Electrodynamics

Steady current produces a magnetic field -------- experiment by Oersted

time-varying magnetic field would produce an electric current ----- Discovered in 1831,
about 11 years after Oersted's discovery by Michael Faraday in London and Joseph Henry
in New York

Induced emf Vemf (in volts), in any closed circuit is equal to the time rate of change of the
magnetic flux linkage by the circuit

Negative sign ! induced voltage acts in such a way as to oppose the flux producing it --Lenz's law
Electric fields considered so far are caused by electric charges; in such fields, the flux lines
begin and end on the charges
There are other kinds of electric fields not directly caused by electric charges. These are
emf-produced fields. Sources of emf include electric generators, batteries, thermocouples,
fuel cells, and photovoltaic cells, that convert nonelectrical energy into electrical energy.

For N = 1

The variation of flux with time, in above equation, may be caused in three ways:
1. By having a stationary loop in a time-varying B field
2. By having a time-varying loop area in a static B field
3. By having a time-varying loop area in a time-varying B field.

Faraday's law, in differential form

Using Stokes theorem

Faraday's law, in integral form

Stationary Loop in Time-Varying B Field (transformer emf)

If we consider a conducting loop, moving with uniform velocity u as consisting of a large

number of free electrons, the emf induced in the loop is

define the motional electric field Em as

Recall that the force on a charge moving with uniform velocity u in a magnetic field B is

When a conducting loop is moving in a static B field, an emf is induced in the loop.

Moving Loop in Static B Field (Motional emf)

Equivalent to

General case in which a moving conducting loop is in a time-varying B field. Both

transformer emf and motional emf are present.

Moving Loop in Time-Varying Field

No problem

incompatible for time-varying conditions

But continuity of current requires that

So we must modify

Since, divergence of curl is always zero and from (ii) RHS is also zero

Take divergence to (iii) and (iv)

Electrodynamics
Before Maxwell

Maxwell's Equations

Plays a crucial role in the propagation of EM waves

Ampere's law with Maxwell's correction

Jd is to be determined and defined

A changing electric field induces a magnetic field

Just as a changing magnetic field induces an electric field (Faraday's law),

when E is constant, we still have Amperes law.

Experimental confirmation in 1888 by Hertz: EM waves.

Taking divergence

To do this, we add a term

How Maxwell Fixed Ampere's Law?

The flaw was a purely theoretical one, and Maxwell fixed it by purely theoretical arguments

enc = I for Amperian loop

enc = 0 ! for balloon surface ???

Apply integral form of Amperes law to the Amperian loop shown in the diagram

Ampere's law is bound to fail for non-steady currents

So we get the same answer for either surface, though in the first case it comes from
the genuine current and in the second from the displacement current

If we use the balloon-shaped surface, then enc = 0, but

If we choose the flat surface, then E = 0 and enc = .

Between the plates

How the displacement current resolves the paradox of the charging capacitor?

Displacement Current

A parallel-plate capacitor with plate area of 5 cm2 and plate separation of 3 mm has a voltage
50 sin 103t V applied to its plates. Calculate the displacement current assuming = 2 o.

Problem

Maxwell's equations tell you how charges produce fields; reciprocally, the force law
tells you how fields affect charges.

with the fields (E and B) on the left and the sources ( and J) on the right.
All EM fields are ultimately attributable to charges and currents.

(or)

simply switch the sign of k to produce a wave

with the same amplitude, phase constant,
frequency, and wavelength, traveling in the
opposite direction.

as cosine is even function

Wave traveling to the left can be written as

small disturbances on the string satisfy

wave equation

What is a wave?
A disturbance of a continuous medium that propagates with a fixed
shape at constant velocity.

Electromagnetic Waves

absorbing the phase constant. The actual wave function is the real part of

with the complex amplitude

where Re( ) denotes the real part of the complex number . We can now introduce
the complex wave function

the sinusoidal wave, using Euler notation, is

Sinusoidal wave equation is

Complex notation. In view of Euler's formula

Since .E = .B = 0

They constitute a set of coupled, first-order, partial differential equations for E and B.
They can be decoupled by applying the curl to (iii) and (iv):

The Wave Equation for E and B

In regions of space where there is no charge or current, Maxwell's equations are

Electromagnetic Waves in Vacuum

light is an electromagnetic wave

Of course, this conclusion does not surprise anyone today, but imagine what a
revelation it was in Maxwell's time!

The implication is astounding: Perhaps

which happens to be precisely the velocity of light, c

So Maxwell's equations imply that empty space supports the propagation of

electromagnetic waves, traveling at a speed

In vacuum, then, each Cartesian component of E and B satisfies the three-dimensional

wave equation

We now have separate equations for E and B, but they are of second order.

