:whichmaymeanthatyouwant
necessaries,aspoorpeopledo,orthatyouwantluxuries,asrich
peopledo.Youmaybeencouragedbyhavingaparticularlygoodreputation,
becausethatwillsaveyoufrombeingsuspected:orbyhavingaparticularly
badone,becausenothingyouarelikelytodowillmakeitworse.
Theabove,then,arethevariousstatesofmindinwhichamansets
aboutdoingwrongtoothers.Thekindofpeopletowhomhedoeswrong,
29/102
15/03/2015
andthewaysinwhichhedoesit,mustbeconsiderednext.Thepeople
towhomhedoesitarethosewhohavewhathewantshimself,whether
thismeansnecessitiesorluxuriesandmaterialsforenjoyment.His
victimsmaybefaroffornearathand.Iftheyarenear,hegets
hisprofitquickly;iftheyarefaroff,vengeanceisslow,asthose
thinkwhoplundertheCarthaginians.Theymaybethosewhoaretrustful
insteadofbeingcautiousandwatchful,sinceallsuchpeopleare
easytoelude.Orthosewhoaretooeasygoingtohaveenoughenergy
toprosecuteanoffender.Orsensitivepeople,whoarenotaptto
showfightoverquestionsofmoney.Orthosewhohavebeenwronged
alreadybymanypeople,andyethavenotprosecuted;suchmenmust
surelybetheproverbial'Mysianprey'.Orthosewhohaveeithernever
oroftenbeenwrongedbefore;inneithercasewilltheytakeprecautions;
iftheyhaveneverbeenwrongedtheythinktheyneverwill,andif
theyhaveoftenbeenwrongedtheyfeelthatsurelyitcannothappen
again.Orthosewhosecharacterhasbeenattackedinthepast,or
isexposedtoattackinthefuture:theywillbetoomuchfrightened
ofthejudgestomakeuptheirmindstoprosecute,norcantheywin
theircaseiftheydo:thisistrueofthosewhoarehatedorunpopular.
Anotherlikelyclassofvictimisthosewhotheirinjurercanpretend
have,themselvesorthroughtheirancestorsorfriends,treatedbadly,
orintendedtotreatbadly,themanhimself,orhisancestors,or
thosehecaresfor;astheproverbsays,'wickednessneedsbutapretext'.
Amanmaywronghisenemies,becausethatispleasant:hemayequally
wronghisfriends,becausethatiseasy.Thentherearethosewho
havenofriends,andthosewholackeloquenceandpracticalcapacity;
thesewilleithernotattempttoprosecute,ortheywillcometoterms,
orfailingthattheywilllosetheircase.Therearethosewhomit
doesnotpaytowastetimeinwaitingfortrialordamages,suchas
foreignersandsmallfarmers;theywillsettleforatrifle,andalways
bereadytoleaveoff.Alsothosewhohavethemselveswrongedothers,
eitheroften,orinthesamewayastheyarenowbeingwrongedthemselvesfor
itisfeltthatnexttonowrongisdonetopeoplewhenitisthe
samewrongastheyhaveoftenthemselvesdonetoothers:if,forinstance,
youassaultamanwhohasbeenaccustomedtobehavewithviolence
toothers.Sotoowiththosewhohavedonewrongtoothers,orhave
meantto,ormeanto,orarelikelytodoso;thereissomethingfine
andpleasantinwrongingsuchpersons,itseemsasthoughalmostno
wrongweredone.Alsothosebydoingwrongtowhomweshallbegratifying
ourfriends,orthoseweadmireorlove,orourmasters,oringeneral
thepeoplebyreferencetowhomwemouldourlives.Alsothosewhom
wemaywrongandyetbesureofequitabletreatment.Alsothoseagainst
whomwehavehadanygrievance,oranypreviousdifferenceswiththem,
asCallippushadwhenhebehavedashedidtoDion:heretooitseems
asifalmostnowrongwerebeingdone.Alsothosewhoareonthepoint
ofbeingwrongedbyothersifwefailtowrongthemourselves,since
herewefeelwehavenotimeleftforthinkingthematterover.So
Aenesidemusissaidtohavesentthe'cottabus'prizetoGelon,who
hadjustreducedatowntoslavery,becauseGelonhadgottherefirst
andforestalledhisownattempt.Alsothosebywrongingwhomweshall
beabletodomanyrighteousacts;forwefeelthatwecantheneasily
curetheharmdone.ThusJasontheThessaliansaidthatitisaduty
todosomeunjustactsinordertobeabletodomanyjustones.
Amongthekindsofwrongdonetoothersarethosethataredoneuniversally,
oratleastcommonly:oneexpectstobeforgivenfordoingthese.
Alsothosethatcaneasilybekeptdark,aswherethingsthatcan
rapidlybeconsumedlikeeatablesareconcerned,orthingsthatcan
easilybechangedinshape,colour,orcombination,orthingsthat
caneasilybestowedawayalmostanywhereportableobjectsthatyou
canstowawayinsmallcorners,orthingssolikeothersofwhich
youhaveplentyalreadythatnobodycantellthedifference.There
arealsowrongsofakindthatshamepreventsthevictimspeaking
about,suchasoutragesdonetothewomeninhishouseholdortohimself
ortohissons.Alsothoseforwhichyouwouldbethoughtverylitigious
30/102
15/03/2015
toprosecuteanyonetriflingwrongs,orwrongsforwhichpeopleare
usuallyexcused.
Theaboveisafairlycompleteaccountofthecircumstancesunder
whichmendowrongtoothers,ofthesortofwrongstheydo,ofthe
sortofpersonstowhomtheydothem,andoftheirreasonsfordoing
them.
Part13
Itwillnowbewelltomakeacompleteclassificationofjustand
unjustactions.Wemaybeginbyobservingthattheyhavebeendefined
relativelytotwokindsoflaw,andalsorelativelytotwoclasses
ofpersons.BythetwokindsoflawImeanparticularlawanduniversal
law.Particularlawisthatwhicheachcommunitylaysdownandapplies
toitsownmembers:thisispartlywrittenandpartlyunwritten.Universal
lawisthelawofNature.Fortherereallyis,aseveryonetosome
extentdivines,anaturaljusticeandinjusticethatisbindingon
allmen,evenonthosewhohavenoassociationorcovenantwitheach
other.ItisthisthatSophocles'Antigoneclearlymeanswhenshe
saysthattheburialofPolyneiceswasajustactinspiteofthe
prohibition:shemeansthatitwasjustbynature.
"Notoftodayoryesterdayitis,
"Butliveseternal:nonecandateitsbirth."
AndsoEmpedocles,whenhebidsuskillnolivingcreature,says
thatdoingthisisnotjustforsomepeoplewhileunjustforothers,
"Nay,but,anallembracinglaw,throughtherealmsofthesky
"Unbrokenitstretcheth,andovertheearth'simmensity.
"
AndasAlcidamassaysinhisMesseniacOration....
Theactionsthatweoughttodoornottodohavealsobeendivided
intotwoclassesasaffectingeitherthewholecommunityorsomeone
ofitsmembers.Fromthispointofviewwecanperformjustorunjust
actsineitheroftwowaystowardsonedefiniteperson,ortowards
thecommunity.Themanwhoisguiltyofadulteryorassaultisdoing
wrongtosomedefiniteperson;themanwhoavoidsserviceinthearmy
isdoingwrongtothecommunity.
Thusthewholeclassofunjustactionsmaybedividedintotwoclasses,
thoseaffectingthecommunity,andthoseaffectingoneormoreother
persons.Wewillnext,beforegoingfurther,remindourselvesofwhat
'beingwronged'means.Sinceithasalreadybeensettledthat'doing
awrong'mustbeintentional,'beingwronged'mustconsistinhaving
aninjurydonetoyoubysomeonewhointendstodoit.Inorderto
bewronged,amanmust(1)sufferactualharm,(2)sufferitagainst
hiswill.Thevariouspossibleformsofharmareclearlyexplained
byourprevious,separatediscussionofgoodsandevils.Wehavealso
seenthatavoluntaryactionisonewherethedoerknowswhatheis
doing.Wenowseethateveryaccusationmustbeofanactionaffecting
eitherthecommunityorsomeindividual.Thedoeroftheactionmust
eitherunderstandandintendtheaction,ornotunderstandandintend
it.Intheformercase,hemustbeactingeitherfromdeliberatechoice
orfrompassion.(Angerwillbediscussedwhenwespeakofthepassions
themotivesforcrimeandthestateofmindofthecriminalhavealready
beendiscussed.)Nowitoftenhappensthatamanwilladmitanact,
butwillnotadmittheprosecutor'slabelfortheactnorthefacts
whichthatlabelimplies.Hewilladmitthathetookathingbutnot
thathe'stole'it;thathestrucksomeonefirst,butnotthathe
31/102
15/03/2015
committed'outrage';thathehadintercoursewithawoman,butnot
thathecommitted'adultery';thatheisguiltyoftheft,butnot
thatheisguiltyof'sacrilege',theobjectstolennotbeingconsecrated;
thathehasencroached,butnotthathehas'encroachedonStatelands';
thathehasbeenincommunicationwiththeenemy,butnotthathe
hasbeenguiltyof'treason'.Herethereforewemustbeabletodistinguish
whatistheft,outrage,oradultery,fromwhatisnot,ifweareto
beabletomakethejusticeofourcaseclear,nomatterwhetherour
aimistoestablishaman'sguiltortoestablishhisinnocence.Wherever
suchchargesarebroughtagainstaman,thequestioniswhetherhe
isorisnotguiltyofacriminaloffence.Itisdeliberatepurpose
thatconstituteswickednessandcriminalguilt,andsuchnamesas
'outrage'or'theft'implydeliberatepurposeaswellasthemere
action.Ablowdoesnotalwaysamountto'outrage',butonlyifit
isstruckwithsomesuchpurposeastoinsultthemanstruckorgratify
thestrikerhimself.Nordoestakingathingwithouttheowner'sknowledge
alwaysamountto'theft',butonlyifitistakenwiththeintention
ofkeepingitandinjuringtheowner.Andaswiththesecharges,so
withalltheothers.
Wesawthattherearetwokindsofrightandwrongconducttowards
others,oneprovidedforbywrittenordinances,theotherbyunwritten.
Wehavenowdiscussedthekindaboutwhichthelawshavesomething
tosay.Theotherkindhasitselftwovarieties.First,thereisthe
conductthatspringsfromexceptionalgoodnessorbadness,andis
visitedaccordinglywithcensureandlossofhonour,orwithpraise
andincreaseofhonouranddecorations:forinstance,gratitudeto,
orrequitalof,ourbenefactors,readinesstohelpourfriends,and
thelike.Thesecondkindmakesupforthedefectsofacommunity's
writtencodeoflaw.Thisiswhatwecallequity;peopleregardit
asjust;itis,infact,thesortofjusticewhichgoesbeyondthe
writtenlaw.Itsexistencepartlyisandpartlyisnotintendedby
legislators;notintended,wheretheyhavenoticednodefectinthe
law;intended,wherefindthemselvesunabletodefinethingsexactly,
andareobligedtolegislateasifthatheldgoodalwayswhichin
factonlyholdsgoodusually;orwhereitisnoteasytobecomplete
owingtotheendlesspossiblecasespresented,suchasthekindsand
sizesofweaponsthatmaybeusedtoinflictwoundsalifetimewould
betooshorttomakeoutacompletelistofthese.If,then,aprecise
statementisimpossibleandyetlegislationisnecessary,thelaw
mustbeexpressedinwideterms;andso,ifamanhasnomorethan
afingerringonhishandwhenheliftsittostrikeoractuallystrikes
anotherman,heisguiltyofacriminalactaccordingtotheunwritten
wordsofthelaw;butheisinnocentreally,anditisequitythat
declareshimtobeso.Fromthisdefinitionofequityitisplain
whatsortofactions,andwhatsortofpersons,areequitableorthe
reverse.Equitymustbeappliedtoforgivableactions;anditmust
makeusdistinguishbetweencriminalactsontheonehand,anderrors
ofjudgement,ormisfortunes,ontheother.(A'misfortune'isan
act,notduetomoralbadness,thathasunexpectedresults:an'error
ofjudgement'isanact,alsonotduetomoralbadness,thathasresults
thatmighthavebeenexpected:a'criminalact'hasresultsthatmight
havebeenexpected,butisduetomoralbadness,forthatisthesource
ofallactionsinspiredbyourappetites.)Equitybidsusbemerciful
totheweaknessofhumannature;tothinklessaboutthelawsthan
aboutthemanwhoframedthem,andlessaboutwhathesaidthanabout
whathemeant;nottoconsidertheactionsoftheaccusedsomuch
ashisintentions,northisorthatdetailsomuchasthewholestory;
toasknotwhatamanisnowbutwhathehasalwaysorusuallybeen.
Itbidsusrememberbenefitsratherthaninjuries,andbenefitsreceived
ratherthanbenefitsconferred;tobepatientwhenwearewronged;
tosettleadisputebynegotiationandnotbyforce;topreferarbitration
tomotionforanarbitratorgoesbytheequityofacase,ajudge
bythestrictlaw,andarbitrationwasinventedwiththeexpresspurpose
ofsecuringfullpowerforequity.
32/102
15/03/2015
Theabovemaybetakenasasufficientaccountofthenatureofequity.
Part14
Theworseoftwoactsofwrongdonetoothersisthatwhichisprompted
bytheworsedisposition.Hencethemosttriflingactsmaybethe
worstones;aswhenCallistratuschargedMelanopuswithhavingcheated
thetemplebuildersofthreeconsecratedhalfobols.Theconverse
istrueofjustacts.Thisisbecausethegreaterisherepotentially
containedintheless:thereisnocrimethatamanwhohasstolen
threeconsecratedhalfobolswouldshrinkfromcommitting.Sometimes,
however,theworseactisreckonednotinthiswaybutbythegreater
harmthatitdoes.Oritmaybebecausenopunishmentforitissevere
enoughtobeadequate;ortheharmdonemaybeincurableadifficult
andevenhopelesscrimetodefend;orthesufferermaynotbeable
togethisinjurerlegallypunished,afactthatmakestheharmincurable,
sincelegalpunishmentandchastisementarethepropercure.Oragain,
themanwhohassufferedwrongmayhaveinflictedsomefearfulpunishment
onhimself;thenthedoerofthewrongoughtinjusticetoreceive
astillmorefearfulpunishment.ThusSophocles,whenpleadingfor
retributiontoEuctemon,whohadcuthisownthroatbecauseofthe
outragedonetohim,saidhewouldnotfixapenaltylessthanthe
victimhadfixedforhimself.Again,aman'scrimeisworseifhe
hasbeenthefirstman,ortheonlyman,oralmosttheonlyman,to
commitit:orifitisbynomeansthefirsttimehehasgoneseriously
wronginthesameway:orifhiscrimehasledtothethinkingout
andinventionofmeasurestopreventandpunishsimilarcrimesthus
inArgosapenaltyisinflictedonamanonwhoseaccountalawis
passed,andalsoonthoseonwhoseaccounttheprisonwasbuilt:or
ifacrimeisspeciallybrutal,orspeciallydeliberate:orifthe
reportofitawakesmoreterrorthanpity.Therearealsosuchrhetorically
effectivewaysofputtingitasthefollowing:Thattheaccusedhas
disregardedandbrokennotonebutmanysolemnobligationslikeoaths,
promises,pledges,orrightsofintermarriagebetweenstateshere
thecrimeisworsebecauseitconsistsofmanycrimes;andthatthe
crimewascommittedintheveryplacewherecriminalsarepunished,
asforexampleperjurersdoitisarguedthatamanwhowillcommit
acrimeinalawcourtwouldcommititanywhere.Further,theworse
deedisthatwhichinvolvesthedoerinspecialshame;thatwhereby
amanwrongshisbenefactorsforhedoesmorethanonewrong,bynot
merelydoingthemharmbutfailingtodothemgood;thatwhichbreaks
theunwrittenlawsofjusticethebettersortofmanwillbejust
withoutbeingforcedtobeso,andthewrittenlawsdependonforce
whiletheunwrittenonesdonot.Itmayhoweverbearguedotherwise,
thatthecrimeisworsewhichbreaksthewrittenlaws:fortheman
whocommitscrimesforwhichterriblepenaltiesareprovidedwill
nothesitateovercrimesforwhichnopenaltyisprovidedatall.So
much,then,forthecomparativebadnessofcriminalactions.
Part15
Therearealsothesocalled'nontechnical'meansofpersuasion;
andwemustnowtakeacursoryviewofthese,sincetheyarespecially
characteristicofforensicoratory.Theyarefiveinnumber:laws,
witnesses,contracts,tortures,oaths.
First,then,letustakelawsandseehowtheyaretobeusedinpersuasion
anddissuasion,inaccusationanddefence.Ifthewrittenlawtells
againstourcase,clearlywemustappealtotheuniversallaw,and
insistonitsgreaterequityandjustice.Wemustarguethatthejuror's
oath'Iwillgivemyverdictaccordingtohonestopinion'meansthat
onewillnotsimplyfollowtheletterofthewrittenlaw.Wemust
urgethattheprinciplesofequityarepermanentandchangeless,and
thattheuniversallawdoesnotchangeeither,foritisthelawof
33/102
15/03/2015
nature,whereaswrittenlawsoftendochange.Thisisthebearing
thelinesinSophocles'Antigone,whereAntigonepleadsthatinburying
herbrothershehadbrokenCreon'slaw,butnottheunwrittenlaw:
"Notoftodayoryesterdaytheyare,
"Butliveeternal:(nonecandatetheirbirth.)
"NotIwouldfearthewrathofanyman
"(AndbraveGod'svengeance)fordefyingthese."
Weshallarguethatjusticeindeedistrueandprofitable,butthat
shamjusticeisnot,andthatconsequentlythewrittenlawisnot,
becauseitdoesnotfulfilthetruepurposeoflaw.Orthatjustice
islikesilver,andmustbeassayedbythejudges,ifthegenuine
istobedistinguishedfromthecounterfeit.Orthatthebettera
manis,themorehewillfollowandabidebytheunwrittenlawin
preferencetothewritten.Orperhapsthatthelawinquestioncontradicts
someotherhighlyesteemedlaw,orevencontradictsitself.Thusit
maybethatonelawwillenactthatallcontractsmustbeheldbinding,
whileanotherforbidsusevertomakeillegalcontracts.Orifalaw
isambiguous,weshallturnitaboutandconsiderwhichconstruction
bestfitstheinterestsofjusticeorutility,andthenfollowthat
wayoflookingatit.Orif,thoughthelawstillexists,thesituation
tomeetwhichitwaspassedexistsnolonger,wemustdoourbest
toprovethisandtocombatthelawthereby.Ifhoweverthewritten
lawsupportsourcase,wemusturgethattheoath'togivemyverdict
accordingtomyhonestopinion'notmeanttomakethejudgesgive
averdictthatiscontrarytothelaw,buttosavethemfromtheguilt
ofperjuryiftheymisunderstandwhatthelawreallymeans.Orthat
noonechooseswhatisabsolutelygood,buteveryonewhatisgood
forhimself.Orthatnottousethelawsisasahastohavenolaws
atall.Orthat,asintheotherarts,itdoesnotpaytotrytobe
clevererthanthedoctor:forlessharmcomesfromthedoctor'smistakes
thanfromthegrowinghabitofdisobeyingauthority.Orthattrying
tobeclevererthanthelawsisjustwhatisforbiddenbythosecodes
oflawthatareaccountedbest.Sofarasthelawsareconcerned,
theabovediscussionisprobablysufficient.
Astowitnesses,theyareoftwokinds,theancientandtherecent;
andtheselatter,again,eitherdoordonotshareintherisksof
thetrial.By'ancient'witnessesImeanthepoetsandallothernotable
personswhosejudgementsareknowntoall.ThustheAtheniansappealed
toHomerasawitnessaboutSalamis;andthemenofTenedosnotlong
agoappealedtoPerianderofCorinthintheirdisputewiththepeople
ofSigeum;andCleophonsupportedhisaccusationofCritiasbyquoting
theelegiacverseofSolon,maintainingthatdisciplinehadlongbeen
slackinthefamilyofCritias,orSolonwouldneverhavewritten,
"Praythee,bidtheredhairedCritiasdowhat
"hisfathercommandshim."
Thesewitnessesareconcernedwithpastevents.Astofutureevents
weshallalsoappealtosoothsayers:thusThemistoclesquotedthe
oracleabout'thewoodenwall'asareasonforengagingtheenemy's
fleet.Further,proverbsare,ashasbeensaid,oneformofevidence.
Thusifyouareurgingsomebodynottomakeafriendofanoldman,
youwillappealtotheproverb,
"Nevershowanoldmankindness."
Orifyouareurgingthathewhohasmadeawaywithfathersshould
alsomakeawaywiththeirsons,quote,
34/102
15/03/2015
"Fool,whoslayeththefatherandleavethhissonstoavengehim.
"
'Recent'witnessesarewellknownpeoplewhohaveexpressedtheir
opinionsaboutsomedisputedmatter:suchopinionswillbeuseful
supportforsubsequentdisputantsonthesameoints:thusEubulus
usedinthelawcourtsagainstthereplyPlatohadmadetoArchibius,
'Ithasbecometheregularcustominthiscountrytoadmitthatone
isascoundrel'.Therearealsothosewitnesseswhosharetherisk
ofpunishmentiftheirevidenceispronouncedfalse.Thesearevalid
witnessestothefactthatanactionwasorwasnotdone,thatsomething
isorisnotthecase;theyarenotvalidwitnessestothequality
ofanaction,toitsbeingjustorunjust,usefulorharmful.Onsuch
questionsofqualitytheopinionofdetachedpersonsishighlytrustworthy.
Mosttrustworthyofallarethe'ancient'witnesses,sincetheycannot
becorrupted.
Indealingwiththeevidenceofwitnesses,thefollowingareuseful
arguments.Ifyouhavenowitnessesonyourside,youwillarguethat
thejudgesmustdecidefromwhatisprobable;thatthisismeantby
'givingaverdictinaccordancewithone'shonestopinion';thatprobabilities
cannotbebribedtomisleadthecourt;andthatprobabilitiesare
neverconvictedofperjury.Ifyouhavewitnesses,andtheotherman
hasnot,youwillarguethatprobabilitiescannotbeputontheir
trial,andthatwecoulddowithouttheevidenceofwitnessesaltogether
ifweneeddonomorethanbalancethepleasadvancedoneitherside.
Theevidenceofwitnessesmayrefereithertoourselvesortoour
opponent;andeithertoquestionsoffactortoquestionsofpersonal
character:so,clearly,weneedneverbeatalossforusefulevidence.
Forifwehavenoevidenceoffactsupportingourowncaseortelling
againstthatofouropponent,atleastwecanalwaysfindevidence
toproveourownworthorouropponent'sworthlessness.Otherarguments
aboutawitnessthatheisafriendoranenemyorneutral,orhas
agood,bad,orindifferentreputation,andanyothersuchdistinctionswe
mustconstructuponthesamegenerallinesasweusefortheregular
rhetoricalproofs.
Concerningcontractsargumentcanbesofaremployedastoincrease
ordiminishtheirimportanceandtheircredibility;weshalltryto
increasebothiftheytellinourfavour,andtodiminishbothif
theytellinfavourofouropponent.Nowforconfirmingorupsetting
thecredibilityofcontractstheprocedureisjustthesameasfor
dealingwithwitnesses,forthecredittobeattachedtocontracts
dependsuponthecharacterofthosewhohavesignedthemorhavethe
custodyofthem.Thecontractbeingonceadmittedgenuine,wemust
insistonitsimportance,ifitsupportsourcase.Wemayarguethat
acontractisalaw,thoughofaspecialandlimitedkind;andthat,
whilecontractsdonotofcoursemakethelawbinding,thelawdoes
makeanylawfulcontractbinding,andthatthelawitselfasawhole
isaofcontract,sothatanyonewhodisregardsorrepudiatesany
contractisrepudiatingthelawitself.Further,mostbusinessrelationsthose,
namely,thatarevoluntaryareregulatedbycontracts,andifthese
losetheirbindingforce,humanintercourseceasestoexist.Weneed
notgoverydeeptodiscovertheotherappropriateargumentsofthis
kind.If,however,thecontracttellsagainstusandforouropponents,
inthefirstplacethoseargumentsaresuitablewhichwecanuseto
fightalawthattellsagainstus.Wedonotregardourselvesasbound
toobserveabadlawwhichitwasamistakeevertopass:anditis
ridiculoustosupposethatweareboundtoobserveabadandmistaken
contract.Again,wemayarguethatthedutyofthejudgeasumpire
istodecidewhatisjust,andthereforehemustaskwherejustice
lies,andnotwhatthisorthatdocumentmeans.Andthatitisimpossible
topervertjusticebyfraudorbyforce,sinceitisfoundedonnature,
35/102
15/03/2015
butapartytoacontractmaybethevictimofeitherfraudorforce.
Moreover,wemustseeifthecontractcontraveneseitheruniversal
laworanywrittenlawofourownoranothercountry;andalsoif
itcontradictsanyotherpreviousorsubsequentcontract;arguing
thatthesubsequentisthebindingcontract,orelsethattheprevious
onewasrightandthesubsequentonefraudulentwhicheverwaysuits
us.Further,wemustconsiderthequestionofutility,notingwhether
thecontractisagainsttheinterestofthejudgesornot;andso
ontheseargumentsareasobviousastheothers.
Examinationbytortureisoneformofevidence,towhichgreatweight
isoftenattachedbecauseitisinasensecompulsory.Hereagain
itisnothardtopointouttheavailablegroundsformagnifyingits
value,ifithappenstotellinourfavour,andarguingthatitis
theonlyformofevidencethatisinfallible;or,ontheotherhand,
forrefutingitifittellsagainstusandforouropponent,when
wemaysaywhatistrueoftortureofeverykindalike,thatpeople
underitscompulsiontellliesquiteasoftenastheytellthetruth,
sometimespersistentlyrefusingtotellthetruth,sometimesrecklessly
makingafalsechargeinordertobeletoffsooner.Weoughttobe
abletoquotecases,familiartothejudges,inwhichthissortof
thinghasactuallyhappened.[Wemustsaythatevidenceundertorture
isnottrustworthy,thefactbeingthatmanymenwhetherthickwitted,
toughskinned,orstoutofheartenduretheirordealnobly,while
cowardsandtimidmenarefullofboldnesstilltheyseetheordeal
oftheseothers:sothatnotrustcanbeplacedinevidenceunder
torture.]
Inregardtooaths,afourfolddivisioncanbemade.Amanmayeither
bothofferandacceptanoath,orneither,oronewithouttheotherthat
is,hemayofferanoathbutnotacceptone,oracceptanoathbut
notofferone.Thereisalsothesituationthatariseswhenanoath
hasalreadybeensworneitherbyhimselforbyhisopponent.
Ifyourefusetoofferanoath,youmayarguethatmendonothesitate
toperjurethemselves;andthatifyouropponentdoesswear,youlose
yourmoney,whereas,ifhedoesnot,youthinkthejudgeswilldecide
againsthim;andthattheriskofanunfavourableverdictisprefer,
able,sinceyoutrustthejudgesanddonottrusthim.
Ifyourefusetoacceptanoath,youmayarguethatanoathisalways
paidfor;thatyouwouldofcoursehavetakenitifyouhadbeena
rascal,sinceifyouarearascalyouhadbettermakesomethingby
it,andyouwouldinthatcasehavetoswearinordertosucceed.
Thusyourrefusal,youargue,mustbeduetohighprinciple,notto
fearofperjury:andyoumayaptlyquotethesayingofXenophanes,
"'TisnotfairthathewhofearsnotGod
"shouldchallengehimwhodoth."
Itisasifastrongmanweretochallengeaweaklingtostrike,
orbestruckby,him.
Ifyouagreetoacceptanoath,youmayarguethatyoutrustyourself
butnotyouropponent;andthat(toinverttheremarkofXenophanes)
thefairthingisfortheimpiousmantooffertheoathandforthe
piousmantoacceptit;andthatitwouldbemonstrousifyouyourself
wereunwillingtoacceptanoathinacasewhereyoudemandthatthe
judgesshoulddosobeforegivingtheirverdict.Ifyouwishtooffer
anoath,youmayarguethatpietydisposesyoutocommittheissue
tothegods;andthatyouropponentoughtnottowantotherjudges
thanhimself,sinceyouleavethedecisionwithhim;andthatitis
outrageousforyouropponentstorefusetoswearaboutthisquestion,
whentheyinsistthatothersshoulddoso.
36/102
15/03/2015
Nowthatweseehowwearetoargueineachcaseseparately,wesee
alsohowwearetoarguewhentheyoccurinpairs,namely,whenyou
arewillingtoaccepttheoathbutnottoofferit;toofferitbut
nottoacceptit;bothtoacceptandtoofferit;ortodoneither.
Theseareofcoursecombinationsofthecasesalreadymentioned,and
soyourargumentsalsomustbecombinationsoftheargumentsalready
mentioned.
Ifyouhavealreadyswornanoaththatcontradictsyourpresentone,
youmustarguethatitisnotperjury,sinceperjuryisacrime,and
acrimemustbeavoluntaryaction,whereasactionsduetotheforce
orfraudofothersareinvoluntary.Youmustfurtherreasonfromthis
thatperjurydependsontheintentionandnotonthespokenwords.
Butifitisyouropponentwhohasalreadyswornanoaththatcontradicts
hispresentone,youmustsaythatifhedoesnotabidebyhisoaths
heistheenemyofsociety,andthatthisisthereasonwhymentake
anoathbeforeadministeringthelaws.'Myopponentsinsistthatyou,
thejudges,mustabidebytheoathyouhavesworn,andyettheyare
notabidingbytheirownoaths.'Andthereareotherargumentswhich
maybeusedtomagnifytheimportanceoftheoath.[Somuch,then,
forthe'nontechnical'modesofpersuasion.]
BOOKII
Part1
Wehavenowconsideredthematerialstobeusedinsupportingor
opposingapoliticalmeasure,inpronouncingeulogiesorcensures,
andforprosecutionanddefenceinthelawcourts.Wehaveconsidered
thereceivedopinionsonwhichwemaybestbaseourargumentssoas
toconvinceourhearersthoseopinionswithwhichourenthymemesdeal,
andoutofwhichtheyarebuilt,ineachofthethreekindsoforatory,
accordingtowhatmaybecalledthespecialneedsofeach.
Butsincerhetoricexiststoaffectthegivingofdecisionsthehearers
decidebetweenonepoliticalspeakerandanother,andalegalverdict
isadecisiontheoratormustnotonlytrytomaketheargumentof
hisspeechdemonstrativeandworthyofbelief;hemustalsomakehis
owncharacterlookrightandputhishearers,whoaretodecide,into
therightframeofmind.Particularlyinpoliticaloratory,butalso
inlawsuits,itaddsmuchtoanorator'sinfluencethathisowncharacter
shouldlookrightandthatheshouldbethoughttoentertaintheright
feelingstowardshishearers;andalsothathishearersthemselves
shouldbeinjusttherightframeofmind.Thattheorator'sowncharacter
shouldlookrightisparticularlyimportantinpoliticalspeaking:
thattheaudienceshouldbeintherightframeofmind,inlawsuits.
Whenpeoplearefeelingfriendlyandplacable,theythinkonesort
ofthing;whentheyarefeelingangryorhostile,theythinkeither
somethingtotallydifferentorthesamethingwithadifferentintensity:
whentheyfeelfriendlytothemanwhocomesbeforethemforjudgement,
theyregardhimashavingdonelittlewrong,ifany;whentheyfeel
hostile,theytaketheoppositeview.Again,iftheyareeagerfor,
andhavegoodhopesof,athingthatwillbepleasantifithappens,
theythinkthatitcertainlywillhappenandbegoodforthem:whereas
iftheyareindifferentorannoyed,theydonotthinkso.
Therearethreethingswhichinspireconfidenceintheorator'sown
characterthethree,namely,thatinduceustobelieveathingapart
fromanyproofofit:goodsense,goodmoralcharacter,andgoodwill.
Falsestatementsandbadadviceareduetooneormoreofthefollowing
threecauses.Meneitherformafalseopinionthroughwantofgood
sense;ortheyformatrueopinion,butbecauseoftheirmoralbadness
37/102
15/03/2015
donotsaywhattheyreallythink;orfinally,theyarebothsensible
andupright,butnotwelldisposedtotheirhearers,andmayfail
inconsequencetorecommendwhattheyknowtobethebestcourse.
Thesearetheonlypossiblecases.Itfollowsthatanyonewhois
thoughttohaveallthreeofthesegoodqualitieswillinspiretrust
inhisaudience.Thewaytomakeourselvesthoughttobesensible
andmorallygoodmustbegatheredfromtheanalysisofgoodnessalready
given:thewaytoestablishyourowngoodnessisthesameastheway
toestablishthatofothers.Goodwillandfriendlinessofdisposition
willformpartofourdiscussionoftheemotions,towhichwemust
nowturn.
TheEmotionsareallthosefeelingsthatsochangemenastoaffect
theirjudgements,andthatarealsoattendedbypainorpleasure.
Suchareanger,pity,fearandthelike,withtheiropposites.We
mustarrangewhatwehavetosayabouteachofthemunderthreeheads.
Take,forinstance,theemotionofanger:herewemustdiscover(1)
whatthestateofmindofangrypeopleis,(2)whothepeopleare
withwhomtheyusuallygetangry,and(3)onwhatgroundstheyget
angrywiththem.Itisnotenoughtoknowoneoreventwoofthese
points;unlessweknowallthree,weshallbeunabletoarouseanger
inanyone.Thesameistrueoftheotheremotions.Sojustasearlier
inthisworkwedrewupalistofusefulpropositionsfortheorator,
letusnowproceedinthesamewaytoanalysethesubjectbeforeus.
Part2
Angermaybedefinedasanimpulse,accompaniedbypain,toaconspicuous
revengeforaconspicuousslightdirectedwithoutjustificationtowards
whatconcernsoneselfortowardswhatconcernsone'sfriends.Ifthis
isaproperdefinitionofanger,itmustalwaysbefelttowardssome
particularindividual,e.g.Cleon,andnot'man'ingeneral.Itmust
befeltbecausetheotherhasdoneorintendedtodosomethingto
himoroneofhisfriends.Itmustalwaysbeattendedbyacertain
pleasurethatwhicharisesfromtheexpectationofrevenge.Forsince
nobodyaimsatwhathethinkshecannotattain,theangrymanisaiming
atwhathecanattain,andthebeliefthatyouwillattainyouraim
ispleasant.Henceithasbeenwellsaidaboutwrath,
"Sweeteritisbyfarthanthehoneycomb
"drippingwithsweetness,
"Andspreadsthroughtheheartsofmen."
Itisalsoattendedbyacertainpleasurebecausethethoughtsdwell
upontheactofvengeance,andtheimagesthencalledupcausepleasure,
liketheimagescalledupindreams.
Nowslightingistheactivelyentertainedopinionofsomethingas
obviouslyofnoimportance.Wethinkbadthings,aswellasgoodones,
haveseriousimportance;andwethinkthesameofanythingthattends
toproducesuchthings,whilethosewhichhavelittleornosuchtendency
weconsiderunimportant.Therearethreekindsofslightingcontempt,
spite,andinsolence.(1)Contemptisonekindofslighting:youfeel
contemptforwhatyouconsiderunimportant,anditisjustsuchthings
thatyouslight.(2)Spiteisanotherkind;itisathwartinganother
man'swishes,nottogetsomethingyourselfbuttopreventhisgetting
it.Theslightarisesjustfromthefactthatyoudonotaimatsomething
foryourself:clearlyyoudonotthinkthathecandoyouharm,for
thenyouwouldbeafraidofhiminsteadofslightinghim,noryet
thathecandoyouanygoodworthmentioning,forthenyouwouldbe
anxioustomakefriendswithhim.(3)Insolenceisalsoaformof
slighting,sinceitconsistsindoingandsayingthingsthatcause
shametothevictim,notinorderthatanythingmayhappentoyourself,
38/102
15/03/2015
orbecauseanythinghashappenedtoyourself,butsimplyforthepleasure
involved.(Retaliationisnot'insolence',butvengeance.)Thecause
ofthepleasurethusenjoyedbytheinsolentmanisthathethinks
himselfgreatlysuperiortootherswhenilltreatingthem.Thatis
whyyouthsandrichmenareinsolent;theythinkthemselvessuperior
whentheyshowinsolence.Onesortofinsolenceistorobpeopleof
thehonourduetothem;youcertainlyslightthemthus;foritis
theunimportant,forgoodorevil,thathasnohonourpaidtoit.
SoAchillessaysinanger:
"Hehathtakenmyprizeforhimself
"andhathdonemedishonour,"
and
"Likeanalienhonouredbynone,"
meaningthatthisiswhyheisangry.Amanexpectstobespecially
respectedbyhisinferiorsinbirth,incapacity,ingoodness,and
generallyinanythinginwhichheismuchtheirsuperior:aswhere
moneyisconcernedawealthymanlooksforrespectfromapoorman;
wherespeakingisconcerned,themanwithaturnfororatorylooks
forrespectfromonewhocannotspeak;therulerdemandstherespect
oftheruled,andthemanwhothinksheoughttobearulerdemands
therespectofthemanwhomhethinksheoughttoberuling.Hence
ithasbeensaid
"Greatisthewrathofkings,whosefatherisZeusalmighty,
"
and
"Yea,buthisrancourabidethlongafterwardalso,"
theirgreatresentmentbeingduetotheirgreatsuperiority.Then
againamanlooksforrespectfromthosewhohethinksowehimgood
treatment,andthesearethepeoplewhomhehastreatedoristreating
well,ormeansorhasmeanttotreatwell,eitherhimself,orthrough
hisfriends,orthroughothersathisrequest.
Itwillbeplainbynow,fromwhathasbeensaid,(1)inwhatframe
ofmind,(2)withwhatpersons,and(3)onwhatgroundspeoplegrow
angry.(1)Theframeofmindisthatofoneinwhichanypainisbeing
felt.Inthatcondition,amanisalwaysaimingatsomething.Whether,
then,anothermanopposeshimeitherdirectlyinanyway,asbypreventing
himfromdrinkingwhenheisthirsty,orindirectly,theactappears
tohimjustthesame;whethersomeoneworksagainsthim,orfails
toworkwithhim,orotherwisevexeshimwhileheisinthismood,
heisequallyangryinallthesecases.Hencepeoplewhoareafflicted
bysicknessorpovertyorloveorthirstoranyotherunsatisfied
desiresarepronetoangerandeasilyroused:especiallyagainstthose
whoslighttheirpresentdistress.Thusasickmanisangeredbydisregard
ofhisillness,apoormanbydisregardofhispoverty,amanaging
warbydisregardofthewarheiswaging,aloverbydisregardof
hislove,andsothroughout,anyothersortofslightbeingenough
ifspecialslightsarewanting.Eachmanispredisposed,bytheemotion
nowcontrollinghim,tohisownparticularanger.Further,weare
angeredifwehappentobeexpectingacontraryresult:foraquite
unexpectedevilisspeciallypainful,justasthequiteunexpected
fulfilmentofourwishesisspeciallypleasant.Henceitisplain
whatseasons,times,conditions,andperiodsoflifetendtostir
meneasilytoanger,andwhereandwhenthiswillhappen;anditis
plainthatthemoreweareundertheseconditionsthemoreeasily
wearestirred.
39/102
15/03/2015
These,then,aretheframesofmindinwhichmenareeasilystirred
toanger.Thepersonswithwhomwegetangryarethosewholaugh,
mock,orjeeratus,forsuchconductisinsolent.Alsothosewho
inflictinjuriesuponusthataremarksofinsolence.Theseinjuries
mustbesuchasareneitherretaliatorynorprofitabletothedoers:
foronlythenwilltheybefelttobeduetoinsolence.Alsothose
whospeakillofus,andshowcontemptforus,inconnexionwiththe
thingsweourselvesmostcareabout:thusthosewhoareeagertowin
fameasphilosophersgetangrywiththosewhoshowcontemptfortheir
philosophy;thosewhopridethemselvesupontheirappearancegetangry
withthosewhoshowcontemptfortheirappearanceandsooninother
cases.Wefeelparticularlyangryonthisaccountifwesuspectthat
weareinfact,orthatpeoplethinkweare,lackingcompletelyor
toanyeffectiveextentinthequalitiesinquestion.Forwhenwe
areconvincedthatweexcelinthequalitiesforwhichwearejeered
at,wecanignorethejeering.Again,weareangrierwithourfriends
thanwithotherpeople,sincewefeelthatourfriendsoughttotreat
uswellandnotbadly.Weareangrywiththosewhohaveusuallytreated
uswithhonourorregard,ifachangecomesandtheybehavetous
otherwise:forwethinkthattheyfeelcontemptforus,ortheywould
stillbebehavingastheydidbefore.Andwiththosewhodonotreturn
ourkindnessesorfailtoreturnthemadequately,andwiththosewho
opposeusthoughtheyareourinferiors:forallsuchpersonsseem
tofeelcontemptforus;thosewhoopposeusseemtothinkusinferior
tothemselves,andthosewhodonotreturnourkindnessesseemto
thinkthatthosekindnesseswereconferredbyinferiors.Andwefeel
particularlyangrywithmenofnoaccountatall,iftheyslightus.
For,byourhypothesis,theangercausedbytheslightisfelttowards
peoplewhoarenotjustifiedinslightingus,andourinferiorsare
notthusjustified.Again,wefeelangrywithfriendsiftheydonot
speakwellofusortreatuswell;andstillmore,iftheydothe
contrary;oriftheydonotperceiveourneeds,whichiswhyPlexippus
isangrywithMeleagerinAntiphon'splay;forthiswantofperception
showsthattheyareslightinguswedonotfailtoperceivetheneeds
ofthoseforwhomwecare.Againweareangrywiththosewhorejoice
atourmisfortunesorsimplykeepcheerfulinthemidstofourmisfortunes,
sincethisshowsthattheyeitherhateusorareslightingus.Also
withthosewhoareindifferenttothepaintheygiveus:thisiswhy
wegetangrywithbringersofbadnews.Andwiththosewholisten
tostoriesaboutusorkeeponlookingatourweaknesses;thisseems
likeeitherslightingusorhatingus;forthosewholoveusshare
inallourdistressesanditmustdistressanyonetokeeponlooking
athisownweaknesses.Further,withthosewhoslightusbeforefive
classesofpeople:namely,(1)ourrivals,(2)thosewhomweadmire,
(3)thosewhomwewishtoadmireus,(4)thoseforwhomwefeelreverence,
(5)thosewhofeelreverenceforus:ifanyoneslightsusbefore
suchpersons,wefeelparticularlyangry.Again,wefeelangrywith
thosewhoslightusinconnexionwithwhatweareashonourablemen
boundtochampionourparents,children,wives,orsubjects.Andwith
thosewhodonotreturnafavour,sincesuchaslightisunjustifiable.
Alsowiththosewhoreplywithhumorouslevitywhenwearespeaking
seriously,forsuchbehaviourindicatescontempt.Andwiththosewho
treatuslesswellthantheytreateverybodyelse;itisanothermark
ofcontemptthattheyshouldthinkwedonotdeservewhateveryone
elsedeserves.Forgetfulness,too,causesanger,aswhenourownnames
areforgotten,triflingasthismaybe;sinceforgetfulnessisfelt
tobeanothersignthatwearebeingslighted;itisduetonegligence,
andtoneglectusistoslightus.
Thepersonswithwhomwefeelanger,theframeofmindinwhichwe
feelit,andthereasonswhywefeelit,havenowallbeensetforth.
Clearlytheoratorwillhavetospeaksoastobringhishearersinto
aframeofmindthatwilldisposethemtoanger,andtorepresent
hisadversariesasopentosuchchargesandpossessedofsuchqualities
40/102
15/03/2015
asdomakepeopleangry.
Part3
Sincegrowingcalmistheoppositeofgrowingangry,andcalmness
theoppositeofanger,wemustascertaininwhatframesofmindmen
arecalm,towardswhomtheyfeelcalm,andbywhatmeanstheyare
madeso.Growingcalmmaybedefinedasasettlingdownorquieting
ofanger.Nowwegetangrywiththosewhoslightus;andsinceslighting
isavoluntaryact,itisplainthatwefeelcalmtowardsthosewho
donothingofthekind,orwhodoorseemtodoitinvoluntarily.
Alsotowardsthosewhointendedtodotheoppositeofwhattheydid
do.Alsotowardsthosewhotreatthemselvesastheyhavetreatedus:
sincenoonecanbesupposedtoslighthimself.Alsotowardsthose
whoadmittheirfaultandaresorry:sinceweaccepttheirgriefat
whattheyhavedoneassatisfaction,andceasetobeangry.Thepunishment
ofservantsshowsthis:thosewhocontradictusanddenytheiroffence
wepunishallthemore,butweceasetobeincensedagainstthose
whoagreethattheydeservedtheirpunishment.Thereasonisthat
itisshamelesstodenywhatisobvious,andthosewhoareshameless
towardsusslightusandshowcontemptforus:anyhow,wedonotfeel
shamebeforethoseofwhomwearethoroughlycontemptuous.Alsowe
feelcalmtowardsthosewhohumblethemselvesbeforeusanddonot
gainsayus;wefeelthattheythusadmitthemselvesourinferiors,
andinferiorsfeelfear,andnobodycanslightanyonesolongas
hefeelsafraidofhim.Thatourangerceasestowardsthosewhohumble
themselvesbeforeusisshownevenbydogs,whodonotbitepeople
whentheysitdown.Wealsofeelcalmtowardsthosewhoareserious
whenweareserious,becausethenwefeelthatwearetreatedseriously
andnotcontemptuously.Alsotowardsthosewhohavedoneusmorekindnesses
thanwehavedonethem.Alsotowardsthosewhopraytousandbeg
formercy,sincetheyhumblethemselvesbydoingso.Alsotowards
thosewhodonotinsultormockatorslightanyoneatall,ornot
anyworthypersonoranyonelikeourselves.Ingeneral,thethings
thatmakeuscalmmaybeinferredbyseeingwhattheoppositesare
ofthosethatmakeusangry.Wearenotangrywithpeoplewefear
orrespect,aslongaswefearorrespectthem;youcannotbeafraid
ofapersonandalsoatthesametimeangrywithhim.Again,wefeel
noanger,orcomparativelylittle,withthosewhohavedonewhatthey
didthroughanger:wedonotfeelthattheyhavedoneitfromawish
toslightus,fornooneslightspeoplewhenangrywiththem,since
slightingispainless,andangerispainful.Nordowegrowangry
withthosewhoreverenceus.
Astotheframeofmindthatmakespeoplecalm,itisplainlythe
oppositetothatwhichmakesthemangry,aswhentheyareamusing
themselvesorlaughingorfeasting;whentheyarefeelingprosperous
orsuccessfulorsatisfied;when,infine,theyareenjoyingfreedom
frompain,orinoffensivepleasure,orjustifiablehope.Alsowhen
timehaspassedandtheirangerisnolongerfresh,fortimeputs
anendtoanger.Andvengeancepreviouslytakenononepersonputs
anendtoevengreaterangerfeltagainstanotherperson.HencePhilocrates,
beingaskedbysomeone,atatimewhenthepublicwasangrywith
him,'Whydon'tyoudefendyourself?'didrighttoreply,'Thetime
isnotyet.''Why,whenisthetime?''WhenIseesomeoneelsecalumniated.'
Formenbecomecalmwhentheyhavespenttheirangeronsomebodyelse.
ThishappenedinthecaseofErgophilus:thoughthepeopleweremore
irritatedagainsthimthanagainstCallisthenes,theyacquittedhim
becausetheyhadcondemnedCallisthenestodeaththedaybefore.Again,
menbecomecalmiftheyhaveconvictedtheoffender;orifhehas
alreadysufferedworsethingsthantheyintheirangerwouldhave
themselvesinflicteduponhim;fortheyfeelasiftheywerealready
avenged.Oriftheyfeelthattheythemselvesareinthewrongand
aresufferingjustly(forangerisnotexcitedbywhatisjust),since
mennolongerthinkthenthattheyaresufferingwithoutjustification;
41/102
15/03/2015
andanger,aswehaveseen,meansthis.Henceweoughtalwaystoinflict
apreliminarypunishmentinwords:ifthatisdone,evenslavesare
lessaggrievedbytheactualpunishment.Wealsofeelcalmifwethink
thattheoffenderwillnotseethatheispunishedonouraccount
andbecauseofthewayhehastreatedus.Forangerhastodowith
individuals.Thisisplainfromthedefinition.Hencethepoethas
wellwritten:
"SaythatitwasOdysseus,sackerofcities,"
implyingthatOdysseuswouldnothaveconsideredhimselfavenged
unlesstheCyclopsperceivedbothbywhomandforwhathehadbeen
blinded.Consequentlywedonotgetangrywithanyonewhocannot
beawareofouranger,andinparticularweceasetobeangrywith
peopleoncetheyaredead,forwefeelthattheworsthasbeendone
tothem,andthattheywillneitherfeelpainnoranythingelsethat
weinourangeraimatmakingthemfeel.Andthereforethepoethas
wellmadeApollosay,inordertoputastoptotheangerofAchilles
againstthedeadHector,
"Forbeholdinhisfuryhedoethdespitetothesenselessclay.
"
Itisnowplainthatwhenyouwishtocalmothersyoumustdrawupon
theselinesofargument;youmustputyourhearersintothecorresponding
frameofmind,andrepresentthosewithwhomtheyareangryasformidable,
orasworthyofreverence,orasbenefactors,orasinvoluntaryagents,
orasmuchdistressedatwhattheyhavedone.
Part4
LetusnowturntoFriendshipandEnmity,andasktowardswhomthese
feelingsareentertained,andwhy.Wewillbeginbydefiningandfriendly
feeling.Wemaydescribefriendlyfeelingtowardsanyoneaswishing
forhimwhatyoubelievetobegoodthings,notforyourownsake
butforhis,andbeinginclined,sofarasyoucan,tobringthese
thingsabout.Afriendisonewhofeelsthusandexcitesthesefeelings
inreturn:thosewhothinktheyfeelthustowardseachotherthink
themselvesfriends.Thisbeingassumed,itfollowsthatyourfriend
isthesortofmanwhosharesyourpleasureinwhatisgoodandyour
paininwhatisunpleasant,foryoursakeandfornootherreason.
Thispleasureandpainofhiswillbethetokenofhisgoodwishes
foryou,sinceweallfeelgladatgettingwhatwewishfor,andpained
atgettingwhatwedonot.Those,then,arefriendstowhomthesame
thingsaregoodandevil;andthosewhoare,moreover,friendlyor
unfriendlytothesamepeople;forinthatcasetheymusthavethe
samewishes,andthusbywishingforeachotherwhattheywishfor
themselves,theyshowthemselveseachother'sfriends.Again,wefeel
friendlytothosewhohavetreateduswell,eitherourselvesorthose
wecarefor,whetheronalargescale,orreadily,oratsomeparticular
crisis;provideditwasforourownsake.Andalsotothosewhowe
thinkwishtotreatuswell.Andalsotoourfriends'friends,and
tothosewholike,orarelikedby,thosewhomwelikeourselves.
Andalsotothosewhoareenemiestothosewhoseenemiesweare,and
dislike,oraredislikedby,thosewhomwedislike.Forallsuchpersons
thinkthethingsgoodwhichwethinkgood,sothattheywishwhat
isgoodforus;andthis,aswesaw,iswhatfriendsmustdo.And
alsotothosewhoarewillingtotreatuswellwheremoneyorour
personalsafetyisconcerned:andthereforewevaluethosewhoare
liberal,brave,orjust.Thejustweconsidertobethosewhodonot
liveonothers;whichmeansthosewhoworkfortheirliving,especially
farmersandotherswhoworkwiththeirownhands.Wealsoliketemperate
men,becausetheyarenotunjusttoothers;and,forthesamereason,
thosewhomindtheirownbusiness.Andalsothosewhosefriendswe
wishtobe,ifitisplainthattheywishtobeourfriends:such
42/102
15/03/2015
arethemorallygood,andthosewellthoughtofbyeveryone,bythe
bestmen,orbythosewhomweadmireorwhoadmireus.Andalsothose
withwhomitispleasanttoliveandspendourdays:sucharethe
goodtempered,andthosewhoarenottooreadytoshowusourmistakes,
andthosewhoarenotcantankerousorquarrelsomesuchpeopleare
alwayswantingtofightus,andthosewhofightuswefeelwishfor
theoppositeofwhatwewishforourselvesandthosewhohavethe
tacttomakeandtakeajoke;herebothpartieshavethesameobject
inview,whentheycanstandbeingmadefunofaswellasdoitprettily
themselves.Andwealsofeelfriendlytowardsthosewhopraisesuch
goodqualitiesaswepossess,andespeciallyiftheypraisethegood
qualitiesthatwearenottoosurewedopossess.Andtowardsthose
whoarecleanlyintheirperson,theirdress,andalltheirwayof
life.Andtowardsthosewhodonotreproachuswithwhatwehavedone
amisstothemortheyhavedonetohelpus,forbothactionsshow
atendencytocriticizeus.Andtowardsthosewhodonotnursegrudges
orstoreupgrievances,butarealwaysreadytomakefriendsagain;
forwetakeitthattheywillbehavetousjustaswefindthembehaving
toeveryoneelse.Andtowardsthosewhoarenotevilspeakersand
whoareawareofneithertheirneighbours'badpointsnorourown,
butofourgoodonesonly,asagoodmanalwayswillbe.Andtowards
thosewhodonottrytothwartuswhenweareangryorinearnest,
whichwouldmeanbeingreadytofightus.Andtowardsthosewhohave
someseriousfeelingtowardsus,suchasadmirationforus,orbelief
inourgoodness,orpleasureinourcompany;especiallyiftheyfeel
likethisaboutqualitiesinusforwhichweespeciallywishtobe
admired,esteemed,orliked.Andtowardsthosewhoarelikeourselves
incharacterandoccupation,providedtheydonotgetinourwayor
gaintheirlivingfromthesamesourceaswedoforthenitwillbe
acaseof'potteragainstpotter':
"Pottertopotterandbuildertobuilderbegrudgetheirreward.
"
Andthosewhodesirethesamethingsaswedesire,ifitispossible
forusbothtosharethemtogether;otherwisethesametroublearises
heretoo.Andtowardsthosewithwhomweareonsuchtermsthat,while
werespecttheiropinions,weneednotblushbeforethemfordoing
whatisconventionallywrong:aswellastowardsthosebeforewhom
weshouldbeashamedtodoanythingreallywrong.Again,ourrivals,
andthosewhomweshouldliketoenvyusthoughwithoutillfeelingeither
welikethesepeopleoratleastwewishthemtolikeus.Andwefeel
friendlytowardsthosewhomwehelptosecuregoodforthemselves,
providedwearenotlikelytosufferheavilybyitourselves.And
thosewhofeelasfriendlytouswhenwearenotwiththemaswhen
wearewhichiswhyallmenfeelfriendlytowardsthosewhoarefaithful
totheirdeadfriends.And,speakinggenerally,towardsthosewho
arereallyfondoftheirfriendsanddonotdesertthemintrouble;
ofallgoodmen,wefeelmostfriendlytothosewhoshowtheirgoodness
asfriends.Alsotowardsthosewhoarehonestwithus,includingthose
whowilltellusoftheirownweakpoints:ithasjustsaidthatwith
ourfriendswearenotashamedofwhatisconventionallywrong,and
ifwedohavethisfeeling,wedonotlovethem;ifthereforewedo
nothaveit,itlooksasifwedidlovethem.Wealsolikethosewith
whomwedonotfeelfrightenedoruncomfortablenobodycanlikea
manofwhomhefeelsfrightened.Friendshiphasvariousformscomradeship,
intimacy,kinship,andsoon.
Thingsthatcausefriendshipare:doingkindnesses;doingthemunasked;
andnotproclaimingthefactwhentheyaredone,whichshowsthat
theyweredoneforourownsakeandnotforsomeotherreason.
EnmityandHatredshouldclearlybestudiedbyreferencetotheir
opposites.Enmitymaybeproducedbyangerorspiteorcalumny.Now
whereasangerarisesfromoffencesagainstoneself,enmitymayarise
43/102
15/03/2015
evenwithoutthat;wemayhatepeoplemerelybecauseofwhatwetake
tobetheircharacter.Angerisalwaysconcernedwithindividualsa
CalliasoraSocrateswhereashatredisdirectedalsoagainstclasses:
weallhateanythiefandanyinformer.Moreover,angercanbecured
bytime;buthatredcannot.Theoneaimsatgivingpaintoitsobject,
theotheratdoinghimharm;theangrymanwantshisvictimstofeel;
thehaterdoesnotmindwhethertheyfeelornot.Allpainfulthings
arefelt;butthegreatestevils,injusticeandfolly,aretheleast
felt,sincetheirpresencecausesnopain.Andangerisaccompanied
bypain,hatredisnot;theangrymanfeelspain,butthehaterdoes
not.Muchmayhappentomaketheangrymanpitythosewhooffendhim,
butthehaterundernocircumstanceswishestopityamanwhomhe
hasoncehated:fortheonewouldhavetheoffenderssufferforwhat
theyhavedone;theotherwouldhavethemceasetoexist.
Itisplainfromallthisthatwecanprovepeopletobefriendsor
enemies;iftheyarenot,wecanmakethemouttobeso;iftheyclaim
tobeso,wecanrefutetheirclaim;andifitisdisputedwhether
anactionwasduetoangerortohatred,wecanattributeittowhichever
oftheseweprefer.
Part5
ToturnnexttoFear,whatfollowswillshowthingsandpersonsof
which,andthestatesofmindinwhich,wefeelafraid.Fearmaybe
definedasapainordisturbanceduetoamentalpictureofsomedestructive
orpainfulevilinthefuture.Ofdestructiveorpainfulevilsonly;
fortherearesomeevils,e.g.wickednessorstupidity,theprospect
ofwhichdoesnotfrightenus:Imeanonlysuchasamounttogreat
painsorlosses.Andeventheseonlyiftheyappearnotremotebut
sonearastobeimminent:wedonotfearthingsthatareaverylong
wayoff:forinstance,weallknowweshalldie,butwearenottroubled
thereby,becausedeathisnotcloseathand.Fromthisdefinition
itwillfollowthatfeariscausedbywhateverwefeelhasgreatpower
ofdestroyingorofharmingusinwaysthattendtocauseusgreat
pain.Hencetheveryindicationsofsuchthingsareterrible,making
usfeelthattheterriblethingitselfiscloseathand;theapproach
ofwhatisterribleisjustwhatwemeanby'danger'.Suchindications
aretheenmityandangerofpeoplewhohavepowertodosomething
tous;foritisplainthattheyhavethewilltodoit,andsothey
areonthepointofdoingit.Alsoinjusticeinpossessionofpower;
foritistheunjustman'swilltodoevilthatmakeshimunjust.
Alsooutragedvirtueinpossessionofpower;foritisplainthat,
whenoutraged,italwayshasthewilltoretaliate,andnowithas
thepowertodoso.Alsofearfeltbythosewhohavethepowerto
dosomethingtous,sincesuchpersonsaresuretobereadytodo
it.Andsincemostmentendtobebadslavestogreed,andcowards
indangeritis,asarule,aterriblethingtobeatanotherman's
mercy;andtherefore,ifwehavedoneanythinghorrible,thosein
thesecretterrifyuswiththethoughtthattheymaybetrayordesert
us.Andthosewhocandouswrongareterribletouswhenweareliable
tobewronged;forasarulemendowrongtootherswheneverthey
havethepowertodoit.Andthosewhohavebeenwronged,orbelieve
themselvestobewronged,areterrible;fortheyarealwayslooking
outfortheiropportunity.Alsothosewhohavedonepeoplewrong,
iftheypossesspower,sincetheystandinfearofretaliation:we
havealreadysaidthatwickednesspossessingpoweristerrible.Again,
ourrivalsforathingcauseusfearwhenwecannotbothhaveitat
once;forwearealwaysatwarwithsuchmen.Wealsofearthosewho
aretobefearedbystrongerpeoplethanourselves:iftheycanhurt
thosestrongerpeople,stillmorecantheyhurtus;and,forthesame
reason,wefearthosewhomthosestrongerpeopleareactuallyafraid
of.Alsothosewhohavedestroyedpeoplestrongerthanweare.Also
thosewhoareattackingpeopleweakerthanweare:eithertheyare
alreadyformidable,ortheywillbesowhentheyhavethusgrownstronger.
44/102
15/03/2015
Ofthosewehavewronged,andofourenemiesorrivals,itisnot
thepassionateandoutspokenwhomwehavetofear,butthequiet,
dissembling,unscrupulous;sinceweneverknowwhentheyareupon
us,wecanneverbesuretheyareatasafedistance.Allterrible
thingsaremoreterribleiftheygiveusnochanceofretrievinga
blundereithernochanceatall,oronlyonethatdependsonourenemies
andnotourselves.Thosethingsarealsoworsewhichwecannot,or
cannoteasily,help.Speakinggenerally,anythingcausesustofeel
fearthatwhenithappensto,orthreatens,otherscauseustofeel
pity.
Theaboveare,roughly,thechiefthingsthatareterribleandare
feared.Letusnowdescribetheconditionsunderwhichweourselves
feelfear.Iffearisassociatedwiththeexpectationthatsomething
destructivewillhappentous,plainlynobodywillbeafraidwhobelieves
nothingcanhappentohim;weshallnotfearthingsthatwebelieve
cannothappentous,norpeoplewhowebelievecannotinflictthem
uponus;norshallwebeafraidattimeswhenwethinkourselvessafe
fromthem.Itfollowsthereforethatfearisfeltbythosewhobelieve
somethingtobelikelytohappentothem,atthehandsofparticular
persons,inaparticularform,andataparticulartime.Peopledo
notbelievethiswhentheyare,orthinktheyaare,inthemidst
ofgreatprosperity,andareinconsequenceinsolent,contemptuous,
andrecklessthekindofcharacterproducedbywealth,physicalstrength,
abundanceoffriends,power:noryetwhentheyfeeltheyhaveexperienced
everykindofhorroralreadyandhavegrowncallousaboutthefuture,
likemenwhoarebeingfloggedandarealreadynearlydeadifthey
aretofeeltheanguishofuncertainty,theremustbesomefaintexpectation
ofescape.Thisappearsfromthefactthatfearsetsusthinkingwhat
canbedone,whichofcoursenobodydoeswhenthingsarehopeless.
Consequently,whenitisadvisablethattheaudienceshouldbefrightened,
theoratormustmakethemfeelthattheyreallyareindangerofsomething,
pointingoutthatithashappenedtootherswhowerestrongerthan
theyare,andishappening,orhashappened,topeoplelikethemselves,
atthehandsofunexpectedpeople,inanunexpectedform,andatan
unexpectedtime.
Havingnowseenthenatureoffear,andofthethingsthatcauseit,
andthevariousstatesofmindinwhichitisfelt,wecanalsosee
whatConfidenceis,aboutwhatthingswefeelit,andunderwhatconditions.
Itistheoppositeoffear,andwhatcausesitistheoppositeof
whatcausesfear;itis,therefore,theexpectationassociatedwith
amentalpictureofthenearnessofwhatkeepsussafeandtheabsence
orremotenessofwhatisterrible:itmaybedueeithertothenear
presenceofwhatinspiresconfidenceortotheabsenceofwhatcauses
alarm.Wefeelitifwecantakestepsmany,orimportant,orbothto
cureorpreventtrouble;ifwehaveneitherwrongedothersnorbeen
wrongedbythem;ifwehaveeithernorivalsatallornostrongones;
ifourrivalswhoarestrongareourfriendsorhavetreateduswell
orbeentreatedwellbyus;orifthosewhoseinterestisthesame
asoursarethemorenumerousparty,orthestronger,orboth.
Asforourownstateofmind,wefeelconfidenceifwebelievewe
haveoftensucceededandneversufferedreverses,orhaveoftenmet
dangerandescapeditsafely.Fortherearetworeasonswhyhuman
beingsfacedangercalmly:theymayhavenoexperienceofit,orthey
mayhavemeanstodealwithit:thuswhenindangeratseapeople
mayfeelconfidentaboutwhatwillhappeneitherbecausetheyhave
noexperienceofbadweather,orbecausetheirexperiencegivesthem
themeansofdealingwithit.Wealsofeelconfidentwheneverthere
isnothingtoterrifyotherpeoplelikeourselves,orpeopleweaker
thanourselves,orpeoplethanwhomwebelieveourselvestobestrongerand
webelievethisifwehaveconqueredthem,orconqueredotherswho
areasstrongastheyare,orstronger.Alsoifwebelieveourselves
superiortoourrivalsinthenumberandimportanceoftheadvantages
45/102
15/03/2015
thatmakemenformidablewealth,physicalstrength,strongbodies
ofsupporters,extensiveterritory,andthepossessionofall,or
themostimportant,appliancesofwar.Alsoifwehavewrongedno
one,ornotmany,ornotthoseofwhomweareafraid;andgenerally,
ifourrelationswiththegodsaresatisfactory,aswillbeshown
especiallybysignsandoracles.Thefactisthatangermakesusconfidentthat
angerisexcitedbyourknowledgethatwearenotthewrongersbut
thewronged,andthatthedivinepowerisalwayssupposedtobeon
thesideofthewronged.Alsowhen,attheoutsetofanenterprise,
webelievethatwecannotandshallnotfail,orthatweshallsucceed
completely.Somuchforthecausesoffearandconfidence.
Part6
WenowturntoShameandShamelessness;whatfollowswillexplain
thethingsthatcausethesefeelings,andthepersonsbeforewhom,
andthestatesofmindunderwhich,theyarefelt.Shamemaybedefined
aspainordisturbanceinregardtobadthings,whetherpresent,past,
orfuture,whichseemlikelytoinvolveusindiscredit;andshamelessness
ascontemptorindifferenceinregardtothesesamebadthings.If
thisdefinitionbegranted,itfollowsthatwefeelshameatsuch
badthingsaswethinkaredisgracefultoourselvesortothosewe
carefor.Theseevilsare,inthefirstplace,thoseduetomoral
badness.Sucharethrowingawayone'sshieldortakingtoflight;
forthesebadthingsareduetocowardice.Also,withholdingadeposit
orotherwisewrongingpeopleaboutmoney;fortheseactsaredueto
injustice.Also,havingcarnalintercoursewithforbiddenpersons,
atwrongtimes,orinwrongplaces;forthesethingsareduetolicentiousness.
Also,makingprofitinpettyordisgracefulways,oroutofhelpless
persons,e.g.thepoor,orthedeadwhencetheproverb'Hewouldpick
acorpse'spocket';forallthisisduetolowgreedandmeanness.
Also,inmoneymatters,givinglesshelpthanyoumight,ornoneat
all,oracceptinghelpfromthoseworseoffthanyourself;soalso
borrowingwhenitwillseemlikebegging;beggingwhenitwillseem
likeaskingthereturnofafavour;askingsuchareturnwhenitwill
seemlikebegging;praisingamaninorderthatitmayseemlikebegging;
andgoingonbegginginspiteoffailure:allsuchactionsaretokens
ofmeanness.Also,praisingpeopletotheirface,andpraisingextravagantly
aman'sgoodpointsandglozingoverhisweaknesses,andshowingextravagant
sympathywithhisgriefwhenyouareinhispresence,andallthat
sortofthing;allthisshowsthedispositionofaflatterer.Also,
refusingtoendurehardshipsthatareenduredbypeoplewhoareolder,
moredelicatelybroughtup,ofhigherrank,orgenerallylesscapable
ofendurancethanourselves:forallthisshowseffeminacy.Also,
acceptingbenefits,especiallyacceptingthemoften,fromanother
man,andthenabusinghimforconferringthem:allthisshowsamean,
ignobledisposition.Also,talkingincessantlyaboutyourself,making
loudprofessions,andappropriatingthemeritsofothers;forthis
isduetoboastfulness.Thesameistrueoftheactionsduetoany
oftheotherformsofbadnessofmoralcharacter,ofthetokensof
suchbadness,&c.:theyarealldisgracefulandshameless.Another
sortofbadthingatwhichwefeelshameis,lackingashareinthe
honourablethingssharedbyeveryoneelse,orbyallornearlyall
whoarelikeourselves.By'thoselikeourselves'Imeanthoseof
ourownraceorcountryorageorfamily,andgenerallythosewho
areonourownlevel.Onceweareonalevelwithothers,itisa
disgracetobe,say,lesswelleducatedthantheyare;andsowith
otheradvantages:allthemoreso,ineachcase,ifitisseento
beourownfault:whereverweareourselvestoblameforourpresent,
past,orfuturecircumstances,itfollowsatoncethatthisisto
agreaterextentduetoourmoralbadness.Wearemoreoverashamed
ofhavingdonetous,havinghaddone,orbeingabouttohavedone
tousactsthatinvolveusindishonourandreproach;aswhenwesurrender
ourpersons,orlendourselvestoviledeeds,e.g.whenwesubmit
tooutrage.Andactsofyieldingtothelustofothersareshameful
46/102
15/03/2015
whetherwillingorunwilling(yieldingtoforcebeinganinstance
ofunwillingness),sinceunresistingsubmissiontothemisdueto
unmanlinessorcowardice.
Thesethings,andotherslikethem,arewhatcausethefeelingof
shame.Nowsinceshameisamentalpictureofdisgrace,inwhichwe
shrinkfromthedisgraceitselfandnotfromitsconsequences,and
weonlycarewhatopinionisheldofusbecauseofthepeoplewho
formthatopinion,itfollowsthatthepeoplebeforewhomwefeel
shamearethosewhoseopinionofusmatterstous.Suchpersonsare:
thosewhoadmireus,thosewhomweadmire,thosebywhomwewishto
beadmired,thosewithwhomwearecompeting,andthosewhoseopinion
ofuswerespect.Weadmirethose,andwishthosetoadmireus,who
possessanygoodthingthatishighlyesteemed;orfromwhomweare
veryanxioustogetsomethingthattheyareabletogiveusasalover
feels.Wecompetewithourequals.Werespect,astrue,theviews
ofsensiblepeople,suchasoureldersandthosewhohavebeenwell
educated.Andwefeelmoreshameaboutathingifitisdoneopenly,
beforeallmen'seyes.Hencetheproverb,'shamedwellsintheeyes'.
Forthisreasonwefeelmostshamebeforethosewhowillalwaysbe
withusandthosewhonoticewhatwedo,sinceinbothcaseseyes
areuponus.Wealsofeelitbeforethosenotopentothesameimputation
asourselves:foritisplainthattheiropinionsaboutitarethe
oppositeofours.Alsobeforethosewhoarehardonanyonewhose
conducttheythinkwrong;forwhatamandoeshimself,heissaid
nottoresentwhenhisneighboursdoit:sothatofcoursehedoes
resenttheirdoingwhathedoesnotdohimself.Andbeforethosewho
arelikelytotelleverybodyaboutyou;nottellingothersisasgood
asnotbelievingyouwrong.Peoplearelikelytotellothersabout
youifyouhavewrongedthem,sincetheyareonthelookouttoharm
you;oriftheyspeakevilofeverybody,forthosewhoattackthe
innocentwillbestillmorereadytoattacktheguilty.Andbefore
thosewhosemainoccupationiswiththeirneighbours'failingspeople
likesatiristsandwritersofcomedy;thesearereallyakindofevilspeakers
andtelltales.Andbeforethosewhohaveneveryetknownuscome
togrief,sincetheirattitudetoushasamountedtoadmirationso
far:thatiswhywefeelashamedtorefusethoseafavourwhoask
oneforthefirsttimewehavenotasyetlostcreditwiththem.Such
arethosewhoarejustbeginningtowishtobeourfriends;forthey
haveseenourbestsideonly(hencetheappropriatenessofEuripides'
replytotheSyracusans):andsuchalsoarethoseamongouroldacquaintances
whoknownothingtoourdiscredit.Andweareashamednotmerelyof
theactualshamefulconductmentioned,butalsooftheevidencesof
it:notmerely,forexample,ofactualsexualintercourse,butalso
ofitsevidences;andnotmerelyofdisgracefulactsbutalsoofdisgraceful
talk.Similarlywefeelshamenotmerelyinpresenceofthepersons
mentionedbutalsoofthosewhowilltellthemwhatwehavedone,
suchastheirservantsorfriends.And,generally,wefeelnoshame
beforethoseuponwhoseopinionswequitelookdownasuntrustworthy
(noonefeelsshamebeforesmallchildrenoranimals);norarewe
ashamedofthesamethingsbeforeintimatesasbeforestrangers,but
beforetheformerofwhatseemgenuinefaults,beforethelatterof
whatseemconventionalones.
Theconditionsunderwhichweshallfeelshamearethese:first,having
peoplerelatedtouslikethosebeforewhom,ashasbeensaid,we
feelshame.Theseare,aswasstated,personswhomweadmire,orwho
admireus,orbywhomwewishtobeadmired,orfromwhomwedesire
someservicethatweshallnotobtainifweforfeittheirgoodopinion.
Thesepersonsmaybeactuallylookingon(asCydiasrepresentedthem
inhisspeechonlandassignmentsinSamos,whenhetoldtheAthenians
toimaginetheGreekstobestandingallaroundthem,actuallyseeing
thewaytheyvotedandnotmerelygoingtohearaboutitafterwards):
oragaintheymaybenearathand,ormaybelikelytofindoutabout
whatwedo.Thisiswhyinmisfortunewedonotwishtobeseenby
47/102
15/03/2015
thosewhooncewishedthemselveslikeus;forsuchafeelingimplies
admiration.Andmenfeelshamewhentheyhaveactsorexploitsto
theircreditonwhichtheyarebringingdishonour,whethertheseare
theirown,orthoseoftheirancestors,orthoseofotherpersons
withwhomtheyhavesomecloseconnexion.Generally,wefeelshame
beforethoseforwhoseownmisconductweshouldalsofeelitthose
alreadymentioned;thosewhotakeusastheirmodels;thosewhose
teachersoradviserswehavebeen;orotherpeople,itmaybe,like
ourselves,whoserivalsweare.Fortherearemanythingsthatshame
beforesuchpeoplemakesusdoorleaveundone.Andwefeelmoreshame
whenwearelikelytobecontinuallyseenby,andgoaboutunderthe
eyesof,thosewhoknowofourdisgrace.Hence,whenAntiphonthe
poetwastobecudgelledtodeathbyorderofDionysius,andsawthose
whoweretoperishwithhimcoveringtheirfacesastheywentthrough
thegates,hesaid,'Whydoyoucoveryourfaces?Isitlestsome
ofthesespectatorsshouldseeyoutomorrow?'
SomuchforShame;tounderstandShamelessness,weneedonlyconsider
theconversecases,andplainlyweshallhaveallweneed.
Part7
TotakeKindnessnext:thedefinitionofitwillshowustowardswhom
itisfelt,why,andinwhatframesofmind.Kindnessundertheinfluence
ofwhichamanissaidto'bekind'maybedefinedashelpfulness
towardssomeoneinneed,notinreturnforanything,norforthe
advantageofthehelperhimself,butforthatofthepersonhelped.
Kindnessisgreatifshowntoonewhoisingreatneed,orwhoneeds
whatisimportantandhardtoget,orwhoneedsitatanimportant
anddifficultcrisis;orifthehelperistheonly,thefirst,or
thechiefpersontogivethehelp.Naturalcravingsconstitutesuch
needs;andinparticularcravings,accompaniedbypain,forwhatis
notbeingattained.Theappetitesarecravingsforthiskind:sexual
desire,forinstance,andthosewhichariseduringbodilyinjuries
andindangers;forappetiteisactivebothindangerandinpain.
Hencethosewhostandbyusinpovertyorinbanishment,evenifthey
donothelpusmuch,areyetreallykindtous,becauseourneedis
greatandtheoccasionpressing;forinstance,themanwhogavethe
matintheLyceum.Thehelpfulnessmustthereforemeet,preferably,
justthiskindofneed;andfailingjustthiskind,someotherkind
asgreatorgreater.Wenowseetowhom,why,andunderwhatconditions
kindnessisshown;andthesefactsmustformthebasisofourarguments.
Wemustshowthatthepersonshelpedare,orhavebeen,insuchpain
andneedashasbeendescribed,andthattheirhelpersgave,orare
giving,thekindofhelpdescribed,inthekindofneeddescribed.
Wecanalsoseehowtoeliminatetheideaofkindnessandmakeour
opponentsappearunkind:wemaymaintainthattheyarebeingorhave
beenhelpfulsimplytopromotetheirowninterestthis,ashasbeen
stated,isnotkindness;orthattheiractionwasaccidental,orwas
forceduponthem;orthattheywerenotdoingafavour,butmerely
returningone,whethertheyknowthisornotineithercasetheaction
isamerereturn,andisthereforenotakindnessevenifthedoer
doesnotknowhowthecasestands.Inconsideringthissubjectwe
mustlookatallthecategories:anactmaybeanactofkindness
because(1)itisaparticularthing,(2)ithasaparticularmagnitude
or(3)quality,or(4)isdoneataparticulartimeor(5)place.
Asevidenceofthewantofkindness,wemaypointoutthatasmaller
servicehadbeenrefusedtothemaninneed;orthatthesameservice,
oranequalorgreaterone,hasbeengiventohisenemies;thesefacts
showthattheserviceinquestionwasnotdoneforthesakeofthe
personhelped.Orwemaypointoutthatthethingdesiredwasworthless
andthatthehelperknewit:noonewilladmitthatheisinneed
ofwhatisworthless.
Part8
48/102
15/03/2015
SomuchforKindnessandUnkindness.LetusnowconsiderPity,asking
ourselveswhatthingsexcitepity,andforwhatpersons,andinwhat
statesofourmindpityisfelt.Pitymaybedefinedasafeeling
ofpaincausedbythesightofsomeevil,destructiveorpainful,
whichbefallsonewhodoesnotdeserveit,andwhichwemightexpect
tobefallourselvesorsomefriendofours,andmoreovertobefall
ussoon.Inordertofeelpity,wemustobviouslybecapableofsupposing
thatsomeevilmayhappentousorsomefriendofours,andmoreover
somesuchevilasisstatedinourdefinitionorismoreorlessof
thatkind.Itisthereforenotfeltbythosecompletelyruined,who
supposethatnofurtherevilcanbefallthem,sincetheworsthas
befallenthemalready;norbythosewhoimaginethemselvesimmensely
fortunatetheirfeelingisratherpresumptuousinsolence,forwhen
theythinktheypossessallthegoodthingsoflife,itisclearthat
theimpossibilityofevilbefallingthemwillbeincluded,thisbeing
oneofthegoodthingsinquestion.Thosewhothinkevilmaybefall
themaresuchashavealreadyhaditbefallthemandhavesafelyescaped
fromit;elderlymen,owingtotheirgoodsenseandtheirexperience;
weakmen,especiallymeninclinedtocowardice;andalsoeducated
people,sincethesecantakelongviews.Alsothosewhohaveparents
living,orchildren,orwives;fortheseareourown,andtheevils
mentionedabovemayeasilybefallthem.Andthosewhoneithermoved
byanycourageousemotionsuchasangerorconfidence(theseemotions
takenoaccountofthefuture),norbyadispositiontopresumptuous
insolence(insolentmen,too,takenoaccountofthepossibilitythat
somethingevilwillhappentothem),noryetbygreatfear(panicstricken
peopledonotfeelpity,becausetheyaretakenupwithwhatishappening
tothemselves);onlythosefeelpitywhoarebetweenthesetwoextremes.
Inordertofeelpitywemustalsobelieveinthegoodnessofatleast
somepeople;ifyouthinknobodygood,youwillbelievethateverybody
deservesevilfortune.And,generally,wefeelpitywheneverweare
intheconditionofrememberingthatsimilarmisfortuneshavehappened
tousorours,orexpectingthemtohappeninthefuture.
Somuchforthementalconditionsunderwhichwefeelpity.Whatwe
pityisstatedclearlyinthedefinition.Allunpleasantandpainful
thingsexcitepityiftheytendtodestroypainandannihilate;and
allsuchevilsasareduetochance,iftheyareserious.Thepainful
anddestructiveevilsare:deathinitsvariousforms,bodilyinjuries
andafflictions,oldage,diseases,lackoffood.Theevilsdueto
chanceare:friendlessness,scarcityoffriends(itisapitifulthing
tobetornawayfromfriendsandcompanions),deformity,weakness,
mutilation;evilcomingfromasourcefromwhichgoodoughttohave
come;andthefrequentrepetitionofsuchmisfortunes.Alsothecoming
ofgoodwhentheworsthashappened:e.g.thearrivaloftheGreat
King'sgiftsforDiopeithesafterhisdeath.Alsothateithernogood
shouldhavebefallenamanatall,orthatheshouldnotbeableto
enjoyitwhenithas.
Thegrounds,then,onwhichwefeelpityaretheseorlikethese.
Thepeoplewepityare:thosewhomweknow,ifonlytheyarenotvery
closelyrelatedtousinthatcasewefeelaboutthemasifwewere
indangerourselves.ForthisreasonAmasisdidnotweep,theysay,
atthesightofhissonbeingledtodeath,butdidweepwhenhesaw
hisfriendbegging:thelattersightwaspitiful,theformerterrible,
andtheterribleisdifferentfromthepitiful;ittendstocastout
pity,andoftenhelpstoproducetheoppositeofpity.Again,wefeel
pitywhenthedangerisnearourselves.Alsowepitythosewhoare
likeusinage,character,disposition,socialstanding,orbirth;
forinallthesecasesitappearsmorelikelythatthesamemisfortune
maybefallusalso.Heretoowehavetorememberthegeneralprinciple
thatwhatwefearforourselvesexcitesourpitywhenithappensto
others.Further,sinceitiswhenthesufferingsofothersareclose
tousthattheyexciteourpity(wecannotrememberwhatdisasters
49/102
15/03/2015
happenedahundredcenturiesago,norlookforwardtowhatwillhappen
ahundredcenturieshereafter,andthereforefeellittlepity,if
any,forsuchthings):itfollowsthatthosewhoheightentheeffect
oftheirwordswithsuitablegestures,tones,dress,anddramatic
actiongenerally,areespeciallysuccessfulinexcitingpity:they
thusputthedisastersbeforeoureyes,andmakethemseemcloseto
us,justcomingorjustpast.Anythingthathasjusthappened,or
isgoingtohappensoon,isparticularlypiteous:sotootherefore
arethetokensandtheactionsofsufferersthegarmentsandthelike
ofthosewhohavealreadysuffered;thewordsandthelikeofthose
actuallysufferingofthose,forinstance,whoareonthepointof
death.Mostpiteousofallisitwhen,insuchtimesoftrial,the
victimsarepersonsofnoblecharacter:whenevertheyareso,our
pityisespeciallyexcited,becausetheirinnocence,aswellasthe
settingoftheirmisfortunesbeforeoureyes,makestheirmisfortunes
seemclosetoourselves.
Part9
MostdirectlyopposedtopityisthefeelingcalledIndignation.Pain
atunmeritedgoodfortuneis,inonesense,oppositetopainatunmerited
badfortune,andisduetothesamemoralqualities.Bothfeelings
areassociatedwithgoodmoralcharacter;itisourdutybothtofeel
sympathyandpityforunmeriteddistress,andtofeelindignation
atunmeritedprosperity;forwhateverisundeservedisunjust,and
thatiswhyweascribeindignationeventothegods.Itmightindeed
bethoughtthatenvyissimilarlyopposedtopity,onthegroundthat
envyitcloselyakintoindignation,oreventhesamething.Butit
isnotthesame.Itistruethatitalsoisadisturbingpainexcited
bytheprosperityofothers.Butitisexcitednotbytheprosperity
oftheundeservingbutbythatofpeoplewhoarelikeusorequal
withus.Thetwofeelingshavethisincommon,thattheymustbedue
nottosomeuntowardthingbeinglikelytobefallourselves,butonly
towhatishappeningtoourneighbour.Thefeelingceasestobeenvy
intheonecaseandindignationintheother,andbecomesfear,if
thepainanddisturbanceareduetotheprospectofsomethingbad
forourselvesastheresultoftheotherman'sgoodfortune.Thefeelings
ofpityandindignationwillobviouslybeattendedbytheconverse
feelingsofsatisfaction.Ifyouarepainedbytheunmeriteddistress
ofothers,youwillbepleased,oratleastnotpained,bytheirmerited
distress.Thusnogoodmancanbepainedbythepunishmentofparricides
ormurderers.Thesearethingsweareboundtorejoiceat,aswemust
attheprosperityofthedeserving;boththesethingsarejust,and
bothgivepleasuretoanyhonestman,sincehecannothelpexpecting
thatwhathashappenedtoamanlikehimwillhappentohimtoo.All
thesefeelingsareassociatedwiththesametypeofmoralcharacter.
Andtheircontrariesareassociatedwiththecontrarytype;theman
whoisdelightedbyothers'misfortunesisidenticalwiththeman
whoenviesothers'prosperity.Foranyonewhoispainedbytheoccurrence
orexistenceofagiventhingmustbepleasedbythatthing'snonexistence
ordestruction.Wecannowseethatallthesefeelingstendtoprevent
pity(thoughtheydifferamongthemselves,forthereasonsgiven),
sothatallareequallyusefulforneutralizinganappealtopity.
WewillfirstconsiderIndignationreservingtheotheremotionsfor
subsequentdiscussionandaskwithwhom,onwhatgrounds,andinwhat
statesofmindwemaybeindignant.Thesequestionsarereallyanswered
bywhathasbeensaidalready.Indignationispaincausedbythesight
ofundeservedgoodfortune.Itis,then,plaintobeginwiththat
therearesomeformsofgoodthesightofwhichcannotcauseit.Thus
amanmaybejustorbrave,oracquiremoralgoodness:butweshall
notbeindignantwithhimforthatreason,anymorethanweshall
pityhimforthecontraryreason.Indignationisrousedbythesight
ofwealth,power,andthelikebyallthosethings,roughlyspeaking,
whicharedeservedbygoodmenandbythosewhopossessthegoods
50/102
15/03/2015
ofnaturenoblebirth,beauty,andsoon.Again,whatislongestablished
seemsakintowhatexistsbynature;andthereforewefeelmoreindignation
atthosepossessingagivengoodiftheyhaveasamatteroffact
onlyjustgotitandtheprosperityitbringswithit.Thenewlyrich
givemoreoffencethanthosewhosewealthisoflongstandingand
inherited.Thesameistrueofthosewhohaveofficeorpower,plenty
offriends,afinefamily,&c.Wefeelthesamewhentheseadvantages
oftheirssecurethemothers.Forhereagain,thenewlyrichgive
usmoreoffencebyobtainingofficethroughtheirrichesthandothose
whosewealthisoflongstanding;andsoinallothercases.Thereason
isthatwhatthelatterhaveisfelttobereallytheirown,butwhat
theothershaveisnot;whatappearstohavebeenalwayswhatitis
isregardedasreal,andsothepossessionsofthenewlyrichdonot
seemtobereallytheirown.Further,itisnotanyandeveryman
thatdeservesanygivenkindofgood;thereisacertaincorrespondence
andappropriatenessinsuchthings;thusitisappropriateforbrave
men,notforjustmen,tohavefineweapons,andformenoffamily,
notforparvenus,tomakedistinguishedmarriages.Indignationmay
thereforeproperlybefeltwhenanyonegetswhatisnotappropriate
forhim,thoughhemaybeagoodmanenough.Itmayalsobefeltwhen
anyonesetshimselfupagainsthissuperior,especiallyagainsthis
superiorinsomeparticularrespectwhencethelines
"OnlyfrombattleheshrankwithAiasTelamon'sson;
"Zeushadbeenangeredwithhim,
"hadhefoughtwithamightierone;"
butalso,evenapartfromthat,whentheinferiorinanysensecontends
withhissuperior;amusician,forinstance,withajustman,for
justiceisafinerthingthanmusic.
Enoughhasbeensaidtomakeclearthegroundsonwhich,andthepersons
againstwhom,Indignationisfelttheyarethosementioned,andothers
likehim.Asforthepeoplewhofeelit;wefeelitifwedoourselves
deservethegreatestpossiblegoodsandmoreoverhavethem,forit
isaninjusticethatthosewhoarenotourequalsshouldhavebeen
heldtodeserveasmuchaswehave.Or,secondly,wefeelitifwe
arereallygoodandhonestpeople;ourjudgementisthensound,and
weloatheanykindofinjustice.Alsoifweareambitiousandeager
togainparticularends,especiallyifweareambitiousforwhatothers
aregettingwithoutdeservingtogetit.And,generally,ifwethink
thatweourselvesdeserveathingandthatothersdonot,wearedisposed
tobeindignantwiththoseotherssofarasthatthingisconcerned.
Henceservile,worthless,unambitiouspersonsarenotinclinedto
Indignation,sincethereisnothingtheycanbelievethemselvesto
deserve.
Fromallthisitisplainwhatsortofmenthoseareatwhosemisfortunes,
distresses,orfailuresweoughttofeelpleased,oratleastnot
pained:byconsideringthefactsdescribedweseeatoncewhattheir
contrariesare.Ifthereforeourspeechputsthejudgesinsucha
frameofmindasthatindicatedandshowsthatthosewhoclaimpity
oncertaindefinitegroundsdonotdeservetosecurepitybutdodeserve
nottosecureit,itwillbeimpossibleforthejudgestofeelpity.
Part10
TotakeEnvynext:wecanseeonwhatgrounds,againstwhatpersons,
andinwhatstatesofmindwefeelit.Envyispainatthesightof
suchgoodfortuneasconsistsofthegoodthingsalreadymentioned;
wefeelittowardsourequals;notwiththeideaofgettingsomething
forourselves,butbecausetheotherpeoplehaveit.Weshallfeel
itifwehave,orthinkwehave,equals;andby'equals'Imeanequals
51/102
15/03/2015
inbirth,relationship,age,disposition,distinction,orwealth.
Wefeelenvyalsoifwefallbutalittleshortofhavingeverything;
whichiswhypeopleinhighplaceandprosperityfeelittheythink
everyoneelseistakingwhatbelongstothemselves.Alsoifweare
exceptionallydistinguishedforsomeparticularthing,andespecially
ifthatthingiswisdomorgoodfortune.Ambitiousmenaremoreenvious
thanthosewhoarenot.Soalsothosewhoprofesswisdom;theyare
ambitioustobethoughtwise.Indeed,generally,thosewhoaimat
areputationforanythingareenviousonthisparticularpoint.And
smallmindedmenareenvious,foreverythingseemsgreattothem.
Thegoodthingswhichexciteenvyhavealreadybeenmentioned.The
deedsorpossessionswhicharousetheloveofreputationandhonour
andthedesireforfame,andthevariousgiftsoffortune,arealmost
allsubjecttoenvy;andparticularlyifwedesirethethingourselves,
orthinkweareentitledtoit,orifhavingitputsusalittleabove
others,ornothavingitalittlebelowthem.Itisclearalsowhat
kindofpeopleweenvy;thatwasincludedinwhathasbeensaidalready:
weenvythosewhoarenearusintime,place,age,orreputation.
Hencetheline:
"Ay,kincanevenbejealousoftheirkin."
Alsoourfellowcompetitors,whoareindeedthepeoplejustmentionedwe
donotcompetewithmenwholivedahundredcenturiesago,orthose
notyetborn,orthedead,orthosewhodwellnearthePillarsof
Hercules,orthosewhom,inouropinionorthatofothers,wetake
tobefarbelowusorfaraboveus.Sotoowecompetewiththosewho
followthesameendsasourselves:wecompetewithourrivalsinsport
orinlove,andgenerallywiththosewhoareafterthesamethings;
anditisthereforethesewhomweareboundtoenvybeyondallothers.
Hencethesaying:
"Potteragainstpotter."
Wealsoenvythosewhosepossessionoforsuccessinathingisa
reproachtous:theseareourneighboursandequals;foritisclear
thatitisourownfaultwehavemissedthegoodthinginquestion;
thisannoysus,andexcitesenvyinus.Wealsoenvythosewhohave
whatweoughttohave,orhavegotwhatwedidhaveonce.Henceold
menenvyyoungermen,andthosewhohavespentmuchenvythosewho
havespentlittleonthesamething.Andmenwhohavenotgotathing,
ornotgotityet,envythosewhohavegotitquickly.Wecanalso
seewhatthingsandwhatpersonsgivepleasuretoenviouspeople,
andinwhatstatesofmindtheyfeelit:thestatesofmindinwhich
theyfeelpainarethoseunderwhichtheywillfeelpleasureinthe
contrarythings.Ifthereforeweourselveswithwhomthedecision
restsareputintoanenviousstateofmind,andthoseforwhomour
pity,ortheawardofsomethingdesirable,isclaimedaresuchas
havebeendescribed,itisobviousthattheywillwinnopityfrom
us.
Part11
WewillnextconsiderEmulation,showinginwhatfollowsitscauses
andobjects,andthestateofmindinwhichitisfelt.Emulation
ispaincausedbyseeingthepresence,inpersonswhosenatureis
likeourown,ofgoodthingsthatarehighlyvaluedandarepossible
forourselvestoacquire;butitisfeltnotbecauseothershavethese
goods,butbecausewehavenotgotthemourselves.Itistherefore
agoodfeelingfeltbygoodpersons,whereasenvyisabadfeeling
feltbybadpersons.Emulationmakesustakestepstosecurethegood
thingsinquestion,envymakesustakestepstostopourneighbour
havingthem.Emulationmustthereforetendtobefeltbypersonswho
believethemselvestodeservecertaingoodthingsthattheyhavenot
got,itbeingunderstoodthatnooneaspirestothingswhichappear
52/102
15/03/2015
impossible.Itisaccordinglyfeltbytheyoungandbypersonsof
loftydisposition.Alsobythosewhopossesssuchgoodthingsasare
deservedbymenheldinhonourthesearewealth,abundanceoffriends,
publicoffice,andthelike;ontheassumptionthattheyoughtto
begoodmen,theyareemuloustogainsuchgoodsbecausetheyought,
intheirbelief,tobelongtomenwhosestateofmindisgood.Also
bythosewhomallothersthinkdeserving.Wealsofeelitaboutanything
forwhichourancestors,relatives,personalfriends,race,orcountry
arespeciallyhonoured,lookinguponthatthingasreallyourown,
andthereforefeelingthatwedeservetohaveit.Further,sinceall
goodthingsthatarehighlyhonouredareobjectsofemulation,moral
goodnessinitsvariousformsmustbesuchanobject,andalsoall
thosegoodthingsthatareusefulandserviceabletoothers:formen
honourthosewhoaremorallygood,andalsothosewhodothemservice.
Sowiththosegoodthingsourpossessionofwhichcangiveenjoyment
toourneighbourswealthandbeautyratherthanhealth.Wecansee,
too,whatpersonsaretheobjectsofthefeeling.Theyarethosewho
havetheseandsimilarthingsthosealreadymentioned,ascourage,
wisdom,publicoffice.Holdersofpublicofficegenerals,orators,
andallwhopossesssuchpowerscandomanypeopleagoodturn.Also
thosewhommanypeoplewishtobelike;thosewhohavemanyacquaintances
orfriends;thosewhomadmire,orwhomweourselvesadmire;andthose
whohavebeenpraisedandeulogizedbypoetsorprosewriters.Persons
ofthecontrarysortareobjectsofcontempt:forthefeelingand
notionofcontemptareoppositetothoseofemulation.Thosewhoare
suchastoemulateorbeemulatedbyothersareinevitablydisposed
tobecontemptuousofallsuchpersonsasaresubjecttothosebad
thingswhicharecontrarytothegoodthingsthataretheobjects
ofemulation:despisingthemforjustthatreason.Henceweoften
despisethefortunate,whenluckcomestothemwithouttheirhaving
thosegoodthingswhichareheldinhonour.
Thiscompletesourdiscussionofthemeansbywhichtheseveralemotions
maybeproducedordissipated,anduponwhichdependthepersuasive
argumentsconnectedwiththeemotions.
Part12
Letusnowconsiderthevarioustypesofhumancharacter,inrelation
totheemotionsandmoralqualities,showinghowtheycorrespondto
ourvariousagesandfortunes.ByemotionsImeananger,desire,and
thelike;thesewehavediscussedalready.BymoralqualitiesImean
virtuesandvices;thesealsohavebeendiscussedalready,aswell
asthevariousthingsthatvarioustypesofmentendtowillandto
do.ByagesImeanyouth,theprimeoflife,andoldage.Byfortune
Imeanbirth,wealth,power,andtheiroppositesinfact,goodfortune
andillfortune.
TobeginwiththeYouthfultypeofcharacter.Youngmenhavestrong
passions,andtendtogratifythemindiscriminately.Ofthebodily
desires,itisthesexualbywhichtheyaremostswayedandinwhich
theyshowabsenceofselfcontrol.Theyarechangeableandfickle
intheirdesires,whichareviolentwhiletheylast,butquicklyover:
theirimpulsesarekeenbutnotdeeprooted,andarelikesickpeople's
attacksofhungerandthirst.Theyarehottempered,andquicktempered,
andapttogivewaytotheiranger;badtemperoftengetsthebetter
ofthem,forowingtotheirloveofhonourtheycannotbearbeing
slighted,andareindignantiftheyimaginethemselvesunfairlytreated.
Whiletheylovehonour,theylovevictorystillmore;foryouthis
eagerforsuperiorityoverothers,andvictoryisoneformofthis.
Theylovebothmorethantheylovemoney,whichindeedtheylovevery
little,nothavingyetlearntwhatitmeanstobewithoutitthis
isthepointofPittacus'remarkaboutAmphiaraus.Theylookatthe
goodsideratherthanthebad,nothavingyetwitnessedmanyinstances
ofwickedness.Theytrustothersreadily,becausetheyhavenotyet
53/102
15/03/2015
oftenbeencheated.Theyaresanguine;naturewarmstheirbloodas
thoughwithexcessofwine;andbesidesthat,theyhaveasyetmet
withfewdisappointments.Theirlivesaremainlyspentnotinmemory
butinexpectation;forexpectationreferstothefuture,memoryto
thepast,andyouthhasalongfuturebeforeitandashortpastbehind
it:onthefirstdayofone'slifeonehasnothingatalltoremember,
andcanonlylookforward.Theyareeasilycheated,owingtothesanguine
dispositionjustmentioned.Theirhottempersandhopefuldispositions
makethemmorecourageousthanoldermenare;thehottemperprevents
fear,andthehopefuldispositioncreatesconfidence;wecannotfeel
fearsolongaswearefeelingangry,andanyexpectationofgood
makesusconfident.Theyareshy,acceptingtherulesofsocietyin
whichtheyhavebeentrained,andnotyetbelievinginanyotherstandard
ofhonour.Theyhaveexaltednotions,becausetheyhavenotyetbeen
humbledbylifeorlearntitsnecessarylimitations;moreover,their
hopefuldispositionmakesthemthinkthemselvesequaltogreatthingsand
thatmeanshavingexaltednotions.Theywouldalwaysratherdonoble
deedsthanusefulones:theirlivesareregulatedmorebymoralfeeling
thanbyreasoning;andwhereasreasoningleadsustochoosewhatis
useful,moralgoodnessleadsustochoosewhatisnoble.Theyare
fonderoftheirfriends,intimates,andcompanionsthanoldermen
are,becausetheylikespendingtheirdaysinthecompanyofothers,
andhavenotyetcometovalueeithertheirfriendsoranythingelse
bytheirusefulnesstothemselves.Alltheirmistakesareinthedirection
ofdoingthingsexcessivelyandvehemently.TheydisobeyChilon's
preceptbyoverdoingeverything,theylovetoomuchandhatetoomuch,
andthesamethingwitheverythingelse.Theythinktheyknoweverything,
andarealwaysquitesureaboutit;this,infact,iswhytheyoverdo
everything.Iftheydowrongtoothers,itisbecausetheymeanto
insultthem,nottodothemactualharm.Theyarereadytopityothers,
becausetheythinkeveryoneanhonestman,oranyhowbetterthan
heis:theyjudgetheirneighbourbytheirownharmlessnatures,and
socannotthinkhedeservestobetreatedinthatway.Theyarefond
offunandthereforewitty,witbeingwellbredinsolence.
Part13
Such,thenisthecharacteroftheYoung.ThecharacterofElderly
Menmenwhoarepasttheirprimemaybesaidtobeformedforthe
mostpartofelementsthatarethecontraryofallthese.Theyhave
livedmanyyears;theyhaveoftenbeentakenin,andoftenmademistakes;
andlifeonthewholeisabadbusiness.Theresultisthattheyare
sureaboutnothingandunderdoeverything.They'think',butthey
never'know';andbecauseoftheirhesitationtheyalwaysadda'possibly'or
a'perhaps',puttingeverythingthiswayandnothingpositively.They
arecynical;thatis,theytendtoputtheworseconstructiononeverything.
Further,theirexperiencemakesthemdistrustfulandthereforesuspicious
ofevil.Consequentlytheyneitherlovewarmlynorhatebitterly,
butfollowingthehintofBiastheyloveasthoughtheywillsome
dayhateandhateasthoughtheywillsomedaylove.Theyaresmallminded,
becausetheyhavebeenhumbledbylife:theirdesiresaresetupon
nothingmoreexaltedorunusualthanwhatwillhelpthemtokeepalive.
Theyarenotgenerous,becausemoneyisoneofthethingstheymust
have,andatthesametimetheirexperiencehastaughtthemhowhard
itistogetandhoweasytolose.Theyarecowardly,andarealways
anticipatingdanger;unlikethatoftheyoung,whoarewarmblooded,
theirtemperamentischilly;oldagehaspavedthewayforcowardice;
fearis,infact,aformofchill.Theylovelife;andallthemore
whentheirlastdayhascome,becausetheobjectofalldesireis
somethingwehavenotgot,andalsobecausewedesiremoststrongly
thatwhichweneedmosturgently.Theyaretoofondofthemselves;
thisisoneformthatsmallmindednesstakes.Becauseofthis,they
guidetheirlivestoomuchbyconsiderationsofwhatisusefuland
toolittlebywhatisnoblefortheusefuliswhatisgoodforoneself,
andthenoblewhatisgoodabsolutely.Theyarenotshy,butshameless
54/102
15/03/2015
rather;caringlessforwhatisnoblethanforwhatisuseful,they
feelcontemptforwhatpeoplemaythinkofthem.Theylackconfidence
inthefuture;partlythroughexperienceformostthingsgowrong,
oranyhowturnoutworsethanoneexpects;andpartlybecauseoftheir
cowardice.Theylivebymemoryratherthanbyhope;forwhatisleft
tothemoflifeisbutlittleascomparedwiththelongpast;and
hopeisofthefuture,memoryofthepast.This,again,isthecause
oftheirloquacity;theyarecontinuallytalkingofthepast,because
theyenjoyrememberingit.Theirfitsofangeraresuddenbutfeeble.
Theirsensualpassionshaveeitheraltogethergoneorhavelosttheir
vigour:consequentlytheydonotfeeltheirpassionsmuch,andtheir
actionsareinspiredlessbywhattheydofeelthanbytheloveof
gain.Hencemenatthistimeoflifeareoftensupposedtohavea
selfcontrolledcharacter;thefactisthattheirpassionshaveslackened,
andtheyareslavestotheloveofgain.Theyguidetheirlivesby
reasoningmorethanbymoralfeeling;reasoningbeingdirectedto
utilityandmoralfeelingtomoralgoodness.Iftheywrongothers,
theymeantoinjurethem,nottoinsultthem.Oldmenmayfeelpity,
aswellasyoungmen,butnotforthesamereason.Youngmenfeel
itoutofkindness;oldmenoutofweakness,imaginingthatanything
thatbefallsanyoneelsemighteasilyhappentothem,which,aswe
saw,isathoughtthatexcitespity.Hencetheyarequerulous,and
notdisposedtojestingorlaughtertheloveoflaughterbeingthe
veryoppositeofquerulousness.
SucharethecharactersofYoungMenandElderlyMen.Peoplealways
thinkwellofspeechesadaptedto,andreflecting,theirowncharacter:
andwecannowseehowtocomposeourspeechessoastoadaptboth
themandourselvestoouraudiences.
Part14
AsforMenintheirPrime,clearlyweshallfindthattheyhavea
characterbetweenthatoftheyoungandthatoftheold,freefrom
theextremesofeither.Theyhaveneitherthatexcessofconfidence
whichamountstorashness,nortoomuchtimidity,buttherightamount
ofeach.Theyneithertrusteverybodynordistrusteverybody,but
judgepeoplecorrectly.Theirliveswillbeguidednotbythesole
considerationeitherofwhatisnobleorofwhatisuseful,butby
both;neitherbyparsimonynorbyprodigality,butbywhatisfit
andproper.So,too,inregardtoangeranddesire;theywillbebrave
aswellastemperate,andtemperateaswellasbrave;thesevirtues
aredividedbetweentheyoungandtheold;theyoungarebravebut
intemperate,theoldtemperatebutcowardly.Toputitgenerally,
allthevaluablequalitiesthatyouthandagedividebetweenthem
areunitedintheprimeoflife,whilealltheirexcessesordefects
arereplacedbymoderationandfitness.Thebodyisinitsprimefrom
thirtytofiveandthirty;themindaboutfortynine.
Part15
Somuchforthetypesofcharacterthatdistinguishyouth,oldage,
andtheprimeoflife.WewillnowturntothoseGiftsofFortune
bywhichhumancharacterisaffected.FirstletusconsiderGoodBirth.
Itseffectoncharacteristomakethosewhohaveitmoreambitious;
itisthewayofallmenwhohavesomethingtostartwithtoaddto
thepile,andgoodbirthimpliesancestraldistinction.Thewellborn
manwilllookdownevenonthosewhoareasgoodashisownancestors,
becauseanyfaroffdistinctionisgreaterthanthesamethingclose
tous,andbettertoboastabout.Beingwellborn,whichmeanscoming
ofafinestock,mustbedistinguishedfromnobility,whichmeans
beingtruetothefamilynatureaqualitynotusuallyfoundinthe
wellborn,mostofwhomarepoorcreatures.Inthegenerationsof
menasinthefruitsoftheearth,thereisavaryingyield;nowand
then,wherethestockisgood,exceptionalmenareproducedfora
55/102
15/03/2015
while,andthendecadencesetsin.Acleverstockwilldegenerate
towardstheinsanetypeofcharacter,likethedescendantsofAlcibiades
oroftheelderDionysius;asteadystocktowardsthefatuousand
torpidtype,likethedescendantsofCimon,Pericles,andSocrates.
Part16
ThetypeofcharacterproducedbyWealthliesonthesurfaceforall
tosee.Wealthymenareinsolentandarrogant;theirpossessionof
wealthaffectstheirunderstanding;theyfeelasiftheyhadevery
goodthingthatexists;wealthbecomesasortofstandardofvalue
foreverythingelse,andthereforetheyimaginethereisnothingit
cannotbuy.Theyareluxuriousandostentatious;luxurious,because
oftheluxuryinwhichtheyliveandtheprosperitywhichtheydisplay;
ostentatiousandvulgar,because,likeotherpeople's,theirminds
areregularlyoccupiedwiththeobjectoftheirloveandadmiration,
andalsobecausetheythinkthatotherpeople'sideaofhappiness
isthesameastheirown.Itisindeedquitenaturalthattheyshould
beaffectedthus;forifyouhavemoney,therearealwaysplentyof
peoplewhocomebeggingfromyou.HencethesayingofSimonidesabout
wisemenandrichmen,inanswertoHiero'swife,whoaskedhimwhether
itwasbettertogrowrichorwise.'Why,rich,'hesaid;'forIsee
thewisemenspendingtheirdaysattherichmen'sdoors.'Richmen
alsoconsiderthemselvesworthytoholdpublicoffice;fortheyconsider
theyalreadyhavethethingsthatgiveaclaimtooffice.Inaword,
thetypeofcharacterproducedbywealthisthatofaprosperousfool.
Thereisindeedonedifferencebetweenthetypeofthenewlyenriched
andthosewhohavelongbeenrich:thenewlyenrichedhaveallthe
badqualitiesmentionedinanexaggeratedandworseformtobenewlyenriched
means,sotospeak,noeducationinriches.Thewrongstheydoothers
arenotmeanttoinjuretheirvictims,butspringfrominsolenceor
selfindulgence,e.g.thosethatendinassaultorinadultery.
Part17
AstoPower:heretooitmayfairlybesaidthatthetypeofcharacter
itproducesismostlyobviousenough.Someelementsinthistypeit
shareswiththewealthytype,othersarebetter.Thoseinpowerare
moreambitiousandmoremanlyincharacterthanthewealthy,because
theyaspiretodothegreatdeedsthattheirpowerpermitsthemto
do.Responsibilitymakesthemmoreserious:theyhavetokeeppaying
attentiontothedutiestheirpositioninvolves.Theyaredignified
ratherthanarrogant,fortherespectinwhichtheyareheldinspires
themwithdignityandthereforewithmoderationdignitybeingamild
andbecomingformofarrogance.Iftheywrongothers,theywrongthem
notonasmallbutonagreatscale.
Goodfortuneincertainofitsbranchesproducesthetypesofcharacter
belongingtotheconditionsjustdescribed,sincetheseconditions
areinfactmoreorlessthekindsofgoodfortunethatareregarded
asmostimportant.Itmaybeaddedthatgoodfortuneleadsustogain
allwecaninthewayoffamilyhappinessandbodilyadvantages.It
doesindeedmakemenmoresuperciliousandmorereckless;butthere
isoneexcellentqualitythatgoeswithitpiety,andrespectfor
thedivinepower,inwhichtheybelievebecauseofeventswhichare
reallytheresultofchance.
Thisaccountofthetypesofcharacterthatcorrespondtodifferences
ofageorfortunemayendhere;fortoarriveattheoppositetypes
tothosedescribed,namely,thoseofthepoor,theunfortunate,and
thepowerless,wehaveonlytoaskwhattheoppositequalitiesare.
Part18
Theuseofpersuasivespeechistoleadtodecisions.(Whenweknow
56/102
15/03/2015
athing,andhavedecidedaboutit,thereisnofurtheruseinspeaking
aboutit.)Thisissoevenifoneisaddressingasinglepersonand
urginghimtodoornottodosomething,aswhenwescoldamanfor
hisconductortrytochangehisviews:thesinglepersonisasmuch
your'judge'asifhewereoneofmany;wemaysay,withoutqualification,
thatanyoneisyourjudgewhomyouhavetopersuade.Nordoesit
matterwhetherwearearguingagainstanactualopponentoragainst
amereproposition;inthelattercasewestillhavetousespeech
andoverthrowtheopposingarguments,andweattacktheseasweshould
attackanactualopponent.Ourprincipleholdsgoodofceremonial
speechesalso;the'onlookers'forwhomsuchaspeechisputtogether
aretreatedasthejudgesofit.Broadlyspeaking,however,theonly
sortofpersonwhocanstrictlybecalledajudgeisthemanwhodecides
theissueinsomematterofpubliccontroversy;thatis,inlawsuits
andinpoliticaldebates,inbothofwhichthereareissuestobe
decided.Inthesectiononpoliticaloratoryanaccounthasalready
beengivenofthetypesofcharacterthatmarkthedifferentconstitutions.
Themannerandmeansofinvestingspeecheswithmoralcharactermay
nowberegardedasfullysetforth.
Eachofthemaindivisionsoforatoryhas,wehaveseen,itsowndistinct
purpose.Withregardtoeachdivision,wehavenotedtheaccepted
viewsandpropositionsuponwhichwemaybaseourargumentsforpolitical,
forceremonial,andforforensicspeaking.Wehavefurtherdetermined
completelybywhatmeansspeechesmaybeinvestedwiththerequired
moralcharacter.Wearenowtoproceedtodiscusstheargumentscommon
toalloratory.Allorators,besidestheirspeciallinesofargument,
areboundtouse,forinstance,thetopicofthePossibleandImpossible;
andtotrytoshowthatathinghashappened,orwillhappeninfuture.
Again,thetopicofSizeiscommontoalloratory;allofushave
toarguethatthingsarebiggerorsmallerthantheyseem,whether
wearemakingpoliticalspeeches,speechesofeulogyorattack,or
prosecutingordefendinginthelawcourts.Havinganalysedthese
subjects,wewilltrytosaywhatwecanaboutthegeneralprinciples
ofarguingby'enthymeme'and'example',bytheadditionofwhich
wemayhopetocompletetheprojectwithwhichwesetout.Ofthe
abovementionedgenerallinesofargument,thatconcernedwithAmplification
isashasbeenalreadysaidmostappropriatetoceremonialspeeches;
thatconcernedwiththePast,toforensicspeeches,wheretherequired
decisionisalwaysaboutthepast;thatconcernedwithPossibility
andtheFuture,topoliticalspeeches.
Part19
LetusfirstspeakofthePossibleandImpossible.Itmayplausibly
beargued:Thatifitispossibleforoneofapairofcontraries
tobeorhappen,thenitispossiblefortheother:e.g.ifaman
canbecured,hecanalsofallill;foranytwocontrariesareequally
possible,insofarastheyarecontraries.Thatifoftwosimilar
thingsoneispossible,soistheother.Thatiftheharderoftwo
thingsispossible,soistheeasier.Thatifathingcancomeinto
existenceinagoodandbeautifulform,thenitcancomeintoexistence
generally;thusahousecanexistmoreeasilythanabeautifulhouse.
Thatifthebeginningofathingcanoccur,socantheend;fornothing
impossibleoccursorbeginstooccur;thusthecommensurabilityof
thediagonalofasquarewithitssideneitheroccursnorcanbegin
tooccur.Thatiftheendispossible,soisthebeginning;forall
thingsthatoccurhaveabeginning.Thatifthatwhichisposterior
inessenceorinorderofgenerationcancomeintobeing,socanthat
whichisprior:thusifamancancomeintobeing,socanaboy,since
theboycomesfirstinorderofgeneration;andifaboycan,socan
aman,forthemanalsoisfirst.Thatthosethingsarepossibleof
whichtheloveordesireisnatural;fornoone,asarule,loves
ordesiresimpossibilities.Thatthingswhicharetheobjectofany
57/102
15/03/2015
kindofscienceorartarepossibleandexistorcomeintoexistence.
Thatanythingispossiblethefirststepinwhoseproductiondepends
onmenorthingswhichwecancompelorpersuadetoproduceit,by
ourgreaterstrength,ourcontrolofthem,orourfriendshipwith
them.Thatwherethepartsarepossible,thewholeispossible;and
wherethewholeispossible,thepartsareusuallypossible.Forif
theslitinfront,thetoepiece,andtheupperleathercanbemade,
thenshoescanbemade;andifshoes,thenalsothefrontslitand
toepiece.Thatifawholegenusisathingthatcanoccur,socan
thespecies;andifthespeciescanoccur,socanthegenus:thus,
ifasailingvesselcanbemade,soalsocanatrireme;andifatrireme,
thenasailingvesselalso.Thatifoneoftwothingswhoseexistence
dependsoneachotherispossible,soistheother;forinstance,
if'double',then'half',andif'half',then'double'.Thatifa
thingcanbeproducedwithoutartorpreparation,itcanbeproduced
stillmorecertainlybythecarefulapplicationofarttoit.Hence
Agathonhassaid:
"Tosomethingswebyartmustneedsattain,
"Othersbydestinyorluckwegain."
Thatifanythingispossibletoinferior,weaker,andstupiderpeople,
itismoresofortheiropposites;thusIsocratessaidthatitwould
beastrangethingifhecouldnotdiscoverathingthatEuthynus
hadfoundout.AsforImpossibility,wecanclearlygetwhatwewant
bytakingthecontrariesoftheargumentsstatedabove.
QuestionsofPastFactmaybelookedatinthefollowingways:First,
thatifthelesslikelyoftwothingshasoccurred,themorelikely
musthaveoccurredalso.Thatifonethingthatusuallyfollowsanother
hashappened,thenthatotherthinghashappened;that,forinstance,
ifamanhasforgottenathing,hehasalsooncelearntit.Thatif
amanhadthepowerandthewishtodoathing,hehasdoneit;for
everyonedoesdowhateverheintendstodowheneverhecandoit,
therebeingnothingtostophim.That,further,hehasdonethething
inquestioneitherifheintendeditandnothingexternalprevented
him;orifhehadthepowertodoitandwasangryatthetime;or
ifhehadthepowertodoitandhisheartwassetuponitforpeople
asaruledowhattheylongtodo,iftheycan;badpeoplethrough
lackofselfcontrol;goodpeople,becausetheirheartsaresetupon
goodthings.Again,thatifathingwas'goingtohappen',ithas
happened;ifamanwas'goingtodosomething',hehasdoneit,for
itislikelythattheintentionwascarriedout.Thatifonething
hashappenedwhichnaturallyhappensbeforeanotherorwithaview
toit,theotherhashappened;forinstance,ifithaslightened,
ithasalsothundered;andifanactionhasbeenattempted,ithas
beendone.Thatifonethinghashappenedwhichnaturallyhappens
afteranother,orwithaviewtowhichthatotherhappens,thenthat
other(thatwhichhappensfirst,orhappenswithaviewtothisthing)
hasalsohappened;thus,ifithasthunderedithaslightened,and
ifanactionhasbeendoneithasbeenattempted.Ofallthesesequences
someareinevitableandsomemerelyusual.Theargumentsforthenonoccurrence
ofanythingcanobviouslybefoundbyconsideringtheoppositesof
thosethathavebeenmentioned.
HowquestionsofFutureFactshouldbearguedisclearfromthesame
considerations:Thatathingwillbedoneifthereisboththepower
andthewishtodoit;orifalongwiththepowertodoitthereis
acravingfortheresult,oranger,orcalculation,promptingit.
Thatthethingwillbedone,inthesecases,ifthemanisactually
settingaboutit,orevenifhemeanstodoitlaterforusuallywhat
wemeantodohappensratherthanwhatwedonotmeantodo.That
athingwillhappenifanotherthingwhichnaturallyhappensbefore
ithasalreadyhappened;thus,ifitiscloudingover,itislikely
58/102
15/03/2015
torain.Thatifthemeanstoanendhaveoccurred,thentheendis
likelytooccur;thus,ifthereisafoundation,therewillbeahouse.
ForargumentsabouttheGreatnessandSmallnessofthings,thegreater
andthelesser,andgenerallygreatthingsandsmall,whatwehave
alreadysaidwillshowthelinetotake.Indiscussingdeliberative
oratorywehavespokenabouttherelativegreatnessofvariousgoods,
andaboutthegreaterandlesseringeneral.Sincethereforeineach
typeoratorytheobjectunderdiscussionissomekindofgoodwhether
itisutility,nobleness,orjusticeitisclearthateveryorator
mustobtainthematerialsofamplificationthroughthesechannels.
Togofurtherthanthis,andtrytoestablishabstractlawsofgreatness
andsuperiority,istoarguewithoutanobject;inpracticallife,
particularfactscountmorethangeneralizations.
Enoughhasnowbeensaidaboutthesequestionsofpossibilityand
thereverse,ofpastorfuturefact,andoftherelativegreatness
orsmallnessofthings.
Part20
Thespecialformsoforatoricalargumenthavingnowbeendiscussed,
wehavenexttotreatofthosewhicharecommontoallkindsoforatory.
Theseareoftwomainkinds,'Example'and'Enthymeme';forthe'Maxim'
ispartofanenthymeme.
WewillfirsttreatofargumentbyExample,forithasthenature
ofinduction,whichisthefoundationofreasoning.Thisformofargument
hastwovarieties;oneconsistinginthementionofactualpastfacts,
theotherintheinventionoffactsbythespeaker.Ofthelatter,
again,therearetwovarieties,theillustrativeparallelandthe
fable(e.g.thefablesofAesop,thosefromLibya).Asaninstance
ofthementionofactualfacts,takethefollowing.Thespeakermay
arguethus:'WemustprepareforwaragainstthekingofPersiaand
notlethimsubdueEgypt.ForDariusofolddidnotcrosstheAegean
untilhehadseizedEgypt;butoncehehadseizedit,hedidcross.
AndXerxes,again,didnotattackusuntilhehadseizedEgypt;but
oncehehadseizedit,hedidcross.Ifthereforethepresentking
seizesEgypt,healsowillcross,andthereforewemustnotlethim.'
TheillustrativeparallelisthesortofargumentSocratesused:e.g.
'Publicofficialsoughtnottobeselectedbylot.Thatislikeusing
thelottoselectathletes,insteadofchoosingthosewhoarefit
forthecontest;orusingthelottoselectasteersmanfromamong
aship'screw,asifweoughttotakethemanonwhomthelotfalls,
andnotthemanwhoknowsmostaboutit.'
InstancesofthefablearethatofStesichorusaboutPhalaris,and
thatofAesopindefenceofthepopularleader.Whenthepeopleof
HimerahadmadePhalarismilitarydictator,andweregoingtogive
himabodyguard,Stesichoruswoundupalongtalkbytellingthem
thefableofthehorsewhohadafieldalltohimself.Presentlythere
cameastagandbegantospoilhispasturage.Thehorse,wishingto
revengehimselfonthestag,askedamanifhecouldhelphimtodo
so.Themansaid,'Yes,ifyouwillletmebridleyouandgetonto
yourbackwithjavelinsinmyhand'.Thehorseagreed,andtheman
mounted;butinsteadofgettinghisrevengeonthestag,thehorse
foundhimselftheslaveoftheman.'Youtoo',saidStesichorus,'take
carelestyourdesireforrevengeonyourenemies,youmeetthesame
fateasthehorse.BymakingPhalarismilitarydictator,youhave
alreadyletyourselvesbebridled.Ifyoulethimgetontoyourbacks
bygivinghimabodyguard,fromthatmomentyouwillbehisslaves.'
Aesop,defendingbeforetheassemblyatSamosapoularleaderwho
wasbeingtriedforhislife,toldthisstory:Afox,incrossing
59/102
15/03/2015
ariver,wassweptintoaholeintherocks;and,notbeingableto
getout,sufferedmiseriesforalongtimethroughtheswarmsoffleas
thatfastenedonher.Ahedgehog,whileroamingaround,noticedthe
fox;andfeelingsorryforheraskedifhemightremovethefleas.
Butthefoxdeclinedtheoffer;andwhenthehedgehogaskedwhy,she
replied,'Thesefleasarebythistimefullofmeandnotsucking
muchblood;ifyoutakethemaway,otherswillcomewithfreshappetites
anddrinkupallthebloodIhaveleft.''So,menofSamos',said
Aesop,'myclientwilldoyounofurtherharm;heiswealthyalready.
Butifyouputhimtodeath,otherswillcomealongwhoarenotrich,
andtheirpeculationswillemptyyourtreasurycompletely.'
Fablesaresuitableforaddressestopopularassemblies;andthey
haveoneadvantagetheyarecomparativelyeasytoinvent,whereas
itishardtofindparallelsamongactualpastevents.Youwillin
factframethemjustasyouframeillustrativeparallels:allyou
requireisthepowerofthinkingoutyouranalogy,apowerdeveloped
byintellectualtraining.Butwhileitiseasiertosupplyparallels
byinventingfables,itismorevaluableforthepoliticalspeaker
tosupplythembyquotingwhathasactuallyhappened,sinceinmost
respectsthefuturewillbelikewhatthepasthasbeen.
WhereweareunabletoarguebyEnthymeme,wemusttrytodemonstrate
ourpointbythismethodofExample,andtoconvinceourhearersthereby.
IfwecanarguebyEnthymeme,weshoulduseourExamplesassubsequent
supplementaryevidence.TheyshouldnotprecedetheEnthymemes:that
willgivetheargumentaninductiveair,whichonlyrarelysuitsthe
conditionsofspeechmaking.Iftheyfollowtheenthymemes,theyhave
theeffectofwitnessesgivingevidence,andthisalwaytells.For
thesamereason,ifyouputyourexamplesfirstyoumustgivealarge
numberofthem;ifyouputthemlast,asingleoneissufficient;
evenasinglewitnesswillserveifheisagoodone.Ithasnowbeen
statedhowmanyvarietiesofargumentbyExamplethereare,andhow
andwhentheyaretobeemployed.
Part21
WenowturntotheuseofMaxims,inordertoseeuponwhatsubjects
andoccasions,andforwhatkindofspeaker,theywillappropriately
formpartofaspeech.Thiswillappearmostclearlywhenwehave
definedamaxim.Itisastatement;notaparticularfact,suchas
thecharacteroflphicrates,butofageneralkind;norisitabout
anyandeverysubjecte.g.'straightisthecontraryofcurved'is
notamaximbutonlyaboutquestionsofpracticalconduct,courses
ofconducttobechosenoravoided.NowanEnthymemeisasyllogism
dealingwithsuchpracticalsubjects.Itisthereforeroughlytrue
thatthepremissesorconclusionsofEnthymemes,consideredapart
fromtherestoftheargument,areMaxims:e.g.
"Nevershouldanymanwhosewitsaresound
"Havehissonstaughtmorewisdomthantheirfellows."
HerewehaveaMaxim;addthereasonorexplanation,andthewhole
thingisanEnthymeme;thus
"Itmakesthemidle;andtherewiththeyearn
"Illwillandjealousythroughoutthecity."
Again,
"Thereisnomaninallthingsprosperous,"
and
60/102
15/03/2015
"Thereisnomanamongusallisfree,"
aremaxims;butthelatter,takenwithwhatfollowsit,isanEnthymeme
"Forallareslavesofmoneyorofchance."
Fromthisdefinitionofamaximitfollowsthattherearefourkinds
ofmaxims.InthefirstPlace,themaximmayormaynothaveasupplement.
Proofisneededwherethestatementisparadoxicalordisputable;
nosupplementiswantedwherethestatementcontainsnothingparadoxical,
eitherbecausetheviewexpressedisalreadyaknowntruth,e.g.
"Chiefestofblessingsishealthforaman,asitseemethtome,
"
thisbeingthegeneralopinion:orbecause,assoonastheviewis
stated,itisclearataglance,e.g.
"Noloveistruesavethatwhichlovesforever."
OftheMaximsthatdohaveasupplementattached,somearepartof
anEnthymeme,e.g.
"Nevershouldanymanwhosewitsaresound,&c."
OthershavetheessentialcharacterofEnthymemes,butarenotstated
aspartsofEnthymemes;theselatterarereckonedthebest;theyare
thoseinwhichthereasonfortheviewexpressedissimplyimplied,
e.g.
"Omortalman,nursenotimmortalwrath."
Tosay'itisnotrighttonurseimmortalwrath'isamaxim;theadded
words'mortalman'givethereason.Similarly,withthewordsMortal
creaturesoughttocherishmortal,notimmortalthoughts.
WhathasbeensaidhasshownushowmanykindsofMaximsthereare,
andtowhatsubjectsthevariouskindsareappropriate.Theymust
notbegivenwithoutsupplementiftheyexpressdisputedorparadoxical
views:wemust,inthatcase,eitherputthesupplementfirstand
makeamaximoftheconclusion,e.g.youmightsay,'Formypart,
sincebothunpopularityandidlenessareundesirable,Iholdthat
itisbetternottobeeducated';oryoumaysaythisfirst,andthen
addthepreviousclause.Whereastatement,withoutbeingparadoxical,
isnotobviouslytrue,thereasonshouldbeaddedasconciselyas
possible.Insuchcasesbothlaconicandenigmaticsayingsaresuitable:
thusonemightsaywhatStesichorussaidtotheLocrians,'Insolence
isbetteravoided,lestthecicalaschirpontheground'.
TheuseofMaximsisappropriateonlytoelderlymen,andinhandling
subjectsinwhichthespeakerisexperienced.Forayoungmantouse
themisliketellingstoriesunbecoming;tousetheminhandlingthings
inwhichonehasnoexperienceissillyandillbred:afactsufficiently
provedbythespecialfondnessofcountryfellowsforstrikingout
maxims,andtheirreadinesstoairthem.
Todeclareathingtobeuniversallytruewhenitisnotismostappropriate
whenworkingupfeelingsofhorrorandindignationinourhearers;
especiallybywayofpreface,orafterthefactshavebeenproved.
Evenhackneyedandcommonplacemaximsaretobeused,iftheysuit
one'spurpose:justbecausetheyarecommonplace,everyoneseems
toagreewiththem,andthereforetheyaretakenfortruth.Thus,
anyonewhoiscallingonhismentoriskanengagementwithoutobtaining
favourableomensmayquote
61/102
15/03/2015
"Oneomenofallishest,thatwefightforourfatherland.
"
Or,ifheiscallingonthemtoattackastrongerforce
"TheWarGodshowethnofavour."
Or,ifheisurgingpeopletodestroytheinnocentchildrenoftheir
enemies
"Fool,whoslayeththefatherandleavethhissonstoavengehim.
"
Someproverbsarealsomaxims,e.g.theproverb'AnAtticneighbour'.
Youarenottoavoidutteringmaximsthatcontradictsuchsayings
ashavebecomepublicproperty(Imeansuchsayingsas'knowthyself'
and'nothinginexcess')ifdoingsowillraiseyourhearers'opinion
ofyourcharacter,orconveyaneffectofstrongemotione.g.an
angryspeakermightwellsay,'Itisnottruethatweoughttoknow
ourselves:anyhow,ifthismanhadknownhimself,hewouldneverhave
thoughthimselffitforanarmycommand.'Itwillraisepeople'sopinion
ofourcharactertosay,forinstance,'Weoughtnottofollowthe
sayingthatbidsustreatourfriendsasfutureenemies:muchbetter
totreatourenemiesasfuturefriends.'Themoralpurposeshould
beimpliedpartlybytheverywordingofourmaxim.Failingthis,
weshouldaddourreason:e.g.havingsaid'Weshouldtreatourfriends,
notasthesayingadvises,butasiftheyweregoingtobeourfriends
always',weshouldadd'fortheotherbehaviouristhatofatraitor':
orwemightputit,Idisapproveofthatsaying.Atruefriendwill
treathisfriendasifheweregoingtobehisfriendforever';and
again,'NordoIapproveofthesaying"nothinginexcess":weare
boundtohatebadmenexcessively.'OnegreatadvantageofMaxims
toaspeakerisduetothewantofintelligenceinhishearers,who
lovetohearhimsucceedinexpressingasauniversaltruththeopinions
whichtheyholdthemselvesaboutparticularcases.Iwillexplain
whatImeanbythis,indicatingatthesametimehowwearetohunt
downthemaximsrequired.Themaxim,ashasbeenalreadysaid,ageneral
statementandpeoplelovetohearstatedingeneraltermswhatthey
alreadybelieveinsomeparticularconnexion:e.g.ifamanhappens
tohavebadneighboursorbadchildren,hewillagreewithanyone
whotellshim,'Nothingismoreannoyingthanhavingneighbours',
or,'Nothingismorefoolishthantobetheparentofchildren.'The
oratorhasthereforetoguessthesubjectsonwhichhishearersreally
holdviewsalready,andwhatthoseviewsare,andthenmustexpress,
asgeneraltruths,thesesameviewsonthesesamesubjects.Thisis
oneadvantageofusingmaxims.Thereisanotherwhichismoreimportantit
investsaspeechwithmoralcharacter.Thereismoralcharacterin
everyspeechinwhichthemoralpurposeisconspicuous:andmaxims
alwaysproducethiseffect,becausetheutteranceofthemamounts
toageneraldeclarationofmoralprinciples:sothat,ifthemaxims
aresound,theydisplaythespeakerasamanofsoundmoralcharacter.
SomuchfortheMaximitsnature,varieties,properuse,andadvantages.
Part22
WenowcometotheEnthymemes,andwillbeginthesubjectwithsome
generalconsiderationoftheproperwayoflookingforthem,andthen
proceedtowhatisadistinctquestion,thelinesofargumenttobe
embodiedinthem.IthasalreadybeenpointedoutthattheEnthymeme
isasyllogism,andinwhatsenseitisso.Wehavealsonotedthe
differencesbetweenitandthesyllogismofdialectic.Thuswemust
notcarryitsreasoningtoofarback,orthelengthofourargument
willcauseobscurity:normustweputinallthestepsthatleadto
ourconclusion,orweshallwastewordsinsayingwhatismanifest.
62/102
15/03/2015
Itisthissimplicitythatmakestheuneducatedmoreeffectivethan
theeducatedwhenaddressingpopularaudiencesmakesthem,asthe
poetstellus,'charmthecrowd'searsmorefinely'.Educatedmen
laydownbroadgeneralprinciples;uneducatedmenarguefromcommon
knowledgeanddrawobviousconclusions.Wemustnot,therefore,start
fromanyandeveryacceptedopinion,butonlyfromthosewehavedefinedthose
acceptedbyourjudgesorbythosewhoseauthoritytheyrecognize:
andtheremust,moreover,benodoubtinthemindsofmost,ifnot
all,ofourjudgesthattheopinionsputforwardreallyareofthis
sort.Weshouldalsobaseourargumentsuponprobabilitiesaswell
asuponcertainties.
Thefirstthingwehavetorememberisthis.Whetherourargument
concernspublicaffairsorsomeothersubject,wemustknowsome,
ifnotall,ofthefactsaboutthesubjectonwhichwearetospeak
andargue.Otherwisewecanhavenomaterialsoutofwhichtoconstruct
arguments.Imean,forinstance,howcouldweadvisetheAthenians
whethertheyshouldgotowarornot,ifwedidnotknowtheirstrength,
whetheritwasnavalormilitaryorboth,andhowgreatitis;what
theirrevenuesamountto;whotheirfriendsandenemiesare;what
wars,too,theyhavewaged,andwithwhatsuccess;andsoon?Orhow
couldweeulogizethemifweknewnothingabouttheseafightatSalamis,
orthebattleofMarathon,orwhattheydidfortheHeracleidae,or
anyotherfactslikethat?Alleulogyisbaseduponthenobledeedsreal
orimaginarythatstandtothecreditofthoseeulogized.Onthe
sameprinciple,invectivesarebasedonfactsoftheoppositekind:
theoratorlookstoseewhatbasedeedsrealorimaginarystand
tothediscreditofthoseheisattacking,suchastreacherytothe
causeofHellenicfreedom,ortheenslavementoftheirgallantallies
againstthebarbarians(Aegina,Potidaea,&c.),oranyothermisdeeds
ofthiskindthatarerecordedagainstthem.So,too,inacourtof
law:whetherweareprosecutingordefending,wemustpayattention
totheexistingfactsofthecase.Itmakesnodifferencewhether
thesubjectistheLacedaemoniansortheAthenians,amanoragod;
wemustdothesamething.SupposeittobeAchilleswhomweareto
advise,topraiseorblame,toaccuseordefend;heretoowemust
takethefacts,realorimaginary;thesemustbeourmaterial,whether
wearetopraiseorblamehimforthenobleorbasedeedshehasdone,
toaccuseordefendhimforhisjustorunjusttreatmentofothers,
ortoadvisehimaboutwhatisorisnottohisinterest.Thesame
thingappliestoanysubjectwhatever.Thus,inhandlingthequestion
whetherjusticeisorisnotagood,wemuststartwiththerealfacts
aboutjusticeandgoodness.Wesee,then,thatthisistheonlyway
inwhichanyoneeverprovesanything,whetherhisargumentsarestrictly
cogentornot:notallfactscanformhisbasis,butonlythosethat
bearonthematterinhand:nor,plainly,canproofbeeffectedotherwise
bymeansofthespeech.Consequently,asappearsintheTopics,we
mustfirstofallhavebyusaselectionofargumentsaboutquestions
thatmayariseandaresuitableforustohandle;andthenwemust
trytothinkoutargumentsofthesametypeforspecialneedsasthey
emerge;notvaguelyandindefinitely,butbykeepingoureyesonthe
actualfactsofthesubjectwehavetospeakon,andgatheringin
asmanyofthemaswecanthatbearcloselyuponit:forthemore
actualfactswehaveatourcommand,themoreeasilyweproveour
case;andthemorecloselytheybearonthesubject,themorethey
willseemtobelongtothatspeechonlyinsteadofbeingcommonplaces.
By'commonplaces'Imean,forexample,eulogyofAchillesbecause
heisahumanbeingorademigod,orbecausehejoinedtheexpedition
againstTroy:thesethingsaretrueofmanyothers,sothatthiskind
ofeulogyappliesnobettertoAchillesthantoDiomede.Thespecial
factshereneededarethosethataretrueofAchillesalone;such
factsasthatheslewHector,thebravestoftheTrojans,andCycnus
theinvulnerable,whopreventedalltheGreeksfromlanding,andagain
thathewastheyoungestmanwhojoinedtheexpedition,andwasnot
boundbyoathtojoinit,andsoon.
63/102
15/03/2015
Here,again,wehaveourfirstprincipleofselectionofEnthymemesthat
whichreferstothelinesofargumentselected.Wewillnowconsider
thevariouselementaryclassesofenthymemes.(Byan'elementaryclass'
ofenthymemeImeanthesamethingasa'lineofargument'.)Wewill
begin,aswemustbegin,byobservingthattherearetwokindsof
enthymemes.Onekindprovessomeaffirmativeornegativeproposition;
theotherkinddisprovesone.Thedifferencebetweenthetwokinds
isthesameasthatbetweensyllogisticproofanddisproofindialectic.
Thedemonstrativeenthymemeisformedbytheconjunctionofcompatible
propositions;therefutative,bytheconjunctionofincompatiblepropositions.
Wemaynowbesaidtohaveinourhandsthelinesofargumentfor
thevariousspecialsubjectsthatitisusefulornecessarytohandle,
havingselectedthepropositionssuitableinvariouscases.Wehave,
infact,alreadyascertainedthelinesofargumentapplicabletoenthymemes
aboutgoodandevil,thenobleandthebase,justiceandinjustice,
andalsotothoseabouttypesofcharacter,emotions,andmoralqualities.
Letusnowlayholdofcertainfactsaboutthewholesubject,considered
fromadifferentandmoregeneralpointofview.Inthecourseof
ourdiscussionwewilltakenoteofthedistinctionbetweenlines
ofproofandlinesofdisproof:andalsoofthoselinesofargument
usedinwhatseemstobeenthymemes,butarenot,sincetheydonot
representvalidsyllogisms.Havingmadeallthisclear,wewillproceed
toclassifyObjectionsandRefutations,showinghowtheycanbebrought
tobearuponenthymemes.
Part23
1.Onelineofpositiveproofisbaseduponconsiderationoftheopposite
ofthethinginquestion.Observewhetherthatoppositehastheopposite
quality.Ifithasnot,yourefutetheoriginalproposition;ifit
has,youestablishit.E.g.'Temperanceisbeneficial;forlicentiousness
ishurtful'.Or,asintheMessenianspeech,'Ifwaristhecause
ofourpresenttroubles,peaceiswhatweneedtoputthingsright
again'.Or
"Forifnotevenevildoersshould
"Angerusiftheymeantnotwhattheydid,
"Thencanweowenogratitudetosuch
"Aswereconstrainedtodothegoodtheydidus."
Or
"Sinceinthisworldliarsmaywinbelief,
"Besureoftheoppositelikewisethatthisworld
"Hearsmanyatruewordandbelievesitnot."
2.Anotherlineofproofisgotbyconsideringsomemodificationof
thekeyword,andarguingthatwhatcanorcannotbesaidoftheone,
canorcannotbesaidoftheother:e.g.'just'doesnotalwaysmean
'beneficial',or'justly'wouldalwaysmean'beneficially',whereas
itisnotdesirabletobejustlyputtodeath.
3.Anotherlineofproofisbaseduponcorrelativeideas.Ifitis
truethatonemannobleorjusttreatmenttoanother,youarguethat
theothermusthavereceivednobleorjusttreatment;orthatwhere
itisrighttocommandobedience,itmusthavebeenrighttoobey
thecommand.ThusDiomedon,thetaxfarmer,saidofthetaxes:'If
itisnodisgraceforyoutosellthem,itisnodisgraceforusto
64/102
15/03/2015
buythem'.Further,if'well'or'justly'istrueofthepersonto
whomathingisdone,youarguethatitistrueofthedoer.Butit
ispossibletodrawafalseconclusionhere.ItmaybejustthatA
shouldbetreatedinacertainway,andyetnotjustthatheshould
besotreatedbyB.Henceyoumustaskyourselftwodistinctquestions:
(1)IsitrightthatAshouldbethustreated?(2)Isitrightthat
Bshouldthustreathim?andapplyyourresultsproperly,according
asyouranswersareYesorNo.Sometimesinsuchacasethetwoanswers
differ:youmayquiteeasilyhaveapositionlikethatintheAlcmaeon
ofTheodectes:
"Andwastherenonetoloathethymother'scrime?"
towhichquestionAlcmaeoninreplysays,
"Why,therearetwothingstoexaminehere."
AndwhenAlphesiboeaaskswhathemeans,herejoins:
"Theyjudgedherfittodie,notmetoslayher."
AgainthereisthelawsuitaboutDemosthenesandthemenwhokilled
Nicanor;astheywerejudgedtohavekilledhimjustly,itwasthought
thathewaskilledjustly.Andinthecaseofthemanwhowaskilled
atThebes,thejudgeswererequestedtodecidewhetheritwasunjust
thatheshouldbekilled,sinceifitwasnot,itwasarguedthat
itcouldnothavebeenunjusttokillhim.
4.Anotherlineofproofisthe'afortiori'.Thusitmaybeargued
thatifeventhegodsarenotomniscient,certainlyhumanbeingsare
not.Theprinciplehereisthat,ifaqualitydoesnotinfactexist
whereitismorelikelytoexist,itclearlydoesnotexistwhere
itislesslikely.Again,theargumentthatamanwhostrikeshis
fatheralsostrikeshisneighboursfollowsfromtheprinciplethat,
ifthelesslikelythingistrue,themorelikelythingistruealso;
foramanislesslikelytostrikehisfatherthantostrikehisneighbours.
Theargument,then,mayrunthus.Oritmaybeurgedthat,ifathing
isnottruewhereitismorelikely,itisnottruewhereitisless
likely;orthat,ifitistruewhereitislesslikely,itistrue
whereitismorelikely:accordingaswehavetoshowthatathing
isorisnottrue.Thisargumentmightalsobeusedinacaseofparity,
asinthelines:
"Thouhastpityforthysire,whohaslosthissons:
"HastnoneforOeneus,whosebravesonisdead?"
And,again,'ifTheseusdidnowrong,neitherdidParis';or'the
sonsofTyndareusdidnowrong,neitherdidParis';or'ifHector
didwelltoslayPatroclus,ParisdidwelltoslayAchilles'.And
'ifotherfollowersofanartarenotbadmen,neitherarephilosophers'.
And'ifgeneralsarenotbadmenbecauseitoftenhappensthatthey
arecondemnedtodeath,neitheraresophists'.Andtheremarkthat
'ifeachindividualamongyououghttothinkofhisowncity'sreputation,
yououghtalltothinkofthereputationofGreeceasawhole'.
5.Anotherlineofargumentisbasedonconsiderationsoftime.Thus
Iphicrates,inthecaseagainstHarmodius,said,'ifbeforedoing
thedeedIhadbargainedthat,ifIdidit,Ishouldhaveastatue,
youwouldhavegivenmeone.WillyounotgivemeonenowthatIhave
donethedeed?Youmustnotmakepromiseswhenyouareexpectinga
thingtobedoneforyou,andrefusetofulfilthemwhenthething
hasbeendone.'And,again,toinducetheThebanstoletPhilippass
throughtheirterritoryintoAttica,itwasarguedthat'ifhehad
insistedonthisbeforehehelpedthemagainstthePhocians,they
65/102
15/03/2015
wouldhavepromisedtodoit.Itismonstrous,therefore,thatjust
becausehethrewawayhisadvantagethen,andtrustedtheirhonour,
theyshouldnotlethimpassthroughnow'.
6.Anotherlineistoapplytotheotherspeakerwhathehassaid
againstyourself.Itisanexcellentturntogivetoadebate,as
maybeseenintheTeucer.ItwasemployedbyIphicratesinhisreply
toAristophon.'Wouldyou',heasked,'takeabribetobetraythe
fleet?''No',saidAristophon;andIphicratesreplied,'Verygood:
ifyou,whoareAristophon,wouldnotbetraythefleet,wouldI,who
amIphicrates?'Only,itmustberecognizedbeforehandthattheother
manismorelikelythanyouaretocommitthecrimeinquestion.Otherwise
youwillmakeyourselfridiculous;itisAristeideswhoisprosecuting,
youcannotsaythatsortofthingtohim.Thepurposeistodiscredit
theprosecutor,whoasarulewouldhaveitappearthathischaracter
isbetterthanthatofthedefendant,apretensionwhichitisdesirable
toupset.Buttheuseofsuchanargumentisinallcasesridiculous
ifyouareattackingothersforwhatyoudoorwoulddoyourself,
orareurgingotherstodowhatyouneitherdonorwoulddoyourself.
7.Anotherlineofproofissecuredbydefiningyourterms.Thus,
'Whatisthesupernatural?Surelyitiseitheragodortheworkof
agod.Well,anyonewhobelievesthattheworkofagodexists,cannot
helpalsobelievingthatgodsexist.'OrtaketheargumentofIphicrates,
'Goodnessistruenobility;neitherHarmodiusnorAristogeitonhad
anynobilitybeforetheydidanobledeed'.Healsoarguedthathe
himselfwasmoreakintoHarmodiusandAristogeitonthanhisopponent
was.'Atanyrate,mydeedsaremoreakintothoseofHarmodiusand
Aristogeitonthanyoursare'.Anotherexamplemaybefoundinthe
Alexander.'Everyonewillagreethatbyincontinentpeoplewemean
thosewhoarenotsatisfiedwiththeenjoymentofonelove.'Afurther
exampleistobefoundinthereasongivenbySocratesfornotgoing
tothecourtofArchelaus.Hesaidthat'oneisinsultedbybeing
unabletorequitebenefits,aswellasbybeingunabletorequite
injuries'.Allthepersonsmentioneddefinetheirtermandgetat
itsessentialmeaning,andthenusetheresultwhenreasoningonthe
pointatissue.
8.Anotherlineofargumentisfoundeduponthevarioussensesof
aword.Suchawordis'rightly',ashasbeenexplainedintheTopics.
Anotherlineisbaseduponlogicaldivision.Thus,'Allmendowrong
fromoneofthreemotives,A,B,orC:inmycaseAandBareout
ofthequestion,andeventheaccusersdonotallegeC'.
10.Anotherlineisbaseduponinduction.Thusfromthecaseofthe
womanofPeparethusitmightbearguedthatwomeneverywherecansettle
correctlythefactsabouttheirchildren.Anotherexampleofthis
occurredatAthensinthecasebetweentheoratorMantiasandhis
son,whentheboy'smotherrevealedthetruefacts:andyetanother
atThebes,inthecasebetweenIsmeniasandStilbon,whenDodonis
provedthatitwasIsmeniaswhowasthefatherofhersonThettaliscus,
andhewasinconsequencealwaysregardedasbeingso.Afurtherinstance
ofinductionmaybetakenfromtheLawofTheodectes:'Ifwedonot
handoverourhorsestothecareofmenwhohavemishandledother
people'shorses,norshipstothosewhohavewreckedotherpeople's
ships,andifthisistrueofeverythingelsealike,thenmenwho
havefailedtosecureotherpeople'ssafetyarenottobeemployed
tosecureourown.'AnotherinstanceistheargumentofAlcidamas:
'Everyonehonoursthewise'.ThustheParianshavehonouredArchilochus,
inspiteofhisbittertongue;theChiansHomer,thoughhewasnot
theircountryman;theMytilenaeansSappho,thoughshewasawoman;
theLacedaemoniansactuallymadeChilonamemberoftheirsenate,
thoughtheyaretheleastliteraryofmen;theItalianGreekshonoured
Pythagoras;theinhabitantsofLampsacusgavepublicburialtoAnaxagoras,
thoughhewasanalien,andhonourhimeventothisday.(Itmaybe
66/102
15/03/2015
arguedthatpeoplesforwhomphilosopherslegislatearealwaysprosperous)
onthegroundthattheAtheniansbecameprosperousunderSolon'slaws
andtheLacedaemoniansunderthoseofLycurgus,whileatThebesno
soonerdidtheleadingmenbecomephilosophersthanthecountrybegan
toprosper.
11.Anotherlineofargumentisfoundeduponsomedecisionalready
pronounced,whetheronthesamesubjectorononelikeitorcontrary
toit.Suchaproofismosteffectiveifeveryonehasalwaysdecided
thus;butifnoteveryone,thenatanyratemostpeople;orifall,
ormost,wiseorgoodmenhavethusdecided,ortheactualjudges
ofthepresentquestion,orthosewhoseauthoritytheyaccept,or
anyonewhosedecisiontheycannotgainsaybecausehehascomplete
controloverthem,orthosewhomitisnotseemlytogainsay,asthe
gods,orone'sfather,orone'steachers.ThusAutoclessaid,when
attackingMixidemides,thatitwasastrangethingthattheDread
Goddessescouldwithoutlossofdignitysubmittothejudgementof
theAreopagus,andyetMixidemidescouldnot.OrasSapphosaid,'Death
isanevilthing;thegodshavesojudgedit,ortheywoulddie'.
OragainasAristippussaidinreplytoPlatowhenhespokesomewhat
toodogmatically,asAristippusthought:'Well,anyhow,ourfriend',
meaningSocrates,'neverspokelikethat'.AndHegesippus,having
previouslyconsultedZeusatOlympia,askedApolloatDelphi'whether
hisopinionwasthesameashisfather's',implyingthatitwould
beshamefulforhimtocontradicthisfather.ThustooIsocratesargued
thatHelenmusthavebeenagoodwoman,becauseTheseusdecidedthat
shewas;andParisagoodman,becausethegoddesseschosehimbefore
allothers;andEvagorasalso,saysIsocrates,wasgood,sincewhen
CononmetwithhismisfortunehebetookhimselftoEvagoraswithout
tryinganyoneelseontheway.
12.Anotherlineofargumentconsistsintakingseparatelytheparts
ofasubject.SuchisthatgivenintheTopics:'Whatsortofmotion
isthesoul?foritmustbethisorthat.'TheSocratesofTheodectes
providesanexample:'Whattemplehasheprofaned?Whatgodsrecognized
bythestatehashenothonoured?'
13.Sinceithappensthatanygiventhingusuallyhasbothgoodand
badconsequences,anotherlineofargumentconsistsinusingthose
consequencesasareasonforurgingthatathingshouldorshould
notbedone,forprosecutingordefendinganyone,foreulogyorcensure.
E.g.educationleadsbothtounpopularity,whichisbad,andtowisdom,
whichisgood.Henceyoueitherargue,'Itisthereforenotwellto
beeducated,sinceitisnotwelltobeunpopular':oryouanswer,
'No,itiswelltobeeducated,sinceitiswelltobewise'.The
ArtofRhetoricofCallippusismadeupofthislineofargument,
withtheadditionofthoseofPossibilityandtheothersofthatkind
alreadydescribed.
14.Anotherlineofargumentisusedwhenwehavetourgeordiscourage
acourseofactionthatmaybedoneineitheroftwooppositeways,
andhavetoapplythemethodjustmentionedtoboth.Thedifference
betweenthisoneandthelastisthat,whereasinthelastanytwo
thingsarecontrasted,herethethingscontrastedareopposites.For
instance,thepriestessenjoineduponhersonnottotaketopublic
speaking:'For',shesaid,'ifyousaywhatisright,menwillhate
you;ifyousaywhatiswrong,thegodswillhateyou.'Thereply
mightbe,'Onthecontrary,yououghttotaketopublicspeaking:
forifyousaywhatisrightthegodswillloveyou;ifyousaywhat
iswrong,menwillloveyou.'Thisamountstotheproverbial'buying
themarshwiththesalt'.Itisjustthissituation,viz.wheneach
oftwooppositeshasbothagoodandabadconsequenceoppositerespectively
toeachother,thathasbeentermeddivarication.
15.Anotherlineofargumentisthis:Thethingspeopleapproveof
67/102
15/03/2015
openlyarenotthosewhichtheyapproveofsecretly:openly,their
chiefpraiseisgiventojusticeandnobleness;butintheirhearts
theyprefertheirownadvantage.Try,infaceofthis,toestablish
thepointofviewwhichyouropponenthasnotadopted.Thisisthe
mosteffectiveoftheformsofargumentthatcontradictcommonopinion.
16.Anotherlineisthatofrationalcorrespondence.E.g.Iphicrates,
whentheyweretryingtocompelhisson,ayouthundertheprescribed
age,toperformoneofthestatedutiesbecausehewastall,said
'Ifyoucounttallboysmen,youwillnextbevotingshortmenboys'.
AndTheodectesinhisLawsaid,'Youmakecitizensofsuchmercenaries
asStrabaxandCharidemus,asarewardoftheirmerits;willyounot
makeexilesofsuchcitizensasthosewhohavedoneirreparableharm
amongthemercenaries?'
17.Anotherlineistheargumentthatiftworesultsarethesame
theirantecedentsarealsothesame.Forinstance,itwasasaying
ofXenophanesthattoassertthatthegodshadbirthisasimpious
astosaythattheydie;theconsequenceofbothstatementsisthat
thereisatimewhenthegodsdonotexist.Thislineofproofassumes
generallythattheresultofanygiventhingisalwaysthesame:e.g.
'youaregoingtodecidenotaboutIsocrates,butaboutthevalue
ofthewholeprofessionofphilosophy.'Or,'togiveearthandwater'
meansslavery;or,'toshareintheCommonPeace'meansobeyingorders.
Wearetomakeeithersuchassumptionsortheiropposite,assuits
usbest.
18.Anotherlineofargumentisbasedonthefactthatmendonot
alwaysmakethesamechoiceonalaterasonanearlieroccasion,
butreversetheirpreviouschoice.E.g.thefollowingenthymeme:'When
wewereexiles,wefoughtinordertoreturn;nowwehavereturned,
itwouldbestrangetochooseexileinordernottohavetofight.'
oneoccasion,thatis,theychosetobetruetotheirhomesatthe
costoffighting,andontheothertoavoidfightingatthecostof
desertingtheirhomes.
19.Anotherlineofargumentistheassertionthatsomepossiblemotive
foraneventorstateofthingsistherealone:e.g.thatagift
wasgiveninordertocausepainbyitswithdrawal.Thisnotionunderlies
thelines:
"Godgivestomanygreatprosperity,
"NotofgoodGodtowardsthem,buttomake
"Theruinofthemmoreconspicuous."
OrtakethepassagefromtheMeleagerofAntiphon:
"Toslaynoboar,buttobewitnesses
"OfMeleager'sprowessuntoGreece."
OrtheargumentintheAjaxofTheodectes,thatDiomedechoseout
Odysseusnottodohimhonour,butinorderthathiscompanionmight
bealessermanthanhimselfsuchamotivefordoingsoisquitepossible.
20.Anotherlineofargumentiscommontoforensicanddeliberative
oratory,namely,toconsiderinducementsanddeterrents,andthemotives
peoplehavefordoingoravoidingtheactionsinquestion.Theseare
theconditionswhichmakeusboundtoactiftheyareforus,and
torefrainfromactioniftheyareagainstus:thatis,wearebound
toactiftheactionispossible,easy,andusefultoourselvesor
ourfriendsorhurtfultoourenemies;thisistrueeveniftheaction
entailsloss,providedthelossisoutweighedbythesolidadvantage.
68/102
15/03/2015
Aspeakerwillurgeactionbypointingtosuchconditions,anddiscourage
itbypointingtotheopposite.Thesesameargumentsalsoformthe
materialsforaccusationordefencethedeterrentsbeingpointedout
bythedefence,andtheinducementsbytheprosecution.Asforthe
defence,...ThistopicformsthewholeArtofRhetoricbothofPamphilus
andofCallippus.
21.Anotherlineofargumentreferstothingswhicharesupposedto
happenandyetseemincredible.Wemayarguethatpeoplecouldnot
havebelievedthem,iftheyhadnotbeentrueornearlytrue:even
thattheyarethemorelikelytobetruebecausetheyareincredible.
Forthethingswhichmenbelieveareeitherfactsorprobabilities:
if,therefore,athingthatisbelievedisimprobableandevenincredible,
itmustbetrue,sinceitiscertainlynotbelievedbecauseitis
atallprobableorcredible.AnexampleiswhatAndroclesofthedeme
Pitthussaidinhiswellknownarraignmentofthelaw.Theaudience
triedtoshouthimdownwhenheobservedthatthelawsrequireda
lawtosetthemright.'Why',hewenton,'fishneedsalt,improbable
andincredibleasthismightseemforcreaturesrearedinsaltwater;
andolivecakesneedoil,incredibleasitisthatwhatproducesoil
shouldneedit.'
22.Anotherlineofargumentistorefuteouropponent'scasebynoting
anycontrastsorcontradictionsofdates,acts,orwordsthatitanywhere
displays;andthisinanyofthethreefollowingconnexions.(1)Referring
toouropponent'sconduct,e.g.'Hesaysheisdevotedtoyou,yet
heconspiredwiththeThirty.'(2)Referringtoourownconduct,e.g.
'HesaysIamlitigious,andyethecannotprovethatIhavebeen
engagedinasinglelawsuit.'(3)Referringtobothofustogether,
e.g.'Hehasneverevenlentanyoneapenny,butIhaveransomed
quiteanumberofyou.'
23.Anotherlinethatisusefulformenandcausesthathavebeen
reallyorseeminglyslandered,istoshowwhythefactsarenotas
supposed;pointingoutthatthereisareasonforthefalseimpression
given.Thusawoman,whohadpalmedoffhersononanotherwoman,
wasthoughttobethelad'smistressbecausesheembracedhim;but
whenheractionwasexplainedthechargewasshowntobegroundless.
AnotherexampleisfromtheAjaxofTheodectes,whereOdysseustells
Ajaxthereasonwhy,thoughheisreallybraverthanAjax,heisnot
thoughtso.
24.Anotherlineofargumentistoshowthatifthecauseispresent,
theeffectispresent,andifabsent,absent.Forbyprovingthecause
youatonceprovetheeffect,andconverselynothingcanexistwithout
itscause.ThusThrasybulusaccusedLeodamasofhavinghadhisname
recordedasacriminalontheslabintheAcropolis,andoferasing
therecordinthetimeoftheThirtyTyrants:towhichLeodamasreplied,
'Impossible:fortheThirtywouldhavetrustedmeallthemoreif
myquarrelwiththecommonshadbeeninscribedontheslab.'
25.Anotherlineistoconsiderwhethertheaccusedpersoncantake
orcouldhavetakenabettercoursethanthatwhichheisrecommending
ortaking,orhastaken.Ifhehasnottakenthisbettercourse,it
isclearthatheisnotguilty,sincenoonedeliberatelyandconsciously
chooseswhatisbad.Thisargumentis,however,fallacious,forit
oftenbecomesclearaftertheeventhowtheactioncouldhavebeen
donebetter,thoughbeforetheeventthiswasfarfromclear.
26.Anotherlineis,whenacontemplatedactionisinconsistentwith
anypastaction,toexaminethembothtogether.Thus,whenthepeople
ofEleaaskedXenophanesiftheyshouldorshouldnotsacrificeto
Leucotheaandmournforher,headvisedthemnottomournforher
iftheythoughtheragoddess,andnottosacrificetoherifthey
thoughtheramortalwoman.
69/102
15/03/2015
27.Anotherlineistomakepreviousmistakesthegroundsofaccusation
ordefence.Thus,intheMedeaofCarcinustheaccusersallegethat
Medeahasslainherchildren;'atallevents',theysay,'theyare
nottobeseen'Medeahavingmadethemistakeofsendingherchildren
away.Indefenceshearguesthatitisnotherchildren,butJason,
whomshewouldhaveslain;foritwouldhavebeenamistakeonher
partnottodothisifshehaddonetheother.Thisspeciallineof
argumentforenthymemeformsthewholeoftheArtofRhetoricinuse
beforeTheodorus.
"Anotherlineistodrawmeaningsfromnames.Sophocles,forinstance,
says,"
"Osteelinheartasthouartsteelinname."
Thislineofargumentiscommoninpraisesofthegods.Thus,too,
CononcalledThrasybulusrashincounsel.AndHerodicussaidofThrasymachus,
'Youarealwaysboldinbattle';ofPolus,'youarealwaysacolt';
andofthelegislatorDracothathislawswerethosenotofahuman
beingbutofadragon,sosavagewerethey.And,inEuripides,Hecuba
saysofAphrodite,
"HernameandFolly's(aphrosuns)lightlybeginalike,"
andChaeremonwrites
"Pentheusanameforeshadowinggrief(penthos)tocome."
TheRefutativeEnthymemehasagreaterreputationthantheDemonstrative,
becausewithinasmallspaceitworksouttwoopposingarguments,
andargumentsputsidebysideareclearertotheaudience.Butof
allsyllogisms,whetherrefutativeordemonstrative,thosearemost
applaudedofwhichweforeseetheconclusionsfromthebeginning,
solongastheyarenotobviousatfirstsightforpartofthepleasure
wefeelisatourownintelligentanticipation;orthosewhichwe
followwellenoughtoseethepointofthemassoonasthelastword
hasbeenuttered.
Part24
Besidesgenuinesyllogisms,theremaybesyllogismsthatlookgenuine
butarenot;andsinceanenthymemeismerelyasyllogismofaparticular
kind,itfollowsthat,besidesgenuineenthymemes,theremaybethose
thatlookgenuinebutarenot.
1.AmongthelinesofargumentthatformtheSpuriousEnthymemethe
firstisthatwhicharisesfromtheparticularwordsemployed.
(a)Onevarietyofthisiswhenasindialectic,withouthavinggone
throughanyreasoningprocess,wemakeafinalstatementasifit
weretheconclusionofsuchaprocess,'Thereforesoandsoisnot
true','Thereforealsosoandsomustbetrue'sotooinrhetoric
acompactandantitheticalutterancepassesforanenthymeme,such
languagebeingtheproperprovinceofenthymeme,sothatitisseemingly
theformofwordingherethatcausestheillusionmentioned.Inorder
toproducetheeffectofgenuinereasoningbyourformofwording
itisusefultosummarizetheresultsofanumberofpreviousreasonings:
as'somehesavedothersheavengedtheGreekshefreed'.Eachof
thesestatementshasbeenpreviouslyprovedfromotherfacts;but
themerecollocationofthemgivestheimpressionofestablishing
somefreshconclusion.
(b)Anothervarietyisbasedontheuseofsimilarwordsfordifferent
things;e.g.theargumentthatthemousemustbeanoblecreature,
70/102
15/03/2015
sinceitgivesitsnametothemostaugustofallreligiousritesfor
suchtheMysteriesare.Oronemayintroduce,intoaeulogyofthe
dog,thedogstar;orPan,becausePindarsaid:
"Othoublessedone!
"ThouwhomtheyofOlympuscall
"Thehoundofmanifoldshape
"ThatfollowstheMotherofHeaven:"
orwemayarguethat,becausethereismuchdisgraceintherenot
beingadogabout,thereishonourinbeingadog.OrthatHermes
isreadierthananyothergodtogoshares,sinceweneversay'shares
allround'exceptofhim.Orthatspeechisaveryexcellentthing,
sincegoodmenarenotsaidtobeworthmoneybuttobeworthyof
esteemthephrase'worthyofesteem'alsohavingthemeaningof'worth
speech'.
2.Anotherlineistoassertofthewholewhatistrueoftheparts,
orofthepartswhatistrueofthewhole.Awholeanditspartsare
supposedtobeidentical,thoughoftentheyarenot.Youhavetherefore
toadoptwhicheverofthesetwolinesbettersuitsyourpurpose.That
ishowEuthydemusargues:e.g.thatanyoneknowsthatthereisa
triremeinthePeiraeus,sinceheknowstheseparatedetailsthat
makeupthisstatement.Thereisalsotheargumentthatonewhoknows
thelettersknowsthewholeword,sincethewordisthesamething
astheletterswhichcomposeit;orthat,ifadoubleportionofa
certainthingisharmfultohealth,thenasingleportionmustnot
becalledwholesome,sinceitisabsurdthattwogoodthingsshould
makeonebadthing.Putthus,theenthymemeisrefutative;putas
follows;demonstrative:'Foronegoodthingcannotbemadeupoftwo
badthings.'Thewholelineofargumentisfallacious.Again,there
isPolycrates'sayingthatThrasybulusputdownthirtytyrants,where
thespeakeraddsthemuponebyone.OrtheargumentintheOrestes
ofTheodectes,wheretheargumentisfromparttowhole:
"'Tisrightthatshewhoslaysherlordshoulddie."
'Itisright,too,thatthesonshouldavengehisfather.Verygood:
thesetwothingsarewhatOresteshasdone.'Still,perhapsthetwo
things,oncetheyareputtogether,donotformarightact.Thefallacy
mightalsobesaidtobeduetoomission,sincethespeakerfails
tosaybywhosehandahusbandslayershoulddie.
3.Anotherlineistheuseofindignantlanguage,whethertosupport
yourowncaseortooverthrowyouropponent's.Wedothiswhenwe
paintahighlycolouredpictureofthesituationwithouthavingproved
thefactsofit:ifthedefendantdoesso,heproducesanimpression
ofhisinnocence;andiftheprosecutorgoesintoapassion,heproduces
animpressionofthedefendant'sguilt.Herethereisnogenuineenthymeme:
thehearerinfersguiltorinnocence,butnoproofisgiven,andthe
inferenceisfallaciousaccordingly.
4.Anotherlineistousea'Sign',orsingleinstance,ascertain
evidence;which,again,yieldsnovalidproof.Thus,itmightbesaid
thatloversareusefultotheircountries,sincetheloveofHarmodius
andAristogeitoncausedthedownfallofthetyrantHipparchus.Or,
again,thatDionysiusisathief,sinceheisaviciousmanthere
is,ofcourse,novalidproofhere;noteveryviciousmanisathief,
thougheverythiefisaviciousman.
5.Anotherlinerepresentstheaccidentalasessential.Aninstance
iswhatPolycratessaysofthemice,thatthey'cametotherescue'
71/102
15/03/2015
becausetheygnawedthroughthebowstrings.Oritmightbemaintained
thataninvitationtodinnerisagreathonour,foritwasbecause
hewasnotinvitedthatAchilleswas'angered'withtheGreeksat
Tenedos?Asafact,whatangeredhimwastheinsultinvolved;itwas
amereaccidentthatthiswastheparticularformthattheinsult
took.
6.Anotheristheargumentfromconsequence.IntheAlexander,for
instance,itisarguedthatParismusthavehadaloftydisposition,
sincehedespisedsocietyandlivedbyhimselfonMountIda:because
loftypeopledothiskindofthing,thereforeParistoo,weareto
suppose,hadaloftysoul.Or,ifamandressesfashionablyandroams
aroundatnight,heisarake,sincethatisthewayrakesbehave.
Anothersimilarargumentpointsoutthatbeggarssinganddancein
temples,andthatexilescanlivewherevertheyplease,andthatsuch
privilegesareatthedisposalofthoseweaccounthappyandtherefore
everyonemightberegardedashappyifonlyhehasthoseprivileges.
Whatmatters,however,isthecircumstancesunderwhichtheprivileges
areenjoyed.Hencethislinetoofallsundertheheadoffallacies
byomission.
7.Anotherlineconsistsinrepresentingascausesthingswhichare
notcauses,onthegroundthattheyhappenedalongwithorbefore
theeventinquestion.Theyassumethat,becauseBhappensafterA,
ithappensbecauseofA.Politiciansareespeciallyfondoftaking
thisline.ThusDemadessaidthatthepolicyofDemostheneswasthe
causeofallthemischief,'forafteritthewaroccurred'.
8.Anotherlineconsistsinleavingoutanymentionoftimeandcircumstances.
E.g.theargumentthatPariswasjustifiedintakingHelen,since
herfatherleftherfreetochoose:herethefreedomwaspresumably
notperpetual;itcouldonlyrefertoherfirstchoice,beyondwhich
herfather'sauthoritycouldnotgo.Oragain,onemightsaythat
tostrikeafreemanisanactofwantonoutrage;butitisnotso
ineverycaseonlywhenitisunprovoked.
9.Again,aspurioussyllogismmay,asin'eristical'discussions,
bebasedontheconfusionoftheabsolutewiththatwhichisnotabsolute
butparticular.As,indialectic,forinstance,itmaybearguedthat
whatisnotis,onthegroundthatwhatisnotiswhatisnot:or
thattheunknowncanbeknown,onthegroundthatitcanbeknown
toheunknown:soalsoinrhetoricaspuriousenthymememaybebased
ontheconfusionofsomeparticularprobabilitywithabsoluteprobability.
Nownoparticularprobabilityisuniversallyprobable:asAgathon
says,
"Onemightperchancesaythatwasprobable
"Thatthingsimprobableoftwillhaptomen."
Forwhatisimprobabledoeshappen,andthereforeitisprobable
thatimprobablethingswillhappen.Grantedthis,onemightargue
that'whatisimprobableisprobable'.Butthisisnottrueabsolutely.
As,ineristic,theimposturecomesfromnotaddinganyclausespecifying
relationshiporreferenceormanner;sohereitarisesbecausethe
probabilityinquestionisnotgeneralbutspecific.Itisofthis
lineofargumentthatCorax'sArtofRhetoriciscomposed.Ifthe
accusedisnotopentothechargeforinstanceifaweaklingbetried
forviolentassaultthedefenceisthathewasnotlikelytodosuch
athing.Butifheisopentothechargei.e.ifheisastrongmanthe
defenceisstillthathewasnotlikelytodosuchathing,since
hecouldbesurethatpeoplewouldthinkhewaslikelytodoit.And
sowithanyothercharge:theaccusedmustbeeitheropenornotopen
toit:thereisineithercaseanappearanceofprobableinnocence,
butwhereasinthelattercasetheprobabilityisgenuine,inthe
72/102
15/03/2015
formeritcanonlybeassertedinthespecialsensementioned.This
sortofargumentillustrateswhatismeantbymakingtheworseargument
seemthebetter.Hencepeoplewererightinobjectingtothetraining
Protagorasundertooktogivethem.Itwasafraud;theprobability
ithandledwasnotgenuinebutspurious,andhasaplaceinnoart
exceptRhetoricandEristic.
Part25
Enthymemes,genuineandapparent,havenowbeendescribed;thenext
subjectistheirRefutation.
Anargumentmayberefutedeitherbyacountersyllogismorbybringing
anobjection.Itisclearthatcountersyllogismscanbebuiltup
fromthesamelinesofargumentsastheoriginalsyllogisms:forthe
materialsofsyllogismsaretheordinaryopinionsofmen,andsuch
opinionsoftencontradicteachother.Objections,asappearsinthe
Topics,mayberaisedinfourwayseitherbydirectlyattackingyour
opponent'sownstatement,orbyputtingforwardanotherstatement
likeit,orbyputtingforwardastatementcontrarytoit,orbyquoting
previousdecisions.
1.By'attackingyouropponent'sownstatement'Imean,forinstance,
this:ifhisenthymemeshouldassertthatloveisalwaysgood,the
objectioncanbebroughtintwoways,eitherbymakingthegeneral
statementthat'allwantisanevil',orbymakingtheparticular
onethattherewouldbenotalkof'Caunianlove'iftherewerenot
evillovesaswellasgoodones.
2.Anobjection'fromacontrarystatement'israisedwhen,forinstance,
theopponent'senthymemehavingconcludedthatagoodmandoesgood
toallhisfriends,youobject,'Thatprovesnothing,forabadman
doesnotdoeviltoallhisfriends'.
3.Anexampleofanobjection'fromalikestatement'is,theenthymeme
havingshownthatillusedmenalwayshatetheirillusers,toreply,
'Thatprovesnothing,forwellusedmendonotalwayslovethosewho
usedthemwell'.
4.The'decisions'mentionedarethoseproceedingfromwellknown
men;forinstance,iftheenthymemeemployedhasconcludedthat'that
allowanceoughttobemadefordrunkenoffenders,sincetheydidnot
knowwhattheyweredoing',theobjectionwillbe,'Pittacus,then,
deservesnoapproval,orhewouldnothaveprescribedspeciallysevere
penaltiesforoffencesduetodrunkenness'.
Enthymemesarebasedupononeorotheroffourkindsofallegedfact:
(1)Probabilities,(2)Examples,(3)InfallibleSigns,(4)Ordinary
Signs.(1)EnthymemesbaseduponProbabilitiesarethosewhichargue
fromwhatis,orissupposedtobe,usuallytrue.(2)Enthymemesbased
uponExamplearethosewhichproceedbyinductionfromoneormore
similarcases,arriveatageneralproposition,andthenarguedeductively
toaparticularinference.(3)EnthymemesbaseduponInfallibleSigns
arethosewhicharguefromtheinevitableandinvariable.(4)Enthymemes
baseduponordinarySignsarethosewhicharguefromsomeuniversal
orparticularproposition,trueorfalse.
Now(1)asaProbabilityisthatwhichhappensusuallybutnotalways,
EnthymemesfoundeduponProbabilitiescan,itisclear,alwaysbe
refutedbyraisingsomeobjection.Therefutationisnotalwaysgenuine:
itmaybespurious:foritconsistsinshowingnotthatyouropponent's
premissisnotprobable,butOnlyinshowingthatitisnotinevitably
true.Henceitisalwaysindefenceratherthaninaccusationthat
itispossibletogainanadvantagebyusingthisfallacy.Forthe
accuserusesprobabilitiestoprovehiscase:andtorefuteaconclusion
73/102
15/03/2015
asimprobableisnotthesamethingastorefuteitasnotinevitable.
Anyargumentbaseduponwhatusuallyhappensisalwaysopentoobjection:
otherwiseitwouldnotbeaprobabilitybutaninvariableandnecessary
truth.Butthejudgesthink,iftherefutationtakesthisform,either
thattheaccuser'scaseisnotprobableorthattheymustnotdecide
it;which,aswesaid,isafalsepieceofreasoning.Fortheyought
todecidebyconsideringnotmerelywhatmustbetruebutalsowhat
islikelytobetrue:thisis,indeed,themeaningof'givingaverdict
inaccordancewithone'shonestopinion'.Thereforeitisnotenough
forthedefendanttorefutetheaccusationbyprovingthatthecharge
isnothoundtobetrue:hemustdosobyshowingthatitisnotlikely
tobetrue.Forthispurposehisobjectionmuststatewhatismore
usuallytruethanthestatementattacked.Itmaydosoineitherof
twoways:eitherinrespectoffrequencyorinrespectofexactness.
Itwillbemostconvincingifitdoessoinbothrespects;forif
thethinginquestionbothhappensofteneraswerepresentitand
happensmoreaswerepresentit,theprobabilityisparticularlygreat.
(2)FallibleSigns,andEnthymemesbaseduponthem,canberefuted
evenifthefactsarecorrect,aswassaidattheoutset.Forwehave
shownintheAnalyticsthatnoFallibleSigncanformpartofavalid
logicalproof.
(3)Enthymemesdependingonexamplesmayberefutedinthesameway
asprobabilities.Ifwehaveanegativeinstance,theargumentis
refuted,insofarasitisprovednotinevitable,eventhoughthe
positiveexamplesaremoresimilarandmorefrequent.Andifthepositive
examplesaremorenumerousandmorefrequent,wemustcontendthat
thepresentcaseisdissimilar,orthatitsconditionsaredissimilar,
orthatitisdifferentinsomewayorother.
(4)ItwillbeimpossibletorefuteInfallibleSigns,andEnthymemes
restingonthem,byshowinginanywaythattheydonotformavalid
logicalproof:this,too,weseefromtheAnalytics.Allwecando
istoshowthatthefactallegeddoesnotexist.Ifthereisnodoubt
thatitdoes,andthatitisanInfallibleSign,refutationnowbecomes
impossible:forthisisequivalenttoademonstrationwhichisclear
ineveryrespect.
Part26
AmplificationandDepreciationarenotanelementofenthymeme.By
'anelementofenthymeme'Imeanthesamethingasalineofenthymematic
argumentageneralclassembracingalargenumberofparticularkinds
ofenthymeme.AmplificationandDepreciationareonekindofenthymeme,
viz.thekindusedtoshowthatathingisgreatorsmall;justas
thereareotherkindsusedtoshowthatathingisgoodorbad,just
orunjust,andanythingelseofthesort.Allthesethingsarethe
subjectmatterofsyllogismsandenthymemes;noneoftheseisthe
lineofargumentofanenthymeme;nomore,therefore,areAmplification
andDepreciation.NorareRefutativeEnthymemesadifferentspecies
fromConstructive.Foritisclearthatrefutationconsistseither
inofferingpositiveprooforinraisinganobjection.Inthefirst
caseweprovetheoppositeofouradversary'sstatements.Thus,if
heshowsthatathinghashappened,weshowthatithasnot;ifhe
showsthatithasnothappened,weshowthatithas.This,then,could
notbethedistinctioniftherewereone,sincethesamemeansare
employedbybothparties,enthymemesbeingadducedtoshowthatthe
factisorisnotsoandso.Anobjection,ontheotherhand,isnot
anenthymemeatall,aswassaidintheTopics,consistsinstating
someacceptedopinionfromwhichitwillbeclearthatouropponent
hasnotreasonedcorrectlyorhasmadeafalseassumption.
Threepointsmustbestudiedinmakingaspeech;andwehavenowcompleted
theaccountof(1)Examples,Maxims,Enthymemes,andingeneralthe
74/102
15/03/2015
thoughtelementthewaytoinventandrefutearguments.Wehavenext
todiscuss(2)Style,and(3)Arrangement.
BOOKIII
Part1
Inmakingaspeechonemuststudythreepoints:first,themeans
ofproducingpersuasion;second,thestyle,orlanguage,tobeused;
third,theproperarrangementofthevariouspartsofthespeech.
Wehavealreadyspecifiedthesourcesofpersuasion.Wehaveshown
thatthesearethreeinnumber;whattheyare;andwhythereareonly
thesethree:forwehaveshownthatpersuasionmustineverycase
beeffectedeither(1)byworkingontheemotionsofthejudgesthemselves,
(2)bygivingthemtherightimpressionofthespeakers'character,
or(3)byprovingthetruthofthestatementsmade.
Enthymemesalsohavebeendescribed,andthesourcesfromwhichthey
shouldbederived;therebeingbothspecialandgenerallinesofargument
forenthymemes.
Ournextsubjectwillbethestyleofexpression.Foritisnotenough
toknowwhatweoughttosay;wemustalsosayitasweought;much
helpisthusaffordedtowardsproducingtherightimpressionofa
speech.Thefirstquestiontoreceiveattentionwasnaturallythe
onethatcomesfirstnaturallyhowpersuasioncanbeproducedfrom
thefactsthemselves.Thesecondishowtosetthesefactsoutin
language.Athirdwouldbethepropermethodofdelivery;thisis
athingthataffectsthesuccessofaspeechgreatly;buthitherto
thesubjecthasbeenneglected.Indeed,itwaslongbeforeitfound
awayintotheartsoftragicdramaandepicrecitation:atfirst
poetsactedtheirtragediesthemselves.Itisplainthatdelivery
hasjustasmuchtodowithoratoryaswithpoetry.(Inconnexion
withpoetry,ithasbeenstudiedbyGlauconofTeosamongothers.)
Itis,essentially,amatteroftherightmanagementofthevoice
toexpressthevariousemotionsofspeakingloudly,softly,orbetween
thetwo;ofhigh,low,orintermediatepitch;ofthevariousrhythms
thatsuitvarioussubjects.Thesearethethreethingsvolumeofsound,
modulationofpitch,andrhythmthataspeakerbearsinmind.Itis
thosewhodobeartheminmindwhousuallywinprizesinthedramatic
contests;andjustasindramatheactorsnowcountformorethan
thepoets,soitisinthecontestsofpubliclife,owingtothedefects
ofourpoliticalinstitutions.Nosystematictreatiseupontherules
ofdeliveryhasyetbeencomposed;indeed,eventhestudyoflanguage
madenoprogresstilllateintheday.Besides,deliveryisveryproperlynot
regardedasanelevatedsubjectofinquiry.Still,thewholebusiness
ofrhetoricbeingconcernedwithappearances,wemustpayattention
tothesubjectofdelivery,unworthythoughitis,becausewecannot
dowithoutit.Therightthinginspeakingreallyisthatweshould
besatisfiednottoannoyourhearers,withouttryingtodelightthem:
weoughtinfairnesstofightourcasewithnohelpbeyondthebare
facts:nothing,therefore,shouldmatterexcepttheproofofthose
facts.Still,ashasbeenalreadysaid,otherthingsaffecttheresult
considerably,owingtothedefectsofourhearers.Theartsoflanguage
cannothelphavingasmallbutrealimportance,whateveritiswe
havetoexpoundtoothers:thewayinwhichathingissaiddoesaffect
itsintelligibility.Not,however,somuchimportanceaspeoplethink.
Allsuchartsarefancifulandmeanttocharmthehearer.Nobodyuses
finelanguagewhenteachinggeometry.
Whentheprinciplesofdeliveryhavebeenworkedout,theywillproduce
thesameeffectasonthestage.Butonlyveryslightattemptsto
dealwiththemhavebeenmadeandbyafewpeople,asbyThrasymachus
75/102
15/03/2015
inhis'AppealstoPity'.Dramaticabilityisanaturalgift,and
canhardlybesystematicallytaught.Theprinciplesofgooddiction
canbesotaught,andthereforewehavemenofabilityinthisdirection
too,whowinprizesintheirturn,aswellasthosespeakerswhoexcel
indeliveryspeechesofthewrittenorliterarykindowemoreoftheir
effecttotheirdirectionthantotheirthought.
Itwasnaturallythepoetswhofirstsetthemovementgoing;forwords
representthings,andtheyhadalsothehumanvoiceattheirdisposal,
whichofallourorganscanbestrepresentotherthings.Thusthe
artsofrecitationandactingwereformed,andothersaswell.Now
itwasbecausepoetsseemedtowinfamethroughtheirfinelanguage
whentheirthoughtsweresimpleenough,thatthelanguageoforatorical
proseatfirsttookapoeticalcolour,e.g.thatofGorgias.Even
nowmostuneducatedpeoplethinkthatpoeticallanguagemakesthe
finestdiscourses.Thatisnottrue:thelanguageofproseisdistinct
fromthatofpoetry.Thisisshownbythestateofthingstoday,
wheneventhelanguageoftragedyhasaltereditscharacter.Just
asiambicswereadopted,insteadoftetrameters,becausetheyare
themostproselikeofallmetres,sotragedyhasgivenupallthose
words,notusedinordinarytalk,whichdecoratedtheearlydrama
andarestillusedbythewritersofhexameterpoems.Itistherefore
ridiculoustoimitateapoeticalmannerwhichthepoetsthemselves
havedropped;anditisnowplainthatwehavenottotreatindetail
thewholequestionofstyle,butmayconfineourselvestothatpart
ofitwhichconcernsourpresentsubject,rhetoric.Theotherthe
poeticalpartofithasbeendiscussedinthetreatiseontheArt
ofPoetry.
Part2
Wemay,then,startfromtheobservationstheremade,includingthe
definitionofstyle.Styletobegoodmustbeclear,asisproved
bythefactthatspeechwhichfailstoconveyaplainmeaningwill
failtodojustwhatspeechhastodo.Itmustalsobeappropriate,
avoidingbothmeannessandundueelevation;poeticallanguageiscertainly
freefrommeanness,butitisnotappropriatetoprose.Clearness
issecuredbyusingthewords(nounsandverbsalike)thatarecurrent
andordinary.Freedomfrommeanness,andpositiveadornmenttoo,are
securedbyusingtheotherwordsmentionedintheArtofPoetry.Such
variationfromwhatisusualmakesthelanguageappearmorestately.
Peopledonotfeeltowardsstrangersastheydotowardstheirown
countrymen,andthesamethingistrueoftheirfeelingforlanguage.
Itisthereforewelltogivetoeverydayspeechanunfamiliarair:
peoplelikewhatstrikesthem,andarestruckbywhatisoutofthe
way.Inversesucheffectsarecommon,andtheretheyarefitting:
thepersonsandthingstherespokenofarecomparativelyremotefrom
ordinarylife.Inprosepassagestheyarefarlessoftenfittingbecause
thesubjectmatterislessexalted.Eveninpoetry,itisnotquite
appropriatethatfinelanguageshouldbeusedbyaslaveoravery
youngman,oraboutverytrivialsubjects:eveninpoetrythestyle,
tobeappropriate,mustsometimesbetoneddown,thoughatothertimes
heightened.Wecannowseethatawritermustdisguisehisartand
givetheimpressionofspeakingnaturallyandnotartificially.Naturalness
ispersuasive,artificialityisthecontrary;forourhearersare
prejudicedandthinkwehavesomedesignagainstthem,asifwewere
mixingtheirwinesforthem.Itislikethedifferencebetweenthe
qualityofTheodorus'voiceandthevoicesofallotheractors:his
reallyseemstobethatofthecharacterwhoisspeaking,theirsdo
not.Wecanhideourpurposesuccessfullybytakingthesinglewords
ofourcompositionfromthespeechofordinarylife.Thisisdone
inpoetrybyEuripides,whowasthefirsttoshowthewaytohissuccessors.
Languageiscomposedofnounsandverbs.Nounsareofthevarious
kindsconsideredinthetreatiseonPoetry.Strangewords,compound
76/102
15/03/2015
words,andinventedwordsmustbeusedsparinglyandonfewoccasions:
onwhatoccasionsweshallstatelater.Thereasonforthisrestriction
hasbeenalreadyindicated:theydepartfromwhatissuitable,in
thedirectionofexcess.Inthelanguageofprose,besidestheregular
andpropertermsforthings,metaphoricaltermsonlycanbeusedwith
advantage.Thiswegatherfromthefactthatthesetwoclassesof
terms,theproperorregularandthemetaphoricaltheseandnoothersare
usedbyeverybodyinconversation.Wecannowseethatagoodwriter
canproduceastylethatisdistinguishedwithoutbeingobtrusive,
andisatthesametimeclear,thussatisfyingourdefinitionofgood
oratoricalprose.Wordsofambiguousmeaningarechieflyusefulto
enablethesophisttomisleadhishearers.Synonymsareusefulto
thepoet,bywhichImeanwordswhoseordinarymeaningisthesame,
e.g.'porheueseai'(advancing)and'badizein'(proceeding);these
twoareordinarywordsandhavethesamemeaning.
IntheArtofPoetry,aswehavealreadysaid,willbefounddefinitions
ofthesekindsofwords;aclassificationofMetaphors;andmention
ofthefactthatmetaphorisofgreatvaluebothinpoetryandin
prose.Prosewritersmust,however,payspeciallycarefulattention
tometaphor,becausetheirotherresourcesarescantierthanthose
ofpoets.Metaphor,moreover,givesstyleclearness,charm,anddistinction
asnothingelsecan:anditisnotathingwhoseusecanbetaught
byonemantoanother.Metaphors,likeepithets,mustbefitting,
whichmeansthattheymustfairlycorrespondtothethingsignified:
failingthis,theirinappropriatenesswillbeconspicuous:thewant
ofharmonybetweentwothingsisemphasizedbytheirbeingplaced
sidebyside.Itislikehavingtoaskourselveswhatdresswillsuit
anoldman;certainlynotthecrimsoncloakthatsuitsayoungman.
Andifyouwishtopayacompliment,youmusttakeyourmetaphorfrom
somethingbetterinthesameline;iftodisparage,fromsomething
worse.Toillustratemymeaning:sinceoppositesareinthesameclass,
youdowhatIhavesuggestedifyousaythatamanwhobegs'prays',
andamanwhoprays'begs';forprayingandbeggingarebothvarieties
ofasking.SoIphicratescalledCalliasa'mendicantpriest'instead
ofa'torchbearer',andCalliasrepliedthatIphicratesmustbeuninitiated
orhewouldhavecalledhimnota'mendicantpriest'buta'torchbearer'.
Botharereligioustitles,butoneishonourableandtheotheris
not.Again,somebodycallsactors'hangersonofDionysus',butthey
callthemselves'artists':eachofthesetermsisametaphor,the
oneintendedtothrowdirtattheactor,theothertodignifyhim.
Andpiratesnowcallthemselves'purveyors'.Wecanthuscallacrime
amistake,oramistakeacrime.Wecansaythatathief'took'a
thing,orthathe'plundered'hisvictim.Anexpressionlikethat
ofEuripides'Telephus,
"Kingoftheoar,onMysia'scoasthelanded,"
isinappropriate;theword'king'goesbeyondthedignityofthe
subject,andsotheartisnotconcealed.Ametaphormaybeamiss
becausetheverysyllablesofthewordsconveyingitfailtoindicate
sweetnessofvocalutterance.ThusDionysiustheBrazeninhiselegies
callspoetry'Calliope'sscreech'.Poetryandscreechingareboth,
tobesure,vocalutterances.Butthemetaphorisbad,becausethe
soundsof'screeching',unlikethoseofpoetry,arediscordantand
unmeaning.Further,inusingmetaphorstogivenamestonamelessthings,
wemustdrawthemnotfromremotebutfromkindredandsimilarthings,
sothatthekinshipisclearlyperceivedassoonasthewordsare
said.Thusinthecelebratedriddle
"Imarkedhowamangluedbronzewithfiretoanotherman'sbody,
"
theprocessisnameless;butbothitandgluingareakindofapplication,
andthatiswhytheapplicationofthecuppingglassisherecalled
77/102
15/03/2015
a'gluing'.Goodriddlesdo,ingeneral,provideuswithsatisfactory
metaphors:formetaphorsimplyriddles,andthereforeagoodriddle
canfurnishagoodmetaphor.Further,thematerialsofmetaphorsmust
bebeautiful;andthebeauty,liketheugliness,ofallwordsmay,
asLicymniussays,lieintheirsoundorintheirmeaning.Further,
thereisathirdconsiderationonethatupsetsthefallaciousargument
ofthesophistBryson,thatthereisnosuchthingasfoullanguage,
becauseinwhateverwordsyouputagiventhingyourmeaningisthe
same.Thisisuntrue.Onetermmaydescribeathingmoretrulythan
another,maybemorelikeit,andsetitmoreintimatelybeforeour
eyes.Besides,twodifferentwordswillrepresentathingintwodifferent
lights;soonthisgroundalsoonetermmustbeheldfairerorfouler
thananother.Forbothoftwotermswillindicatewhatisfair,or
whatisfoul,butnotsimplytheirfairnessortheirfoulness,or
ifso,atanyratenotinanequaldegree.Thematerialsofmetaphor
mustbebeautifultotheear,totheunderstanding,totheeyeor
someotherphysicalsense.Itisbetter,forinstance,tosay'rosyfingered
morn',than'crimsonfingered'or,worsestill,'redfingeredmorn'.
Theepithetsthatweapply,too,mayhaveabadanduglyaspect,as
whenOrestesiscalleda'motherslayer';orabetterone,aswhen
heiscalledhis'father'savenger'.Simonides,whenthevictorin
themuleraceofferedhimasmallfee,refusedtowritehimanode,
because,hesaid,itwassounpleasanttowriteodestohalfasses:
butonreceivinganadequatefee,hewrote
"Hailtoyou,daughtersofstormfootedsteeds?"
thoughofcoursetheyweredaughtersofassestoo.Thesameeffect
isattainedbytheuseofdiminutives,whichmakeabadthingless
badandagoodthinglessgood.Take,forinstance,thebanterof
AristophanesintheBabylonianswhereheuses'goldlet'for'gold',
'cloaklet'for'cloak','scoffiet'for'scoff,and'plaguelet'.But
alikeinusingepithetsandinusingdiminutiveswemustbewaryand
mustobservethemean.
Part3
Badtasteinlanguagemaytakeanyoffourforms:
(1)Themisuseofcompoundwords.Lycophron,forinstance,talksof
the'manyvisagedheaven'abovethe'giantcrestedearth',andagain
the'straitpathedshore';andGorgiasofthe'pauperpoetflatterer'
and'oathbreakingandoveroathkeeping'.Alcidamasusessuchexpressions
as'thesoulfillingwithrageandfacebecomingflameflushed',and
'hethoughttheirenthusiasmwouldbeissuefraught'and'issuefraught
hemadethepersuasionofhiswords',and'sombrehuedisthefloor
ofthesea'.Thewayallthesewordsarecompoundedmakesthem,we
feel,fitforverseonly.This,then,isoneforminwhichbadtaste
isshown.
(2)Anotheristheemploymentofstrangewords.Forinstance,Lycophron
talksof'theprodigiousXerxes'and'spoliativeSciron';Alcidamas
of'atoyforpoetry'and'thewitlessnessofnature',andsays'whetted
withtheunmitigatedtemperofhisspirit'.
(3)Athirdformistheuseoflong,unseasonable,orfrequentepithets.
Itisappropriateenoughforapoettotalkof'whitemilk',inprose
suchepithetsaresometimeslackinginappropriatenessor,whenspread
toothickly,plainlyrevealtheauthorturninghisproseintopoetry.
Ofcoursewemustusesomeepithets,sincetheyliftourstyleabove
theusuallevelandgiveitanairofdistinction.Butwemustaim
attheduemean,ortheresultwillbeworsethanifwetooknotrouble
atall;weshallgetsomethingactuallybadinsteadofsomethingmerely
notgood.ThatiswhytheepithetsofAlcidamasseemsotasteless;
hedoesnotusethemastheseasoningofthemeat,butasthemeat
itself,sonumerousandswollenandaggressivearethey.Forinstance,
78/102
15/03/2015
hedoesnotsay'sweat',but'themoistsweat';not'totheIsthmian
games',but'totheworldconcourseoftheIsthmiangames';not'laws',
but'thelawsthataremonarchsofstates';not'atarun',but'his
heartimpellinghimtospeedoffoot';not'aschooloftheMuses',
but'Nature'sschooloftheMuseshadheinherited';andso'frowning
careofheart',and'achiever'notof'popularity'butof'universal
popularity',and'dispenserofpleasuretohisaudience',and'he
concealedit'not'withboughs'but'withboughsoftheforesttrees',
and'heclothed'not'hisbody'but'hisbody'snakedness',and'his
soul'sdesirewascounterimitative'(this'satoneandthesametime
acompoundandanepithet,sothatitseemsapoet'seffort),and
'soextravaganttheexcessofhiswickedness'.Wethusseehowthe
inappropriatenessofsuchpoeticallanguageimportsabsurdityand
tastelessnessintospeeches,aswellastheobscuritythatcomesfrom
allthisverbosityforwhenthesenseisplain,youonlyobscureand
spoilitsclearnessbypilingupwords.
Theordinaryuseofcompoundwordsiswherethereisnotermfora
thingandsomecompoundcanbeeasilyformed,like'pastime'(chronotribein);
butifthisismuchdone,theprosecharacterdisappearsentirely.
Wenowseewhythelanguageofcompoundsisjustthethingforwriters
ofdithyrambs,wholovesonorousnoises;strangewordsforwriters
ofepicpoetry,whichisaproudandstatelyaffair;andmetaphor
foriambicverse,themetrewhich(ashasbeenalready'said)iswidely
usedtoday.
(4)Thereremainsthefourthregioninwhichbadtastemaybeshown,
metaphor.Metaphorslikeotherthingsmaybeinappropriate.Someare
sobecausetheyareridiculous;theyareindeedusedbycomicaswell
astragicpoets.Othersaretoograndandtheatrical;andthese,if
theyarefarfetched,mayalsobeobscure.Forinstance,Gorgiastalks
of'eventsthataregreenandfullofsap',andsays'foulwasthe
deedyousowedandeviltheharvestyoureaped'.Thatistoomuch
likepoetry.Alcidamas,again,calledphilosophy'afortressthat
threatensthepoweroflaw',andtheOdyssey'agoodlylookingglass
ofhumanlife','talkedabout'offeringnosuchtoytopoetry':all
theseexpressionsfail,forthereasonsgiven,tocarrythehearer
withthem.TheaddressofGorgiastotheswallow,whenshehadlet
herdroppingsfallonhimassheflewoverhead,isinthebesttragic
manner.Hesaid,'Nay,shame,OPhilomela'.Consideringherasabird,
youcouldnotcallheractshameful;consideringherasagirl,you
could;andsoitwasagoodgibetoaddressheraswhatshewasonce
andnotaswhatsheis.
Part4
TheSimilealsoisametaphor;thedifferenceisbutslight.When
thepoetsaysofAchillesthathe
"Leaptonthefoeasalion,"
thisisasimile;whenhesaysofhim'thelionleapt',itisametaphorhere,
sincebotharecourageous,hehastransferredtoAchillesthename
of'lion'.Similesareusefulinproseaswellasinverse;butnot
often,sincetheyareofthenatureofpoetry.Theyaretobeemployed
justasmetaphorsareemployed,sincetheyarereallythesamething
exceptforthedifferencementioned.
Thefollowingareexamplesofsimiles.AndrotionsaidofIdrieusthat
hewaslikeaterrierletoffthechain,thatfliesatyouandbites
youIdrieustoowassavagenowthathewasletoutofhischains.
TheodamascomparedArchidamustoanEuxenuswhocouldnotdogeometrya
proportionalsimile,implyingthatEuxenusisanArchidamuswhocan
dogeometry.InPlato'sRepublicthosewhostripthedeadarecompared
tocurswhichbitethestonesthrownatthembutdonottouchthe
79/102
15/03/2015
thrower,andthereisthesimileabouttheAthenianpeople,whoare
comparedtoaship'scaptainwhoisstrongbutalittledeaf;and
theoneaboutpoets'verses,whicharelikenedtopersonswholack
beautybutpossessyouthfulfreshnesswhenthefreshnesshasfaded
thecharmperishes,andsowithverseswhenbrokenupintoprose.
PericlescomparedtheSamianstochildrenwhotaketheirpapbutgo
oncrying;andtheBoeotianstoholmoaks,becausetheywereruining
oneanotherbycivilwarsjustasoneoakcausesanotheroak'sfall.
DemosthenessaidthattheAthenianpeoplewerelikeseasickmenon
boardship.Again,Demosthenescomparedthepoliticaloratorstonurses
whoswallowthebitoffoodthemselvesandthensmearthechildren's
lipswiththespittle.AntisthenescomparedtheleanCephisodotus
tofrankincense,becauseitwashisconsumptionthatgaveonepleasure.
Alltheseideasmaybeexpressedeitherassimilesorasmetaphors;
thosewhichsucceedasmetaphorswillobviouslydowellalsoassimiles,
andsimiles,withtheexplanationomitted,willappearasmetaphors.
Buttheproportionalmetaphormustalwaysapplyreciprocallytoeither
ofitscoordinateterms.Forinstance,ifadrinkingbowlisthe
shieldofDionysus,ashieldmayfittinglybecalledthedrinkingbowl
ofAres.
Part5
Such,then,aretheingredientsofwhichspeechiscomposed.Thefoundation
ofgoodstyleiscorrectnessoflanguage,whichfallsunderfiveheads.
(1)First,theproperuseofconnectingwords,andthearrangement
oftheminthenaturalsequencewhichsomeofthemrequire.Forinstance,
theconnective'men'(e.g.egomen)requiresthecorrelativede(e.g.
ode).Theansweringwordmustbebroughtinbeforethefirsthas
beenforgotten,andnotbewidelyseparatedfromit;nor,exceptin
thefewcaseswherethisisappropriate,isanotherconnectiveto
beintroducedbeforetheonerequired.Considerthesentence,'But
assoonashetoldme(forCleonhadcomebeggingandpraying),took
themalongandsetout.'Inthissentencemanyconnectingwordsare
insertedinfrontoftheonerequiredtocompletethesense;andif
thereisalongintervalbefore'setout',theresultisobscurity.
Onemerit,then,ofgoodstyleliesintherightuseofconnecting
words.(2)Thesecondliesincallingthingsbytheirownspecial
namesandnotbyvaguegeneralones.(3)Thethirdistoavoidambiguities;
unless,indeed,youdefinitelydesiretobeambiguous,asthosedo
whohavenothingtosaybutarepretendingtomeansomething.Such
peopleareapttoputthatsortofthingintoverse.Empedocles,for
instance,byhislongcircumlocutionsimposesonhishearers;these
areaffectedinthesamewayasmostpeoplearewhentheylistento
diviners,whoseambiguousutterancesarereceivedwithnodsofacquiescence
"CroesusbycrossingtheHalyswillruinamightyrealm.
"
Divinersusethesevaguegeneralitiesaboutthematterinhandbecause
theirpredictionsarethus,asarule,lesslikelytobefalsified.
Wearemorelikelytoberight,inthegameof'oddandeven',if
wesimplyguess'even'or'odd'thanifweguessattheactualnumber;
andtheoraclemongerismorelikelytoberightifhesimplysays
thatathingwillhappenthanifhesayswhenitwillhappen,and
thereforeherefusestoaddadefinitedate.Alltheseambiguities
havethesamesortofeffect,andaretobeavoidedunlesswehave
somesuchobjectasthatmentioned.(4)Afourthruleistoobserve
Protagoras'classificationofnounsintomale,female,andinanimate;
forthesedistinctionsalsomustbecorrectlygiven.'Uponherarrival
shesaidhersayanddeparted(edelthousakaidialechtheisaocheto).'
(5)Afifthruleistoexpressplurality,fewness,andunitybythe
correctwording,e.g.'Havingcome,theystruckme(oidelthontes
etuptonme).'
80/102
15/03/2015
Itisageneralrulethatawrittencompositionshouldbeeasyto
readandthereforeeasytodeliver.Thiscannotbesowherethere
aremanyconnectingwordsorclauses,orwherepunctuationishard,
asinthewritingsofHeracleitus.TopunctuateHeracleitusisno
easytask,becauseweoftencannottellwhetheraparticularword
belongstowhatprecedesorwhatfollowsit.Thus,attheoutsetof
histreatisehesays,'Thoughthistruthisalwaysmenunderstand
itnot',whereitisnotclearwithwhichofthetwoclausestheword
'always'shouldbejoinedbythepunctuation.Further,thefollowing
factleadstosolecism,viz.thatthesentencedoesnotworkoutproperly
ifyouannextotwotermsathirdwhichdoesnotsuitthemboth.Thus
either'sound'or'colour'willfailtoworkoutproperlywithsome
verbs:'perceive'willapplytoboth,'see'willnot.Obscurityis
alsocausedif,whenyouintendtoinsertanumberofdetails,you
donotfirstmakeyourmeaningclear;forinstance,ifyousay,'I
meant,aftertellinghimthis,thatandtheotherthing,tosetout',
ratherthansomethingofthiskind'Imeanttosetoutaftertelling
him;thenthis,that,andtheotherthingoccurred.'
Part6
Thefollowingsuggestionswillhelptogiveyourlanguageimpressiveness.
(1)Describeathinginsteadofnamingit:donotsay'circle',but
'thatsurfacewhichextendsequallyfromthemiddleeveryway'.To
achieveconciseness,dotheoppositeputthenameinsteadofthedescription.
Whenmentioninganythinguglyorunseemly,useitsnameifitisthe
descriptionthatisugly,anddescribeitifitisthenamethatis
ugly.(2)Representthingswiththehelpofmetaphorsandepithets,
beingcarefultoavoidpoeticaleffects.(3)Usepluralforsingular,
asinpoetry,whereonefinds
"UntohavensAchaean,"
thoughonlyonehavenismeant,and
"Herearemyletter'smanyleavedfolds."
(4)Donotbrackettwowordsunderonearticle,butputonearticle
witheach;e.g.'thatwifeofours.'Thereversetosecureconciseness;
e.g.'ourwife.'Useplentyofconnectingwords;conversely,tosecure
conciseness,dispensewithconnectives,whilestillpreservingconnexion;
e.g.'havinggoneandspoken',and'havinggone,Ispoke',respectively.
(6)AndthepracticeofAntimachus,too,isusefultodescribeathing
bymentioningattributesitdoesnotpossess;ashedoesintalking
ofTeumessus
"Thereisalittlewindsweptknoll..."
Asubjectcanbedevelopedindefinitelyalongtheselines.Youmay
applythismethodoftreatmentbynegationeithertogoodortobad
qualities,accordingtowhichyoursubjectrequires.Itisfromthis
sourcethatthepoetsdrawexpressionssuchasthe'stringless'or
'lyreless'melody,thusformingepithetsoutofnegations.Thisdevice
ispopularinproportionalmetaphors,aswhenthetrumpet'snoteis
called'alyrelessmelody'.
Part7
Yourlanguagewillbeappropriateifitexpressesemotionandcharacter,
andifitcorrespondstoitssubject.'Correspondencetosubject'
meansthatwemustneitherspeakcasuallyaboutweightymatters,nor
solemnlyabouttrivialones;normustweaddornamentalepithetsto
commonplacenouns,ortheeffectwillbecomic,asintheworksof
Cleophon,whocanusephrasesasabsurdas'Oqueenlyfigtree'.To
expressemotion,youwillemploythelanguageofangerinspeaking
81/102
15/03/2015
ofoutrage;thelanguageofdisgustanddiscreetreluctancetoutter
awordwhenspeakingofimpietyorfoulness;thelanguageofexultation
forataleofglory,andthatofhumiliationforataleofandso
inallothercases.
Thisaptnessoflanguageisonethingthatmakespeoplebelievein
thetruthofyourstory:theirmindsdrawthefalseconclusionthat
youaretobetrustedfromthefactthatothersbehaveasyoudowhen
thingsareasyoudescribethem;andthereforetheytakeyourstory
tobetrue,whetheritissoornot.Besides,anemotionalspeaker
alwaysmakeshisaudiencefeelwithhim,evenwhenthereisnothing
inhisarguments;whichiswhymanyspeakerstrytooverwhelmtheir
audiencebymerenoise.
Furthermore,thiswayofprovingyourstorybydisplayingthesesigns
ofitsgenuinenessexpressesyourpersonalcharacter.Eachclassof
men,eachtypeofdisposition,willhaveitsownappropriatewayof
lettingthetruthappear.Under'class'Iincludedifferencesofage,
asboy,man,oroldman;ofsex,asmanorwoman;ofnationality,
asSpartanorThessalian.By'dispositions'Iheremeanthosedispositions
onlywhichdeterminethecharacterofaman'sforitisnotevery
dispositionthatdoesthis.If,then,aspeakerusestheverywords
whichareinkeepingwithaparticulardisposition,hewillreproduce
thecorrespondingcharacter;forarusticandaneducatedmanwill
notsaythesamethingsnorspeakinthesameway.Again,someimpression
ismadeuponanaudiencebyadevicewhichspeechwritersemployto
nauseousexcess,whentheysay'Whodoesnotknowthis?'or'Itis
knowntoeverybody.'Thehearerisashamedofhisignorance,andagrees
withthespeaker,soastohaveashareoftheknowledgethateverybody
elsepossesses.
Allthevariationsoforatoricalstylearecapableofbeingusedin
seasonoroutofseason.Thebestwaytocounteractanyexaggeration
isthewellworndevicebywhichthespeakerputsinsomecriticism
ofhimself;forthenpeoplefeelitmustbeallrightforhimtotalk
thus,sincehecertainlyknowswhatheisdoing.Further,itisbetter
nottohaveeverythingalwaysjustcorrespondingtoeverythingelseyour
hearerswillseethroughyoulesseasilythus.Imeanforinstance,
ifyourwordsareharsh,youshouldnotextendthisharshnesstoyour
voiceandyourcountenanceandhaveeverythingelseinkeeping.If
youdo,theartificialcharacterofeachdetailbecomesapparent;
whereasifyouadoptonedeviceandnotanother,youareusingart
allthesameandyetnobodynoticesit.(Tobesure,ifmildsentiments
areexpressedinharshtonesandharshsentimentsinmildtones,you
becomecomparativelyunconvincing.)Compoundwords,fairlyplentiful
epithets,andstrangewordsbestsuitanemotionalspeech.Weforgive
anangrymanfortalkingaboutawrongas'heavenhigh'or'colossal';
andweexcusesuchlanguagewhenthespeakerhashishearersalready
inhishandsandhasstirredthemdeeplyeitherbypraiseorblame
orangeroraffection,asIsocrates,forinstance,doesattheend
ofhisPanegyric,withhis'nameandfame'and'inthattheybrooked'.
Mendospeakinthisstrainwhentheyaredeeplystirred,andso,
oncetheaudienceisinalikestateoffeeling,approvalofcourse
follows.Thisiswhysuchlanguageisfittinginpoetry,whichis
aninspiredthing.Thislanguage,then,shouldbeusedeitherunder
stressofemotion,orironically,afterthemannerofGorgiasand
ofthepassagesinthePhaedrus.
Part8
Theformofaprosecompositionshouldbeneithermetricalnordestitute
ofrhythm.Themetricalformdestroysthehearer'strustbyitsartificial
appearance,andatthesametimeitdivertshisattention,making
himwatchformetricalrecurrences,justaschildrencatchupthe
herald'squestion,'Whomdoesthefreedmanchooseashisadvocate?',
82/102
15/03/2015
withtheanswer'Cleon!'Ontheotherhand,unrhythmicallanguage
istoounlimited;wedonotwantthelimitationsofmetre,butsome
limitationwemusthave,ortheeffectwillbevagueandunsatisfactory.
Nowitisnumberthatlimitsallthings;anditisthenumericallimitation
oftheformsofacompositionthatconstitutesrhythm,ofwhichmetres
aredefinitesections.Prose,then,istoberhythmical,butnotmetrical,
oritwillbecomenotprosebutverse.Itshouldnotevenhavetoo
preciseaproserhythm,andthereforeshouldonlyberhythmicalto
acertainextent.
Ofthevariousrhythms,theheroichasdignity,butlacksthetones
ofthespokenlanguage.Theiambicistheverylanguageofordinary
people,sothatincommontalkiambiclinesoccuroftenerthanany
others:butinaspeechweneeddignityandthepoweroftakingthe
heareroutofhisordinaryself.Thetrocheeistoomuchakintowild
dancing:wecanseethisintetrameterverse,whichisoneofthe
trochaicrhythms.
Thereremainsthepaean,whichspeakersbegantouseinthetimeof
Thrasymachus,thoughtheyhadthennonametogiveit.Thepaeanis
athirdclassofrhythm,closelyakintoboththetwoalreadymentioned;
ithasinittheratioofthreetotwo,whereastheothertwokinds
havetheratioofonetoone,andtwotoonerespectively.Between
thetwolastratioscomestheratioofoneandahalftoone,which
isthatofthepaean.
Nowtheothertwokindsofrhythmmustberejectedinwritingprose,
partlyforthereasonsgiven,andpartlybecausetheyaretoometrical;
andthepaeanmustbeadopted,sincefromthisaloneoftherhythms
mentionednodefinitemetrearises,andthereforeitistheleast
obtrusiveofthem.Atpresentthesameformofpaeanisemployedat
thebeginningaattheendofsentences,whereastheendshoulddiffer
fromthebeginning.Therearetwooppositekindsofpaean,oneof
whichissuitabletothebeginningofasentence,whereitisindeed
actuallyused;thisisthekindthatbeginswithalongsyllableand
endswiththreeshortones,as
"Dalogenes|eiteLuki|an,"
and
"Chruseokom|aEkate|paiDios."
Theotherpaeanbegins,conversely,withthreeshortsyllablesand
endswithalongone,as
"metadelan|udatatok|eanone|oanisenux."
Thiskindofpaeanmakesarealclose:ashortsyllablecangive
noeffectoffinality,andthereforemakestherhythmappeartruncated.
Asentenceshouldbreakoffwiththelongsyllable:thefactthat
itisovershouldbeindicatednotbythescribe,orbyhisperiodmark
inthemargin,butbytherhythmitself.
Wehavenowseenthatourlanguagemustberhythmicalandnotdestitute
ofrhythm,andwhatrhythms,inwhatparticularshape,makeitso.
Part9
Thelanguageofprosemustbeeitherfreerunning,withitsparts
unitedbynothingexcepttheconnectingwords,likethepreludesin
dithyrambs;orcompactandantithetical,likethestrophesofthe
oldpoets.Thefreerunningstyleistheancientone,e.g.'Herein
issetforththeinquiryofHerodotustheThurian.'Everyoneused
thismethodformerly;notmanydosonow.By'freerunning'style
83/102
15/03/2015
Imeanthekindthathasnonaturalstoppingplaces,andcomesto
astoponlybecausethereisnomoretosayofthatsubject.This
styleisunsatisfyingjustbecauseitgoesonindefinitelyonealways
likestosightastoppingplaceinfrontofone:itisonlyatthe
goalthatmeninaracefaintandcollapse;whiletheyseetheend
ofthecoursebeforethem,theycankeepongoing.Such,then,is
thefreerunningkindofstyle;thecompactisthatwhichisinperiods.
ByaperiodImeanaportionofspeechthathasinitselfabeginning
andanend,beingatthesametimenottoobigtobetakeninata
glance.Languageofthiskindissatisfyingandeasytofollow.It
issatisfying,becauseitisjustthereverseofindefinite;andmoreover,
theheareralwaysfeelsthatheisgraspingsomethingandhasreached
somedefiniteconclusion;whereasitisunsatisfactorytoseenothing
infrontofyouandgetnowhere.Itiseasytofollow,becauseit
caneasilyberemembered;andthisbecauselanguagewheninperiodic
formcanbenumbered,andnumberistheeasiestofallthingstoremember.
Thatiswhyverse,whichismeasured,isalwaysmoreeasilyremembered
thanprose,whichisnot:themeasuresofversecanbenumbered.The
periodmust,further,notbecompleteduntilthesenseiscomplete:
itmustnotbecapableofbreakingoffabruptly,asmayhappenwith
thefollowingiambiclinesofSophocles
"Calydon'ssoilisthis;ofPelops'land
"(Thesmilingplainsfaceusacrossthestrait.)"
Byawrongdivisionofthewordsthehearermaytakethemeaningto
bethereverseofwhatitis:forinstance,inthepassagequoted,
onemightimaginethatCalydonisinthePeloponnesus.
APeriodmaybeeitherdividedintoseveralmembersorsimple.The
periodofseveralmembersisaportionofspeech(1)completeinitself,
(2)dividedintoparts,and(3)easilydeliveredatasinglebreathas
awhole,thatis;notbyfreshbreathbeingtakenatthedivision.
Amemberisoneofthetwopartsofsuchaperiod.Bya'simple'period,
Imeanthatwhichhasonlyonemember.Themembers,andthewhole
periods,shouldbeneithercurtnorlong.Amemberwhichistooshort
oftenmakesthelistenerstumble;heisstillexpectingtherhythm
togoontothelimithismindhasfixedforit;andifmeanwhile
heispulledbackbythespeaker'sstopping,theshockisboundto
makehim,sotospeak,stumble.If,ontheotherhand,yougoontoo
long,youmakehimfeelleftbehind,justaspeoplewhowhenwalking
passbeyondtheboundarybeforeturningbackleavetheircompanions
behindSotooifaperiodistoolongyouturnitintoaspeech,or
somethinglikeadithyrambicprelude.Theresultismuchlikethe
preludesthatDemocritusofChiosjeeredatMelanippidesforwriting
insteadofantistrophicstanzas
"Hethatsetstrapsforanotherman'sfeet
"Isliketofallintothemfirst;
"Andlongwindedpreludesdoharmtousall,
"Butthepreludercatchesitworst."
Whichapplieslikewisetolongmemberedorators.Periodswhosemembers
arealtogethertooshortarenotperiodsatall;andtheresultis
tobringthehearerdownwithacrash.
Theperiodicstylewhichisdividedintomembersisoftwokinds.
Itiseithersimplydivided,asin'Ihaveoftenwonderedattheconveners
ofnationalgatheringsandthefoundersofathleticcontests';or
itisantithetical,where,ineachofthetwomembers,oneofone
pairofoppositesisputalongwithoneofanotherpair,orthesame
84/102
15/03/2015
wordisusedtobrackettwoopposites,as'Theyaidedbothpartiesnot
onlythosewhostayedbehindbutthosewhoaccompaniedthem:forthe
lattertheyacquirednewterritorylargerthanthatathome,andto
theformertheyleftterritoryathomethatwaslargeenough'.Here
thecontrastedwordsare'stayingbehind'and'accompanying','enough'
and'larger'.Sointheexample,'Bothtothosewhowanttogetproperty
andtothosewhodesiretoenjoyit'where'enjoyment'iscontrasted
with'getting'.Again,'itoftenhappensinsuchenterprisesthat
thewisemenfailandthefoolssucceed';'theywereawardedtheprize
ofvalourimmediately,andwonthecommandoftheseanotlongafterwards';
'tosailthroughthemainlandandmarchthroughthesea,bybridging
theHellespontandcuttingthroughAthos';'naturegavethemtheir
countryandlawtookitawayagain';'ofthemperishedinmisery,
othersweresavedindisgrace';'Atheniancitizenskeepforeigners
intheirhousesasservants,whilethecityofAthensallowsherallies
bythousandstoliveastheforeigner'sslaves';and'topossessin
lifeortobequeathatdeath'.Thereisalsowhatsomeonesaidabout
PeitholausandLycophroninalawcourt,'Thesemenusedtosellyou
whentheywereathome,andnowtheyhavecometoyouhereandbought
you'.Allthesepassageshavethestructuredescribedabove.Such
aformofspeechissatisfying,becausethesignificanceofcontrasted
ideasiseasilyfelt,especiallywhentheyarethusputsidebyside,
andalsobecauseithastheeffectofalogicalargument;itisby
puttingtwoopposingconclusionssidebysidethatyouproveoneof
themfalse.
Such,then,isthenatureofantithesis.Parisosisismakingthetwo
membersofaperiodequalinlength.Paromoeosisismakingtheextreme
wordsofbothmemberslikeeachother.Thismusthappeneitherat
thebeginningorattheendofeachmember.Ifatthebeginning,the
resemblancemustalwaysbebetweenwholewords;attheend,between
finalsyllablesorinflexionsofthesamewordorthesamewordrepeated.
Thus,atthebeginning
"agrongarelabenarlonpar'autou"
and
"dorhetoitepelontopararretoitepeessin"
Attheend
"oukwethesanautonpaidiontetokenai,
"allautouaitlonlelonenai,"
and
"enpleiotalsdeopontisikaienelachistaiselpisin"
Anexampleofinflexionsofthesamewordis
"axiosdestaoenaichalkousoukaxiosonchalkou;"
Ofthesamewordrepeated,
"sud'autonkaizontaelegeskakoskainungrafeiskakos.
"
Ofonesyllable,
"tid'anepaoesdeinon,eiandrh'eidesarhgon;"
Itispossibleforthesamesentencetohaveallthesefeaturestogetherantithesis,
parison,andhomoeoteleuton.(Thepossiblebeginningsofperiodshave
85/102
15/03/2015
beenprettyfullyenumeratedintheTheodectea.)Therearealsospurious
antitheses,likethatofEpicharmus
"ThereonetimeIastheirguestdidstay,
"Andtheyweremyhostsonanotherday."
Part10
Wemaynowconsidertheabovepointssettled,andpassontosaysomething
aboutthewaytodeviselivelyandtakingsayings.Theiractualinvention
canonlycomethroughnaturaltalentorlongpractice;butthistreatise
mayindicatethewayitisdone.Wemaydealwiththembyenumerating
thedifferentkindsofthem.Wewillbeginbyremarkingthatweall
naturallyfinditagreeabletogetholdofnewideaseasily:words
expressideas,andthereforethosewordsarethemostagreeablethat
enableustogetholdofnewideas.Nowstrangewordssimplypuzzle
us;ordinarywordsconveyonlywhatweknowalready;itisfrommetaphor
thatwecanbestgetholdofsomethingfresh.Whenthepoetcalls
'oldageawitheredstalk',heconveysanewidea,anewfact,to
usbymeansofthegeneralnotionofbloom,whichiscommontoboth
things.Thesimilesofthepoetsdothesame,andtherefore,ifthey
aregoodsimiles,giveaneffectofbrilliance.Thesimile,ashas
beensaidbefore,isametaphor,differingfromitonlyintheway
itisput;andjustbecauseitislongeritislessattractive.Besides,
itdoesnotsayoutrightthat'this'is'that',andthereforethe
hearerislessinterestedintheidea.Wesee,then,thatbothspeech
andreasoningarelivelyinproportionastheymakeusseizeanew
ideapromptly.Forthisreasonpeoplearenotmuchtakeneitherby
obviousarguments(usingtheword'obvious'tomeanwhatisplain
toeverybodyandneedsnoinvestigation),norbythosewhichpuzzle
uswhenwehearthemstated,butonlybythosewhichconveytheir
informationtousassoonaswehearthem,providedwehadnotthe
informationalready;orwhichthemindonlyjustfailstokeepup
with.Thesetwokindsdoconveytousasortofinformation:butthe
obviousandtheobscurekindsconveynothing,eitheratonceorlater
on.Itisthesequalities,then,that,sofarasthemeaningofwhat
issaidisconcerned,makeanargumentacceptable.Sofarasthestyle
isconcerned,itistheantitheticalformthatappealstous,e.g.
'judgingthatthepeacecommontoalltherestwasawarupontheir
ownprivateinterests',wherethereisanantithesisbetweenwarand
peace.Itisalsogoodtousemetaphoricalwords;butthemetaphors
mustnotbefarfetched,ortheywillbedifficulttograsp,norobvious,
ortheywillhavenoeffect.Thewords,too,oughttosetthescene
beforeoureyes;foreventsoughttobeseeninprogressratherthan
inprospect.Sowemustaimatthesethreepoints:Antithesis,Metaphor,
andActuality.
OfthefourkindsofMetaphorthemosttakingistheproportional
kind.ThusPericles,forinstance,saidthatthevanishingfromtheir
countryoftheyoungmenwhohadfalleninthewarwas'asifthe
springweretakenoutoftheyear'.Leptines,speakingoftheLacedaemonians,
saidthathewouldnothavetheAtheniansletGreece'loseoneof
hertwoeyes'.WhenChareswaspressingforleavetobeexaminedupon
hisshareintheOlynthiacwar,Cephisodotuswasindignant,saying
thathewantedhisexaminationtotakeplace'whilehehadhisfingers
uponthepeople'sthroat'.ThesamespeakeronceurgedtheAthenians
tomarchtoEuboea,'withMiltiades'decreeastheirrations'.Iphicrates,
indignantatthetrucemadebytheAthenianswithEpidaurusandthe
neighbouringseaboard,saidthattheyhadstrippedthemselvesof
theirtravellingmoneyforthejourneyofwar.Peitholauscalledthe
stategalley'thepeople'sbigstick',andSestos'thecornbinof
thePeiraeus'.PericlesbadehiscountrymenremoveAegina,'thateyesore
ofthePeiraeus.'AndMoeroclessaidhewasnomorearascalthan
wasacertainrespectablecitizenhenamed,'whoserascalitywasworth
86/102
15/03/2015
overthirtypercentperannumtohim,insteadofameretenlike
hisown'.ThereisalsotheiambiclineofAnaxandridesabouttheway
hisdaughtersputoffmarrying
"Mydaughters'marriagebondsareoverdue."
PolyeuctussaidofaparalyticmannamedSpeusippusthathecould
notkeepquiet,'thoughfortunehadfastenedhiminthepilloryof
disease'.Cephisodotuscalledwarships'paintedmillstones'.Diogenes
theDogcalledtaverns'themessroomsofAttica'.Aesionsaidthat
theAthenianshad'emptied'theirtownintoSicily:thisisagraphic
metaphor.'TillallHellasshoutedaloud'mayberegardedasametaphor,
andagraphiconeagain.CephisodotusbadetheAthenianstakecare
nottoholdtoomany'parades'.Isocratesusedthesamewordofthose
who'paradeatthenationalfestivals.'Anotherexampleoccursin
theFuneralSpeech:'ItisfittingthatGreeceshouldcutoffher
hairbesidethetombofthosewhofellatSalamis,sinceherfreedom
andtheirvalourareburiedinthesamegrave.'Evenifthespeaker
herehadonlysaidthatitwasrighttoweepwhenvalourwasbeing
buriedintheirgrave,itwouldhavebeenametaphor,andagraphic
one;butthecouplingof'theirvalour'and'herfreedom'presents
akindofantithesisaswell.'Thecourseofmywords',saidIphicrates,
'liesstraightthroughthemiddleofChares'deeds':thisisaproportional
metaphor,andthephrase'straightthroughthemiddle'makesitgraphic.
Theexpression'tocallinonedangertorescueusfromanother'is
agraphicmetaphor.Lycoleonsaid,defendingChabrias,'Theydidnot
respecteventhatbronzestatueofhisthatintercedesforhimyonder'.This
wasametaphorforthemoment,thoughitwouldnotalwaysapply;a
vividmetaphor,however;Chabriasisindanger,andhisstatueintercedes
forhimthatlifelessyetlivingthingwhichrecordshisservices
tohiscountry.'Practisingineverywaylittlenessofmind'ismetaphorical,
forpractisingaqualityimpliesincreasingit.Sois'Godkindled
ourreasontobealampwithinoursoul',forbothreasonandlight
revealthings.Sois'wearenotputtinganendtoourwars,butonly
postponingthem',forbothliteralpostponementandthemakingof
suchapeaceasthisapplytofutureaction.Soissuchasayingas
'Thistreatyisafarnoblertrophythanthosewesetuponfields
ofbattle;theycelebratesmallgainsandsinglesuccesses;itcelebrates
ourtriumphinthewarasawhole';forbothtrophyandtreatyare
signsofvictory.Sois'Acountrypaysaheavyreckoninginbeing
condemnedbythejudgementofmankind',forareckoningisdamage
deservedlyincurred.
Part11
Ithasalreadybeenmentionedthatlivelinessisgotbyusingthe
proportionaltypeofmetaphorandbeingmaking(ie.makingyourhearers
seethings).Wehavestilltoexplainwhatwemeanbytheir'seeing
things',andwhatmustbedonetoeffectthis.By'makingthemsee
things'Imeanusingexpressionsthatrepresentthingsasinastate
ofactivity.Thus,tosaythatagoodmanis'foursquare'iscertainly
ametaphor;boththegoodmanandthesquareareperfect;butthe
metaphordoesnotsuggestactivity.Ontheotherhand,intheexpression
'withhisvigourinfullbloom'thereisanotionofactivity;and
soin'Butyoumustroamasfreeasasacredvictim';andin
"ThereasupsprangtheHellenestotheirfeet,"
where'upsprang'givesusactivityaswellasmetaphor,foritat
oncesuggestsswiftness.SowithHomer'scommonpracticeofgiving
metaphoricallifetolifelessthings:allsuchpassagesaredistinguished
bytheeffectofactivitytheyconvey.Thus,
"Downwardanontothevalleyreboundedtheboulderremorseless;and
"
87/102
15/03/2015
"The(bitter)arrowflew;"
and
"Flyingoneagerly;and"
Stuckintheearth,stillpantingtofeedonthefleshoftheheroes;
and
"Andthepointofthespearinitsfurydrove
"fullthroughhisbreastbone."
Inalltheseexamplesthethingshavetheeffectofbeingactive
becausetheyaremadeintolivingbeings;shamelessbehaviourand
furyandsoonareallformsofactivity.Andthepoethasattached
theseideastothethingsbymeansofproportionalmetaphors:asthe
stoneistoSisyphus,soistheshamelessmantohisvictim.Inhis
famoussimiles,too,hetreatsinanimatethingsinthesameway:
"Curvingandcrestedwithwhite,hostfollowing
"hostwithoutceasing."
Hereherepresentseverythingasmovingandliving;andactivity
ismovement.
Metaphorsmustbedrawn,ashasbeensaidalready,fromthingsthat
arerelatedtotheoriginalthing,andyetnotobviouslysorelatedjust
asinphilosophyalsoanacutemindwillperceiveresemblanceseven
inthingsfarapart.ThusArchytassaidthatanarbitratorandan
altarwerethesame,sincetheinjuredflytobothforrefuge.Or
youmightsaythatananchorandanoverheadhookwerethesame,since
bothareinawaythesame,onlytheonesecuresthingsfrombelow
andtheotherfromabove.Andtospeakofstatesas'levelled'is
toidentifytwowidelydifferentthings,theequalityofaphysical
surfaceandtheequalityofpoliticalpowers.
Livelinessisspeciallyconveyedbymetaphor,andbythefurtherpower
ofsurprisingthehearer;becausethehearerexpectedsomethingdifferent,
hisacquisitionofthenewideaimpresseshimallthemore.Hismind
seemstosay,'Yes,tobesure;Ineverthoughtofthat'.Theliveliness
ofepigrammaticremarksisduetothemeaningnotbeingjustwhat
thewordssay:asinthesayingofStesichorusthat'thecicalaswill
chirptothemselvesontheground'.Wellconstructedriddlesareattractive
forthesamereason;anewideaisconveyed,andthereismetaphorical
expression.Sowiththe'novelties'ofTheodorus.Inthesethethought
isstartling,and,asTheodorusputsit,doesnotfitinwiththe
ideasyoualreadyhave.Theyareliketheburlesquewordsthatone
findsinthecomicwriters.Theeffectisproducedevenbyjokesdepending
uponchangesofthelettersofaword;thistooisasurprise.You
findthisinverseaswellasinprose.Thewordwhichcomesisnot
whatthehearerimagined:thus
"Onwardhecame,andhisfeetwereshodwithhischilblains,
"
whereoneimaginedthewordwouldbe'sandals'.Butthepointshould
beclearthemomentthewordsareuttered.Jokesmadebyaltering
thelettersofawordconsistinmeaning,notjustwhatyousay,but
somethingthatgivesatwisttothewordused;e.g.theremarkof
TheodorusaboutNicontheharpistThratt'eisu('youThracianslavey'),
wherehepretendstomeanThratteissu('youharpplayer'),andsurprises
uswhenwefindhemeanssomethingelse.Soyouenjoythepointwhen
88/102
15/03/2015
youseeit,thoughtheremarkwillfallflatunlessyouareaware
thatNiconisThracian.Oragain:Bouleiautonpersai.Inboththese
casesthesayingmustfitthefacts.Thisisalsotrueofsuchlively
remarksastheonetotheeffectthattotheAthenianstheirempire
(arche)oftheseawasnotthebeginning(arche)oftheirtroubles,
sincetheygainedbyit.OrtheoppositeoneofIsocrates,thattheir
empire(arche)wasthebeginning(arche)oftheirtroubles.Either
way,thespeakersayssomethingunexpected,thesoundnessofwhich
isthereuponrecognized.Therewouldbenothingcleverissaying'empire
isempire'.Isocratesmeansmorethanthat,andusesthewordwith
anewmeaning.Sotoowiththeformersaying,whichdeniesthatarche
inonesensewasarcheinanothersense.Inallthesejokes,whether
awordisusedinasecondsenseormetaphorically,thejokeisgood
ifitfitsthefacts.Forinstance,Anaschetos(propername)oukanaschetos:
whereyousaythatwhatissoandsoinonesenseisnotsoandso
inanother;well,ifthemanisunpleasant,thejokefitsthefacts.
Again,take
"ThoumustnotbeastrangerstrangerthanThoushould'st.
"
Donotthewords'thoumustnotbe',&c.,amounttosayingthatthe
strangermustnotalwaysbestrange?Hereagainistheuseofone
wordindifferentsenses.Ofthesamekindalsoisthemuchpraised
verseofAnaxandrides:
"Deathismostfitbeforeyoudo
"Deedsthatwouldmakedeathfitforyou."
Thisamountstosaying'itisafitthingtodiewhenyouarenot
fittodie',or'itisafitthingtodiewhendeathisnotfitfor
you',i.e.whendeathisnotthefitreturnforwhatyouaredoing.
Thetypeoflanguageemployedisthesameinalltheseexamples;but
themorebrieflyandantitheticallysuchsayingscanbeexpressed,
themoretakingtheyare,forantithesisimpressesthenewideamore
firmlyandbrevitymorequickly.Theyshouldalwayshaveeithersome
personalapplicationorsomemeritofexpression,iftheyaretobe
truewithoutbeingcommonplacetworequirementsnotalwayssatisfied
simultaneously.Thus'amanshoulddiehavingdonenowrong'istrue
butdull:'therightmanshouldmarrytherightwoman'isalsotrue
butdull.No,theremustbebothgoodqualitiestogether,asin'it
isfittingtodiewhenyouarenotfitfordeath'.Themoreasaying
hasthesequalitis,thelivelieritappears:if,forinstance,its
wordingismetaphorical,metaphoricalintherightway,antithetical,
andbalanced,andatthesametimeitgivesanideaofactivity.
Successfulsimilesalso,ashasbeensaidabove,areinasensemetaphors,
sincetheyalwaysinvolvetworelationsliketheproportionalmetaphor.
Thus:ashield,wesay,isthe'drinkingbowlofAres',andabow
isthe'chordlesslyre'.Thiswayofputtingametaphorisnot'simple',
asitwouldbeifwecalledthebowalyreortheshieldadrinkingbowl.
Thereare'simple'similesalso:wemaysaythatafluteplayeris
likeamonkey,orthatashortsightedman'seyesarelikealampflame
withwaterdroppingonit,sincebotheyesandflamekeepwinking.
Asimilesucceedsbestwhenitisaconvertedmetaphor,foritis
possibletosaythatashieldislikethedrinkingbowlofAres,or
thataruinislikeahouseinrags,andtosaythatNiceratusis
likeaPhiloctetesstungbyPratysthesimilemadebyThrasyniachus
whenhesawNiceratus,whohadbeenbeatenbyPratysinarecitation
competition,stillgoingaboutunkemptandunwashed.Itisinthese
respectsthatpoetsfailworstwhentheyfail,andsucceedbestwhen
theysucceed,i.e.whentheygivetheresemblancepat,asin
"Thoselegsofhiscurljustlikeparsleyleaves;"
89/102
15/03/2015
and
"JustlikePhilammonstrugglingwithhispunchball."
Theseareallsimiles;andthatsimilesaremetaphorshasbeenstated
oftenalready.
Proverbs,again,aremetaphorsfromonespeciestoanother.Suppose,
forinstance,amantostartsomeundertakinginhopeofgainand
thentolosebyitlateron,'HerewehaveoncemorethemanofCarpathus
andhishare',sayshe.Forbothalikewentthroughthesaidexperience.
Ithasnowbeenexplainedfairlycompletelyhowlivelinessissecured
andwhyithastheeffectithas.Successfulhyperbolesarealsometaphors,
e.g.theoneaboutthemanwithablackeye,'youwouldhavethought
hewasabasketofmulberries';herethe'blackeye'iscomparedto
amulberrybecauseofitscolour,theexaggerationlyinginthequantity
ofmulberriessuggested.Thephrase'likesoandso'mayintroduce
ahyperboleundertheformofasimile.Thus
"JustlikePhilammonstrugglingwithhispunchball"
isequivalentto'youwouldhavethoughthewasPhilammonstruggling
withhispunchball';and
"Thoselegsofhiscurljustlikeparsleyleaves"
isequivalentto'hislegsaresocurlythatyouwouldhavethought
theywerenotlegsbutparsleyleaves'.Hyperbolesareforyoungmen
touse;theyshowvehemenceofcharacter;andthisiswhyangrypeople
usethemmorethanotherpeople.
"Notthoughhegavemeasmuchasthedust
"orthesandsofthesea...
"Buther,thedaughterofAtreus'son,Ineverwillmarry,
"Nay,notthoughshewerefairerthanAphroditetheGolden,
"DefterofhandthanAthene..."
(TheAtticoratorsareparticularlyfondofthismethodofspeech.)
Consequentlyitdoesnotsuitanelderlyspeaker.
Part12
Itshouldbeobservedthateachkindofrhetorichasitsownappropriate
style.Thestyleofwrittenproseisnotthatofspokenoratory,nor
arethoseofpoliticalandforensicspeakingthesame.Bothwritten
andspokenhavetobeknown.Toknowthelatteristoknowhowto
speakgoodGreek.Toknowtheformermeansthatyouarenotobliged,
asotherwiseyouare,toholdyourtonguewhenyouwishtocommunicate
somethingtothegeneralpublic.
Thewrittenstyleisthemorefinished:thespokenbetteradmitsof
dramaticdeliverylikethekindoforatorythatreflectscharacter
andthekindthatreflectsemotion.Henceactorslookoutforplays
writteninthelatterstyle,andpoetsforactorscompetenttoact
insuchplays.Yetpoetswhoseplaysaremeanttobereadareread
andcirculated:Chaeremon,forinstance,whoisasfinishedasaprofessional
speechwriter;andLicymniusamongthedithyrambicpoets.Compared
withthoseofothers,thespeechesofprofessionalwriterssoundthin
inactualcontests.Thoseoftheorators,ontheotherhand,aregood
90/102
15/03/2015
tohearspoken,butlookamateurishenoughwhentheypassintothe
handsofareader.Thisisjustbecausetheyaresowellsuitedfor
anactualtussle,andthereforecontainmanydramatictouches,which,
beingrobbedofalldramaticrendering,failtodotheirownproper
work,andconsequentlylooksilly.Thusstringsofunconnectedwords,
andconstantrepetitionsofwordsandphrases,areveryproperlycondemned
inwrittenspeeches:butnotinspokenspeechesspeakersusethem
freely,fortheyhaveadramaticeffect.Inthisrepetitionthere
mustbevarietyoftone,pavingtheway,asitwere,todramaticeffect;
e.g.'Thisisthevillainamongyouwhodeceivedyou,whocheated
you,whomeanttobetrayyoucompletely'.Thisisthesortofthing
thatPhilemontheactorusedtodointheOldMen'sMadnessofAnaxandrides
wheneverhespokethewords'RhadamanthusandPalamedes',andalso
intheprologuetotheSaintswheneverhepronouncedthepronoun'I'.
Ifonedoesnotdeliversuchthingscleverly,itbecomesacaseof
'themanwhoswallowedapoker'.Sotoowithstringsofunconnected
words,e.g.'Icametohim;Imethim;Ibesoughthim'.Suchpassages
mustbeacted,notdeliveredwiththesamequalityandpitchofvoice,
asthoughtheyhadonlyoneideainthem.Theyhavethefurtherpeculiarity
ofsuggestingthatanumberofseparatestatementshavebeenmade
inthetimeusuallyoccupiedbyone.Justastheuseofconjunctions
makesmanystatementsintoasingleone,sotheomissionofconjunctions
actsinthereversewayandmakesasingleoneintomany.Itthus
makeseverythingmoreimportant:e.g.'Icametohim;Italkedto
him;Ientreatedhim'whatalotoffacts!thehearerthinks'hepaid
noattentiontoanythingIsaid'.ThisistheeffectwhichHomerseeks
whenhewrites,
"NireuslikewisefromSyme(threewellfashionedshipsdidbring),
"Nireus,thesonofAglaia(andCharopus,brightfacedking),
"Nireus,thecomeliestman(ofallthattoIlium'sstrand).
"
Ifmanythingsaresaidaboutaman,hisnamemustbementionedmany
times;andthereforepeoplethinkthat,ifhisnameismentionedmany
times,manythingshavebeensaidabouthim.SothatHomer,bymeans
ofthisillusion,hasmadeagreatdealofthoughhehasmentioned
himonlyinthisonepassage,andhaspreservedhismemory,though
henowheresaysawordabouthimafterwards.
Nowthestyleoforatoryaddressedtopublicassembliesisreally
justlikescenepainting.Thebiggerthethrong,themoredistant
isthepointofview:sothat,intheoneandtheother,highfinish
indetailissuperfluousandseemsbetteraway.Theforensicstyle
ismorehighlyfinished;stillmoresoisthestyleoflanguageaddressed
toasinglejudge,withwhomthereisverylittleroomforrhetorical
artifices,sincehecantakethewholethinginbetter,andjudge
ofwhatistothepointandwhatisnot;thestruggleislessintense
andsothejudgementisundisturbed.Thisiswhythesamespeakers
donotdistinguishthemselvesinallthesebranchesatonce;high
finishiswantedleastwheredramaticdeliveryiswantedmost,and
herethespeakermusthaveagoodvoice,andaboveall,astrongone.
Itisceremonialoratorythatismostliterary,foritismeantto
beread;andnexttoitforensicoratory.
Toanalysestylestillfurther,andaddthatitmustbeagreeable
ormagnificent,isuseless;forwhyshouldithavethesetraitsany
morethan'restraint','liberality',oranyothermoralexcellence?
Obviouslyagreeablenesswillbeproducedbythequalitiesalready
mentioned,ifourdefinitionofexcellenceofstylehasbeencorrect.
Forwhatotherreasonshouldstylebe'clear',and'notmean'but
'appropriate'?Ifitisprolix,itisnotclear;noryetifitis
curt.Plainlythemiddlewaysuitsbest.Again,stylewillbemade
91/102
15/03/2015
agreeablebytheelementsmentioned,namelybyagoodblendingof
ordinaryandunusualwords,bytherhythm,andbythepersuasiveness
thatspringsfromappropriateness.
Thisconcludesourdiscussionofstyle,bothinitsgeneralaspects
andinitsspecialapplicationstothevariousbranchesofrhetoric.
WehavenowtodealwithArrangement.
Part13
Aspeechhastwoparts.Youmuststateyourcase,andyoumustprove
it.Youcannoteitherstateyourcaseandomittoproveit,orprove
itwithouthavingfirststatedit;sinceanyproofmustbeaproof
ofsomething,andtheonlyuseofapreliminarystatementistheproof
thatfollowsit.OfthesetwopartsthefirstpartiscalledtheStatement
ofthecase,thesecondparttheArgument,justaswedistinguish
betweenEnunciationandDemonstration.Thecurrentdivisionisabsurd.
For'narration'surelyispartofaforensicspeechonly:howina
politicalspeechoraspeechofdisplaycantherebe'narration'in
thetechnicalsense?orareplytoaforensicopponent?oranepilogue
incloselyreasonedspeeches?Again,introduction,comparisonofconflicting
arguments,andrecapitulationareonlyfoundinpoliticalspeeches
whenthereisastrugglebetweentwopolicies.Theymayoccurthen;
somayevenaccusationanddefence,oftenenough;buttheyformno
essentialpartofapoliticalspeech.Evenforensicspeechesdonot
alwaysneedepilogues;not,forinstance,ashortspeech,norone
inwhichthefactsareeasytoremember,theeffectofanepilogue
beingalwaysareductionintheapparentlength.Itfollows,then,
thattheonlynecessarypartsofaspeecharetheStatementandthe
Argument.Thesearetheessentialfeaturesofaspeech;anditcannot
inanycasehavemorethanIntroduction,Statement,Argument,and
Epilogue.'RefutationoftheOpponent'ispartofthearguments:so
is'Comparison'oftheopponent'scasewithyourown,forthatprocess
isamagnifyingofyourowncaseandthereforeapartofthearguments,
sinceonewhodoesthisprovessomething.TheIntroductiondoesnothing
likethis;nordoestheEpilogueitmerelyremindsusofwhathas
beensaidalready.Ifwemakesuchdistinctionsweshallend,like
Theodorusandhisfollowers,bydistinguishing'narration'proper
from'postnarration'and'prenarration',and'refutation'from'final
refutation'.Butweoughtonlytobringinanewnameifitindicates
arealspecieswithdistinctspecificqualities;otherwisethepractice
ispointlessandsilly,likethewayLicymniusinventednamesinhis
ArtofRhetoric'Secundation','Divagation','Ramification'.
Part14
TheIntroductionisthebeginningofaspeech,correspondingtothe
prologueinpoetryandthepreludeinflutemusic;theyareallbeginnings,
pavingtheway,asitwere,forwhatistofollow.Themusicalprelude
resemblestheintroductiontospeechesofdisplay;asfluteplayers
playfirstsomebrilliantpassagetheyknowwellandthenfititon
totheopeningnotesofthepieceitself,soinspeechesofdisplay
thewritershouldproceedinthesameway;heshouldbeginwithwhat
besttakeshisfancy,andthenstrikeuphisthemeandleadintoit;
whichisindeedwhatisalwaysdone.(Takeasanexampletheintroduction
totheHelenofIsocratesthereisnothingincommonbetweenthe'eristics'
andHelen.)Andhere,evenifyoutravelfarfromyoursubject,it
isfitting,ratherthanthatthereshouldbesamenessintheentire
speech.
Theusualsubjectfortheintroductionstospeechesofdisplayis
somepieceofpraiseorcensure.ThusGorgiaswritesinhisOlympic
Speech,'Youdeservewidespreadadmiration,menofGreece',praising
thusthosewhostart,edthefestivalgatherings.'Isocrates,onthe
otherhand,censuresthemforawardingdistinctionstofineathletes
92/102
15/03/2015
butgivingnoprizeforintellectualability.Oronemaybeginwith
apieceofadvice,thus:'WeoughttohonourgoodmenandsoImyself
ampraisingAristeides'or'Weoughttohonourthosewhoareunpopular
butnotbadmen,menwhosegoodqualitieshaveneverbeennoticed,
likeAlexandersonofPriam.'Heretheoratorgivesadvice.Orwe
maybeginasspeakersdointhelawcourts;thatistosay,withappeals
totheaudiencetoexcuseusifourspeechisaboutsomethingparadoxical,
difficult,orhackneyed;likeChoerilusinthelines
"Butnowwhenallotmentofallhasbeenmade..."
Introductionstospeechesofdisplay,then,maybecomposedofsome
pieceofpraiseorcensure,ofadvicetodoornottodosomething,
orofappealstotheaudience;andyoumustchoosebetweenmaking
thesepreliminarypassagesconnectedordisconnectedwiththespeech
itself.
Introductionstoforensicspeeches,itmustbeobserved,havethe
samevalueastheprologuesofdramasandtheintroductionstoepic
poems;thedithyrambicpreluderesemblingtheintroductiontoaspeech
ofdisplay,as
"Forthee,andthygilts,andthybattlespoils...."
Inprologues,andinepicpoetry,aforetasteofthethemeisgiven,
intendedtoinformthehearersofitinadvanceinsteadofkeeping
theirmindsinsuspense.Anythingvaguepuzzlesthem:sogivethem
agraspofthebeginning,andtheycanholdfasttoitandfollow
theargument.Sowefind
"Sing,Ogoddessofsong,oftheWrath...
"Tellme,OMuse,ofthehero...
"Leadmetotellanewtale,howtherecamegreatwarfaretoEurope
"OutoftheAsianland..."
Thetragicpoets,too,letusknowthepivotoftheirplay;ifnot
attheoutsetlikeEuripides,atleastsomewhereintheprefaceto
aspeechlikeSophocles
"Polybuswasmyfather...;"
andsoinComedy.This,then,isthemostessentialfunctionand
distinctivepropertyoftheintroduction,toshowwhattheaimof
thespeechis;andthereforenointroductionoughttobeemployed
wherethesubjectisnotlongorintricate.
Theotherkindsofintroductionemployedareremedialinpurpose,
andmaybeusedinanytypeofspeech.Theyareconcernedwiththe
speaker,thehearer,thesubject,orthespeaker'sopponent.Those
concernedwiththespeakerhimselforwithhisopponentaredirected
toremovingorexcitingprejudice.Butwhereasthedefendantwill
beginbydealingwiththissortofthing,theprosecutorwilltake
quiteanotherlineanddealwithsuchmattersintheclosingpart
ofhisspeech.Thereasonforthisisnotfartoseek.Thedefendant,
whenheisgoingtobringhimselfonthestage,mustclearawayany
obstacles,andthereforemustbeginbyremovinganyprejudicefelt
againsthim.Butifyouaretoexciteprejudice,youmustdosoat
theclose,sothatthejudgesmaymoreeasilyrememberwhatyouhave
said.
Theappealtotheheareraimsatsecuringhisgoodwill,oratarousing
hisresentment,orsometimesatgaininghisseriousattentiontothe
93/102
15/03/2015
case,orevenatdistractingitforgainingitisnotalwaysanadvantage,
andspeakerswilloftenforthatreasontrytomakehimlaugh.
Youmayuseanymeansyouchoosetomakeyourhearerreceptive;among
others,givinghimagoodimpressionofyourcharacter,whichalways
helpstosecurehisattention.Hewillbereadytoattendtoanything
thattoucheshimselfandtoanythingthatisimportant,surprising,
oragreeable;andyoushouldaccordinglyconveytohimtheimpression
thatwhatyouhavetosayisofthisnature.Ifyouwishtodistract
hisattention,youshouldimplythatthesubjectdoesnotaffecthim,
oristrivialordisagreeable.Butobserve,allthishasnothingto
dowiththespeechitself.Itmerelyhastodowiththeweakminded
tendencyofthehearertolistentowhatisbesidethepoint.Where
thistendencyisabsent,nointroductionwantedbeyondasummarystatement
ofyoursubject,toputasortofheadonthemainbodyofyourspeech.
Moreover,callsforattention,whenrequired,maycomeequallywell
inanypartofaspeech;infact,thebeginningofitisjustwhere
thereisleastslacknessofinterest;itisthereforeridiculousto
putthiskindofthingatthebeginning,wheneveryoneislistening
withmostattention.Choosethereforeanypointinthespeechwhere
suchanappealisneeded,andthensay'NowIbegyoutonotethis
pointitconcernsyouquiteasmuchasmyself';or
"Iwilltellyouthatwhoselikeyouhaveneveryet"
heardforterror,orforwonder.ThisiswhatProdicuscalled'slipping
inabitofthefiftydrachmashowlecturefortheaudiencewhenever
theybegantonod'.Itisplainthatsuchintroductionsareaddressed
nottoidealhearers,buttohearersaswefindthem.Theuseofintroductions
toexciteprejudiceortodispelmisgivingsisuniversal
"Mylord,Iwillnotsaythateagerly..."
or
"Whyallthispreface?"
Introductionsarepopularwiththosewhosecaseisweak,orlooks
weak;itpaysthemtodwellonanythingratherthantheactualfacts
ofit.Thatiswhyslaves,insteadofansweringthequestionsput
tothem,makeindirectreplieswithlongpreambles.Themeansofexciting
inyourhearersgoodwillandvariousotherfeelingsofthesamekind
havealreadybeendescribed.ThepoetfinelysaysMayIfindinPhaeacian
hearts,atmycoming,goodwillandcompassion;andthesearethetwo
thingsweshouldaimat.Inspeechesofdisplaywemustmakethehearer
feelthattheeulogyincludeseitherhimselforhisfamilyorhis
wayoflifeorsomethingorotherofthekind.Foritistrue,as
SocratessaysintheFuneralSpeech,that'thedifficultyisnotto
praisetheAtheniansatAthensbutatSparta'.
Theintroductionsofpoliticaloratorywillbemadeoutofthesame
materialsasthoseoftheforensickind,thoughthenatureofpolitical
oratorymakesthemveryrare.Thesubjectisknownalready,andtherefore
thefactsofthecaseneednointroduction;butyoumayhavetosay
somethingonaccountofyourselfortoyouropponents;orthosepresent
maybeinclinedtotreatthemattereithermoreorlessseriously
thanyouwishthemto.Youmayaccordinglyhavetoexciteordispel
someprejudice,ortomakethematterunderdiscussionseemmoreor
lessimportantthanbefore:foreitherofwhichpurposesyouwill
wantanintroduction.Youmayalsowantonetoaddelegancetoyour
remarks,feelingthatotherwisetheywillhaveacasualair,like
Gorgias'eulogyoftheEleans,inwhich,withoutanypreliminarysparring
orfencing,hebeginsstraightoffwith'HappycityofElis!'
Part15
94/102
15/03/2015
Indealingwithprejudice,oneclassofargumentisthatwherebyyou
candispelobjectionablesuppositionsaboutyourself.Itmakesno
practicaldifferencewhethersuchasuppositionhasbeenputinto
wordsornot,sothatthisdistinctionmaybeignored.Anotherway
istomeetanyoftheissuesdirectly:todenytheallegedfact;or
tosaythatyouhavedonenoharm,ornonetohim,ornotasmuch
ashesays;orthatyouhavedonehimnoinjustice,ornotmuch;or
thatyouhavedonenothingdisgraceful,ornothingdisgracefulenough
tomatter:thesearethesortofquestionsonwhichthedisputehinges.
ThusIphicratesreplyingtoNausicrates,admittedthathehaddone
thedeedalleged,andthathehaddoneNausicratesharm,butnotthat
hehaddonehimwrong.Oryoumayadmitthewrong,butbalanceit
withotherfacts,andsaythat,ifthedeedharmedhim,atanyrate
itwashonourable;orthat,ifitgavehimpain,atleastitdidhim
good;orsomethingelselikethat.Anotherwayistoallegethatyour
actionwasduetomistake,orbadluck,ornecessityasSophocles
saidhewasnottrembling,ashistraducermaintained,inorderto
makepeoplethinkhimanoldman,butbecausehecouldnothelpit;
hewouldrathernotbeeightyyearsold.Youmaybalanceyourmotive
againstyouractualdeed;saying,forinstance,thatyoudidnotmean
toinjurehimbuttodosoandso;thatyoudidnotdowhatyouare
falselychargedwithdoingthedamagewasaccidental'Ishouldindeed
beadetestablepersonifIhaddeliberatelyintendedthisresult.'
Anotherwayisopenwhenyourcalumniator,oranyofhisconnexions,
isorhasbeensubjecttothesamegroundsforsuspicion.Yetanother,
whenothersaresubjecttothesamegroundsforsuspicionbutare
admittedtobeinfactinnocentofthecharge:e.g.'MustIbeaprofligate
becauseIamwellgroomed?Thensoandsomustbeonetoo.'Another,
ifotherpeoplehavebeencalumniatedbythesamemanorsomeone
else,or,withoutbeingcalumniated,havebeensuspected,likeyourself
now,andyethavebeenprovedinnocent.Anotherwayistoreturncalumny
forcalumnyandsay,'Itismonstroustotrusttheman'sstatements
whenyoucannottrustthemanhimself.'Anotheriswhenthequestion
hasbeenalreadydecided.SowithEuripides'replytoHygiaenon,who,
intheactionforanexchangeofproperties,accusedhimofimpiety
inhavingwrittenalineencouragingperjury
"Mytonguehathsworn:nooathisonmysoul."
Euripidessaidthathisopponenthimselfwasguiltyinbringinginto
thelawcourtscaseswhosedecisionbelongedtotheDionysiaccontests.
'IfIhavenotalreadyansweredformywordsthere,Iamreadyto
dosoifyouchoosetoprosecutemethere.'Anothermethodistodenounce
calumny,showingwhatanenormityitis,andinparticularthatit
raisesfalseissues,andthatitmeansalackofconfidenceinthe
meritsofhiscase.Theargumentfromevidentialcircumstancesis
availableforbothparties:thusintheTeucerOdysseussaysthat
TeuceriscloselyboundtoPriam,sincehismotherHesionewasPriam's
sister.TeucerrepliesthatTelamonhisfatherwasPriam'senemy,
andthathehimselfdidnotbetraythespiestoPriam.Anothermethod,
suitableforthecalumniator,istopraisesometriflingmeritat
greatlength,andthenattacksomeimportantfailingconcisely;or
aftermentioninganumberofgoodqualitiestoattackonebadone
thatreallybearsonthequestion.Thisisthemethodofthoroughly
skilfulandunscrupulousprosecutors.Bymixinguptheman'smerits
withwhatisbad,theydotheirbesttomakeuseofthemtodamage
him.
Thereisanothermethodopentobothcalumniatorandapologist.Since
agivenactioncanbedonefrommanymotives,theformermusttry
todisparageitbyselectingtheworsemotiveoftwo,thelatterto
putthebetterconstructiononit.ThusonemightarguethatDiomedes
choseOdysseusashiscompanionbecausehesupposedOdysseustobe
thebestmanforthepurpose;andyoumightreplytothisthatit
95/102
15/03/2015
was,onthecontrary,becausehewastheonlyherosoworthlessthat
Diomedesneednotfearhisrivalry.
Part16
WemaynowpassfromthesubjectofcalumnytothatofNarration.
Narrationinceremonialoratoryisnotcontinuousbutintermittent.
Theremust,ofcourse,besomesurveyoftheactionsthatformthe
subjectmatterofthespeech.Thespeechisacompositioncontaining
twoparts.Oneoftheseisnotprovidedbytheorator'sart,viz.
theactionsthemselves,ofwhichtheoratorisinnosenseauthor.
Theotherpartisprovidedbyhisnamely,theproof(whereproofis
needed)thattheactionsweredone,thedescriptionoftheirquality
oroftheirextent,orevenallthesethreethingstogether.Nowthe
reasonwhysometimesitisnotdesirabletomakethewholenarrative
continuousisthatthecasethusexpoundedishardtokeepinmind.
Show,therefore,fromonesetoffactsthatyourherois,e.g.brave,
andfromothersetsoffactsthatheisable,just,&c.Aspeechthus
arrangediscomparativelysimple,insteadofbeingcomplicatedand
elaborate.Youwillhavetorecallwellknowndeedsamongothers;
andbecausetheyarewellknown,thehearerusuallyneedsnonarration
ofthem;none,forinstance,ifyourobjectisthepraiseofAchilles;
weallknowthefactsofhislifewhatyouhavetodoistoapply
thosefacts.ButifyourobjectisthepraiseofCritias,youmust
narratehisdeeds,whichnotmanypeopleknowof...
Nowadaysitissaid,absurdlyenough,thatthenarrationshouldbe
rapid.Rememberwhatthemansaidtothebakerwhoaskedwhetherhe
wastomakethecakehardorsoft:'What,can'tyoumakeitright?'
Justsohere.Wearenottomakelongnarrations,justaswearenot
tomakelongintroductionsorlongarguments.Here,again,rightness
doesnotconsisteitherinrapidityorinconciseness,butinthe
happymean;thatis,insayingjustsomuchaswillmakethefacts
plain,orwillleadthehearertobelievethatthethinghashappened,
orthatthemanhascausedinjuryorwrongtosomeone,orthatthe
factsarereallyasimportantasyouwishthemtobethought:orthe
oppositefactstoestablishtheoppositearguments.
Youmayalsonarrateasyougoanythingthatdoescredittoyourself,
e.g.'Ikepttellinghimtodohisdutyandnotabandonhischildren';
ordiscredittoyouradversary,e.g.'Butheansweredmethat,wherever
hemightfindhimself,therehewouldfindotherchildren',theanswer
Herodotus'recordsoftheEgyptianmutineers.Slipinanythingelse
thatthejudgeswillenjoy.
Thedefendantwillmakelessofthenarration.Hehastomaintain
thatthethinghasnothappened,ordidnoharm,orwasnotunjust,
ornotsobadasisalleged.Hemustthereforsnotwastetimeabout
whatisadmittedfact,unlessthisbearsonhisowncontention;e.g.
thatthethingwasdone,butwasnotwrong.Further,wemustspeak
ofeventsaspastandgone,exceptwheretheyexcitepityorindignation
bybeingrepresentedaspresent.TheStorytoldtoAlcinousisan
exampleofabriefchronicle,whenitisrepeatedtoPenelopeinsixty
lines.AnotherinstanceistheEpicCycleastreatedbyPhayllus,
andtheprologuetotheOeneus.
Thenarrationshoulddepictcharacter;towhichendyoumustknow
whatmakesitdoso.Onesuchthingistheindicationofmoralpurpose;
thequalityofpurposeindicateddeterminesthequalityofcharacter
depictedandisitselfdeterminedbytheendpursued.Thusitisthat
mathematicaldiscoursesdepictnocharacter;theyhavenothingto
dowithmoralpurpose,fortheyrepresentnobodyaspursuinganyend.
Ontheotherhand,theSocraticdialoguesdodepictcharacter,being
concernedwithmoralquestions.Thisendwillalsobegainedbydescribing
96/102
15/03/2015
themanifestationsofvarioustypesofcharacter,e.g.'hekeptwalking
alongashetalked',whichshowstheman'srecklessnessandrough
manners.Donotletyourwordsseeminspiredsomuchbyintelligence,
inthemannernowcurrent,asbymoralpurpose:e.g.'Iwilledthis;
aye,itwasmymoralpurpose;true,Igainednothingbyit,still
itisbetterthus.'Fortheotherwayshowsgoodsense,butthisshows
goodcharacter;goodsensemakingusgoafterwhatisuseful,and
goodcharacterafterwhatisnoble.Whereanydetailmayappearincredible,
thenaddthecauseofit;ofthisSophoclesprovidesanexamplein
theAntigone,whereAntigonesaysshehadcaredmoreforherbrother
thanforhusbandorchildren,sinceifthelatterperishedtheymight
bereplaced,
"Butsincemyfatherandmotherintheirgraves
"Liedead,nobrothercanbeborntome."
Ifyouhavenosuchcausetosuggest,justsaythatyouareaware
thatnoonewillbelieveyourwords,butthefactremainsthatsuch
isournature,howeverhardtheworldmayfindittobelievethat
amandeliberatelydoesanythingexceptwhatpayshim.
Again,youmustmakeuseoftheemotions.Relatethefamiliarmanifestations
ofthem,andthosethatdistinguishyourselfandyouropponent;for
instance,'hewentawayscowlingatme'.SoAeschinesdescribedCratylus
as'hissingwithfuryandshakinghisfists'.Thesedetailscarry
conviction:theaudiencetakethetruthofwhattheyknowassomuch
evidenceforthetruthofwhattheydonot.Plentyofsuchdetails
maybefoundinHomer:
"Thusdidshesay:buttheoldwomanburiedherfaceinherhands:
"
atruetouchpeoplebeginningtocrydoputtheirhandsovertheir
eyes.
Bringyourselfonthestagefromthefirstintherightcharacter,
thatpeoplemayregardyouinthatlight;andthesamewithyouradversary;
butdonotletthemseewhatyouareabout.Howeasilysuchimpressions
maybeconveyedwecanseefromthewayinwhichwegetsomeinkling
ofthingsweknownothingofbythemerelookofthemessengerbringing
newsofthem.Havesomenarrativeinmanydifferentpartsofyour
speech;andsometimeslettherebenoneatthebeginningofit.
Inpoliticaloratorythereisverylittleopeningfornarration;nobody
can'narrate'whathasnotyethappened.Ifthereisnarrationat
all,itwillbeofpastevents,therecollectionofwhichistohelp
thehearerstomakebetterplansforthefuture.Oritmaybeemployed
toattacksomeone'scharacter,ortoeulogizehimonlythenyouwill
notbedoingwhatthepoliticalspeaker,assuch,hastodo.
Ifanystatementyoumakeishardtobelieve,youmustguaranteeits
truth,andatonceofferanexplanation,andthenfurnishitwith
suchparticularsaswillbeexpected.ThusCarcinus'Jocasta,inhis
Oedipus,keepsguaranteeingthetruthofheranswerstotheinquiries
ofthemanwhoisseekingherson;andsowithHaemoninSophocles.
Part17
ThedutyoftheArgumentsistoattemptdemonstrativeproofs.These
proofsmustbeardirectlyuponthequestionindispute,whichmust
fallunderoneoffourheads.(1)Ifyoumaintainthattheactwas
notcommitted,yourmaintaskincourtistoprovethis.(2)Ifyou
maintainthattheactdidnoharm,provethis.Ifyoumaintainthat
(3)theactwaslessthanisalleged,or(4)justified,provethese
97/102
15/03/2015
facts,justasyouwouldprovetheactnottohavebeencommitted
ifyouweremaintainingthat.
Itshouldbenotedthatonlywherethequestionindisputefallsunder
thefirstoftheseheadscanitbetruethatoneofthetwoparties
isnecessarilyarogue.Hereignorancecannotbepleaded,asitmight
ifthedisputewerewhethertheactwasjustifiedornot.Thisargument
mustthereforebeusedinthiscaseonly,notintheothers.
Inceremonialspeechesyouwilldevelopyourcasemainlybyarguing
thatwhathasbeendoneis,e.g.,nobleanduseful.Thefactsthemselves
aretobetakenontrust;proofofthemisonlysubmittedonthose
rareoccasionswhentheyarenoteasilycredibleorwhentheyhave
beensetdowntosomeoneelse.
Inpoliticalspeechesyoumaymaintainthataproposalisimpracticable;
orthat,thoughpracticable,itisunjust,orwilldonogood,or
isnotsoimportantasitsproposerthinks.Noteanyfalsehoodsabout
irrelevantmatterstheywilllooklikeproofthathisotherstatements
alsoarefalse.Argumentby'example'ishighlysuitableforpolitical
oratory,argumentby'enthymeme'bettersuitsforensic.Political
oratorydealswithfutureevents,ofwhichitcandonomorethan
quotepasteventsasexamples.Forensicoratorydealswithwhatis
orisnotnowtrue,whichcanbetterbedemonstrated,becausenot
contingentthereisnocontingencyinwhathasnowalreadyhappened.
Donotuseacontinuoussuccessionofenthymemes:interspersethem
withothermatter,ortheywillspoiloneanother'seffect.There
arelimitstotheirnumber
Friend,youhavespokenasmuchasasensiblemanwouldhavespoken.
,asmuch'saysHomer,not'aswell'.Norshouldyoutrytomakeenthymemes
oneverypoint;ifyoudo,youwillbeactingjustlikesomestudents
ofphilosophy,whoseconclusionsaremorefamiliarandbelievable
thanthepremissesfromwhichtheydrawthem.Andavoidtheenthymeme
formwhenyouaretryingtorousefeeling;foritwilleitherkill
thefeelingorwillitselffallflat:allsimultaneousmotionstend
tocanceleachothereithercompletelyorpartially.Norshouldyou
goaftertheenthymemeforminapassagewhereyouaredepictingcharacterthe
processofdemonstrationcanexpressneithermoralcharacternormoral
purpose.MaximsshouldbeemployedintheArgumentsandintheNarration
toosincethesedoexpresscharacter:'Ihavegivenhimthis,though
Iamquiteawarethatoneshould"Trustnoman".'Orifyouareappealing
totheemotions:'Idonotregretit,thoughIhavebeenwronged;
ifhehastheprofitonhisside,Ihavejusticeonmine.'
Politicaloratoryisamoredifficulttaskthanforensic;andnaturally
so,sinceitdealswiththefuture,whereasthepleaderdealswith
thepast,which,asEpimenidesofCretesaid,eventhedivinersalready
know.(Epimenidesdidnotpractisedivinationaboutthefuture;only
abouttheobscuritiesofthepast.)Besides,inforensicoratoryyou
haveabasisinthelaw;andonceyouhaveastartingpoint,youcan
proveanythingwithcomparativeease.Thenagain,politicaloratory
affordsfewchancesforthoseleisurelydigressionsinwhichyoumay
attackyouradversary,talkaboutyourself,orworkonyourhearers'
emotions;fewerchancesindeed,thananyotheraffords,unlessyour
setpurposeistodivertyourhearers'attention.Accordingly,if
youfindyourselfindifficulties,followtheleadoftheAthenian
speakers,andthatofIsocrates,whomakesregularattacksuponpeople
inthecourseofapoliticalspeech,e.g.upontheLacedaemonians
inthePanegyricus,anduponCharesinthespeechabouttheallies.
Inceremonialoratory,intersperseyourspeechwithbitsofepisodic
eulogy,likeIsocrates,whoisalwaysbringingsomeoneforwardfor
thispurpose.AndthisiswhatGorgiasmeantbysayingthathealways
foundsomethingtotalkabout.ForifhespeaksofAchilles,hepraises
Peleus,thenAeacus,thenZeus;andinlikemannerthevirtueofvalour,
98/102
15/03/2015
describingitsgoodresults,andsayingwhatitislike.
Nowifyouhaveproofstobringforward,bringthemforward,andyour
moraldiscourseaswell;ifyouhavenoenthymemes,thenfallback
uponmoraldiscourse:afterall,itismorefittingforagoodman
todisplayhimselfasanhonestfellowthanasasubtlereasoner.
Refutativeenthymemesaremorepopularthandemonstrativeones:their
logicalcogencyismorestriking:thefactsabouttwooppositesalways
standoutclearlywhenthetwoarenutsidebyside.
The'ReplytotheOpponent'isnotaseparatedivisionofthespeech;
itispartoftheArgumentstobreakdowntheopponent'scase,whether
byobjectionorbycountersyllogism.Bothinpoliticalspeakingand
whenpleadingincourt,ifyouarethefirstspeakeryoushouldput
yourownargumentsforwardfirst,andthenmeettheargumentsonthe
othersidebyrefutingthemandpullingthemtopiecesbeforehand.
If,however,thecasefortheothersidecontainsagreatvariety
ofarguments,beginwiththese,likeCallistratusintheMessenian
assembly,whenhedemolishedtheargumentslikelytobeusedagainst
himbeforegivinghisown.Ifyouspeaklater,youmustfirst,by
meansofrefutationandcountersyllogism,attemptsomeanswerto
youropponent'sspeech,especiallyifhisargumentshavebeenwell
received.Forjustasourmindsrefuseafavourablereceptiontoa
personagainstwhomtheyareprejudiced,sotheyrefuseittoaspeech
whentheyhavebeenfavourablyimpressedbythespeechontheother
side.Youshould,therefore,makeroominthemindsoftheaudience
foryourcomingspeech;andthiswillbedonebygettingyouropponent's
speechoutoftheway.Soattackthatfirsteitherthewholeofit,
orthemostimportant,successful,orvulnerablepointsinit,and
thusinspireconfidenceinwhatyouhavetosayyourself
"First,championwillIbeofGoddesses...
"Never,Iween,wouldHera..."
wherethespeakerhasattackedthesilliestargumentfirst.Somuch
fortheArguments.
Withregardtotheelementofmoralcharacter:thereareassertions
which,ifmadeaboutyourself,mayexcitedislike,appeartedious,
orexposeyoutotheriskofcontradiction;andotherthingswhich
youcannotsayaboutyouropponentwithoutseemingabusiveorillbred.
Putsuchremarks,therefore,intothemouthofsomethirdperson.
ThisiswhatIsocratesdoesinthePhilippusandintheAntidosis,
andArchilochusinhissatires.Thelatterrepresentsthefatherhimself
asattackinghisdaughterinthelampoon
"Thinknoughtimpossibleatall,
"Norswearthatitshallnotbefall..."
andputsintothemouthofCharonthecarpenterthelampoonwhich
begins
"NotforthewealthofGyes..."
SotooSophoclesmakesHaemonappealtohisfatheronbehalfofAntigone
asifitwereotherswhowerespeaking.
Again,sometimesyoushouldrestateyourenthymemesintheformof
maxims;e.g.'Wisemenwillcometotermsinthehourofsuccess;
fortheywillgainmostiftheydo'.Expressedasanenthymeme,this
wouldrun,'Ifweoughttocometotermswhendoingsowillenable
ustogainthegreatestadvantage,thenweoughttocometoterms
inthehourofsuccess.'
99/102
15/03/2015
Part18
NextastoInterrogation.Thebestmomenttoaemploythisiswhen
youropponenthassoansweredonequestionthattheputtingofjust
onemorelandshiminabsurdity.ThusPericlesquestionedLamponabout
thewayofcelebratingtheritesoftheSaviourGoddess.Lampondeclared
thatnouninitiatedpersoncouldbetoldofthem.Periclesthenasked,
'Doyouknowthemyourself?''Yes',answeredLampon.'Why,'saidPericles,
'howcanthatbe,whenyouareuninitiated?'
Anothergoodmomentiswhenonepremissofanargumentisobviously
true,andyoucanseethatyouropponentmustsay'yes'ifyouask
himwhethertheotheristrue.Havingfirstgotthisanswerabout
theother,donotgoontoaskhimabouttheobviouslytrueone,but
juststatetheconclusionyourself.Thus,whenMeletusdeniedthat
Socratesbelievedintheexistenceofgodsbutadmittedthathetalked
aboutasupernaturalpower,Socratesproceededtotoaskwhether'supernatural
beingswerenoteitherchildrenofthegodsorinsomewaydivine?'
'Yes',saidMeletus.'Then',repliedSocrates,'isthereanyonewho
believesintheexistenceofchildrenofthegodsandyetnotinthe
existenceofthegodsthemselves?'Anothergoodoccasioniswhenyou
expecttoshowthatyouropponentiscontradictingeitherhisown
wordsorwhateveryonebelieves.Afourthiswhenitisimpossible
forhimtomeetyourquestionexceptbyanevasiveanswer.Ifheanswers
'True,andyetnottrue',or'Partlytrueandpartlynottrue',or
'Trueinonesensebutnotinanother',theaudiencethinksheis
indifficulties,andapplaudshisdiscomfiture.Inothercasesdo
notattemptinterrogation;forifyouropponentgetsinanobjection,
youarefelttohavebeenworsted.Youcannotaskaseriesofquestions
owingtotheincapacityoftheaudiencetofollowthem;andforthis
reasonyoushouldalsomakeyourenthymemesascompactaspossible.
Inreplying,youmustmeetambiguousquestionsbydrawingreasonable
distinctions,notbyacurtanswer.Inmeetingquestionsthatseem
toinvolveyouinacontradiction,offertheexplanationattheoutset
ofyouranswer,beforeyouropponentasksthenextquestionordraws
hisconclusion.Foritisnotdifficulttoseethedriftofhisargument
inadvance.Thispoint,however,aswellasthevariousmeansofrefutation,
mayberegardedasknowntousfromtheTopics.
Whenyouropponentindrawinghisconclusionputsitintheformof
aquestion,youmustjustifyyouranswer.ThuswhenSophocleswas
askedbyPeisanderwhetherhehad,liketheothermembersoftheBoard
ofSafety,votedforsettinguptheFourHundred,hesaid'Yes.''Why,
didyounotthinkitwicked?''Yes.''Soyoucommittedthiswickedness?'
'Yes',saidSophocles,'fortherewasnothingbettertodo.'Again,
theLacedaemonian,whenhewasbeingexaminedonhisconductasephor,
wasaskedwhetherhethoughtthattheotherephorshadbeenjustly
puttodeath.'Yes',hesaid.'Wellthen',askedhisopponent,'did
notyouproposethesamemeasuresasthey?''Yes.''Wellthen,would
notyoutoobejustlyputtodeath?''Notatall',saidhe;'they
werebribedtodoit,andIdiditfromconviction'.Henceyoushould
notaskanyfurtherquestionsafterdrawingtheconclusion,norput
theconclusionitselfintheformofafurtherquestion,unlessthere
isalargebalanceoftruthonyourside.
Astojests.Thesearesupposedtobeofsomeserviceincontroversy.
Gorgiassaidthatyoushouldkillyouropponents'earnestnesswith
jestingandtheirjestingwithearnestness;inwhichhewasright.
jestshavebeenclassifiedinthePoetics.Somearebecomingtoa
gentleman,othersarenot;seethatyouchoosesuchasbecomeyou.
Ironybetterbefitsagentlemanthanbuffoonery;theironicalman
jokestoamusehimself,thebuffoontoamuseotherpeople.
100/102
15/03/2015
Part19
TheEpiloguehasfourparts.Youmust(1)maketheaudiencewelldisposed
towardsyourselfandilldisposedtowardsyouropponent(2)magnify
orminimizetheleadingfacts,(3)excitetherequiredstateofemotion
inyourhearers,and(4)refreshtheirmemories.
(1)Havingshownyourowntruthfulnessandtheuntruthfulnessofyour
opponent,thenaturalthingistocommendyourself,censurehim,and
hammerinyourpoints.Youmustaimatoneoftwoobjectsyoumust
makeyourselfoutagoodmanandhimabadoneeitherinyourselves
orinrelationtoyourhearers.Howthisistobemanagedbywhat
linesofargumentyouaretorepresentpeopleasgoodorbadthis
hasbeenalreadyexplained.
(2)Thefactshavingbeenproved,thenaturalthingtodonextis
tomagnifyorminimizetheirimportance.Thefactsmustbeadmitted
beforeyoucandiscusshowimportanttheyare;justasthebodycannot
growexceptfromsomethingalreadypresent.Theproperlinesofargument
tobeusedforthispurposeofamplificationanddepreciationhave
alreadybeensetforth.
(3)Next,whenthefactsandtheirimportanceareclearlyunderstood,
youmustexciteyourhearers'emotions.Theseemotionsarepity,indignation,
anger,hatred,envy,emulation,pugnacity.Thelinesofargumentto
beusedforthesepurposesalsohavebeenpreviouslymentioned.
(4)Finallyyouhavetoreviewwhatyouhavealreadysaid.Hereyou
mayproperlydowhatsomewronglyrecommenddoingintheintroductionrepeat
yourpointsfrequentlysoastomakethemeasilyunderstood.What
youshoulddoinyourintroductionistostateyoursubject,inorder
thatthepointtobejudgedmaybequiteplain;intheepilogueyou
shouldsummarizetheargumentsbywhichyourcasehasbeenproved.
Thefirststepinthisreviewingprocessistoobservethatyouhave
donewhatyouundertooktodo.Youmust,then,statewhatyouhave
saidandwhyyouhavesaidit.Yourmethodmaybeacomparisonof
yourowncasewiththatofyouropponent;andyoumaycompareeither
thewaysyouhavebothhandledthesamepointormakeyourcomparison
lessdirect:'Myopponentsaidsoandsoonthispoint;Isaidsoandso,
andthisiswhyIsaidit'.Orwithmodestirony,e.g.'Hecertainly
saidsoandso,butIsaidsoandso'.Or'Howvainhewouldhave
beenifhehadprovedallthisinsteadofthat!'Orputitinthe
formofaquestion.'Whathasnotbeenprovedbyme?'or'Whathas
myopponentproved?'Youmayproceedthen,eitherinthiswaybysetting
pointagainstpoint,orbyfollowingthenaturalorderofthearguments
asspoken,firstgivingyourown,andthenseparately,ifyouwish,
thoseofyouropponent.
Fortheconclusion,thedisconnectedstyleoflanguageisappropriate,
andwillmarkthedifferencebetweentheorationandtheperoration.
'Ihavedone.Youhaveheardme.Thefactsarebeforeyou.Iaskfor
yourjudgement.'
THEEND
Copyrightstatement:
TheInternetClassicsArchivebyDanielC.Stevenson,WebAtomics.
WorldWideWebpresentationiscopyright(C)19942000,Daniel
C.Stevenson,WebAtomics.
AllrightsreservedunderinternationalandpanAmericancopyright
conventions,includingtherightofreproductioninwholeorinpart
inanyform.Directpermissionrequeststoclassics@classics.mit.edu.
Translationof"TheDeedsoftheDivineAugustus"byAugustusis
101/102
15/03/2015
copyright(C)ThomasBushnell,BSG.
102/102

Classics - Mit.edu Aristotle Rhetoric - MB

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Оригинальное название

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Classics - Mit.edu Aristotle Rhetoric - MB

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

15/03/2015

Вам также может понравиться