Without it, the wave equation would not emerge, and there would be no
electromagnetic theory of light.

crucial role played by Maxwell's contribution to Ampere's law

from these two numbers.

nothing to do with light. And yet, according to Maxwell's theory you can calculate c

We measure them in experiments involving batteries, and wires--experiments having

Remember how o and o came into the theory in the first place: they were constants in
Coulomb's law and the Biot-Savart law.

Every solution to Maxwell's equations (in empty space) must obey the wave equation,
the converse is not true

(the physical fields, of course, are the real parts of

are the (complex) amplitudes

Express the fields in the form

because the fields are uniform over every plane perpendicular to the direction of
propagation

plane waves: waves are traveling in the z direction and have no x or y dependence;

Confine our attention to sinusoidal waves of frequency .

Monochromatic Plane Waves

Evidently, E and B are in phase and mutually perpendicular; their (real) amplitudes are
related by

more compactly

implies a relation between the electric and magnetic amplitudes

the electric and magnetic fields are perpendicular to the direction of propagation.

electromagnetic waves are transverse

In particular, since .E = .B = 0

Maxwell's equations impose extra constraints on

This is the model for a monochromatic plane wave. The wave as a whole is said to be
polarized in the x-direction (by convention, we use the direction of E to specify the
polarization of an electromagnetic wave

or (taking the real part)

If E points in the x-direction, then B points in the y-direction

Since, E is transverse

The notation is facilitated by the introduction of the propagation (or wave) vector, k,
pointing in the direction of propagation, whose magnitude is the wave number k. The
scalar product k r is the appropriate generalization of kz

There is nothing special about the z direction, of course-we can easily generalize to
monochromatic plane waves traveling in an arbitrary direction

The actual (real) electric and magnetic fields in a monochromatic plane wave with
propagation vector k and polarization are

(a) Find the direction of wave propagation.

(b) Calculate and the time it takes to travel a distance of /2.
(c) Sketch the wave at t = 0, T/4, and T/2.

The electric field in free space is given by

So the rate at which work is done on all the charges in a volume is

Here, we can write q = d and v = J

According to the Lorentz force law, the work done on a charge q is

Question: How much work, dW, is done by the electromagnetic forces acting on these
charges in the interval dt?

Consider some charge and current configuration which, at time t, produces fields E and B.
In the next instant, dt, the charges move around a bit.

energy stored in electromagnetic fields is

Conservation of energy and momentum

From Faradays law

Use product rule

Use the Amperes law with Maxwell correction to eliminate J:

E . J is the work done per unit time, per unit volume i.e. power delivered per unit volume.
We can express this quantity in terms of the fields alone.

Poynting's theorem says, then, that the work done on the charges by the
electromagnetic force is equal to the decrease in energy stored in the field, less the
energy that flowed out through the surface.

The first term represents the total energy stored in the fields, Uem.
The second term represents the rate at which energy is carried out of V, across its
boundary surface, by the electromagnetic fields.

Poynting's theorem it is the "work-energy theorem" of electrodynamics.

and applying the divergence theorem to the second term, we get

Substitute this in

differential version of Poynting's theorem

Poynting vector S represents the flow of energy in exactly the same way that J describes the
flow of charge

charge density is replaced by the energy density (mechanical plus electromagnetic), and
the current density is replaced by the Poynting vector.

Compare it with the continuity equation

Hence,

work W done on the charges will increase their mechanical energy (kinetic, potential, or
whatever)

Compact form

The energy per unit time, per unit area, transported by the fields is called the Poynting
vector

For monochromatic plane waves propagating in the z direction

As the wave travels, it carries this energy along with it. The energy flux density (energy
per unit area, per unit time) transported by the fields is given by the Poynting vector

so the electric and magnetic contributions are equal

In the case of a monochromatic plane wave

the energy per unit volume stored in electromagnetic fields is

Energy and Momentum in Electromagnetic Waves

For monochromatic plane waves, then

Electromagnetic fields not only carry energy, they also carry momentum. The momentum
density stored in the fields is

In a time t, a length c t passes through area A, carrying with it an energy uAc t .

The energy per unit time, per unit area, transported by the wave is therefore uc.

S is the energy density (u) times the velocity of the waves (c z).

On a perfect reflector the pressure is twice as great, because the momentum switches
direction, instead of simply being absorbed

so the radiation pressure (average force per unit area) is

When light falls on a perfect absorber it delivers its momentum to the surface. In a
time t, the momentum transfer is

The average power per unit area transported by an electromagnetic wave is intensity: