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INTRODUCTION:
Power system stability of modern large inter-connected systems is a major
problem for secure operation of the system. Recent major black-outs across the globe
caused by system instability, even in very sophisticated and secure systems, illustrate the
problems facing secure operation of power systems. Earlier, stability was defined as the
ability of a system to return to normal or stable operation after having been subjected to
some form of disturbance. This fundamentally refers to the ability of the system to
remain in synchronism. However, modern power systems operate under complex
interconnections, controls and extremely stressed conditions. Further, with increased
automation and use of electronic equipment, the quality of power has gained utmost
importance, shifting focus on to concepts of voltage stability, frequency stability,
inter-area oscillations etc.
The IEEE/CIGRE Joint Task Force on stability terms and conditions have
proposed the following definition in 2004: Power System stability is the ability of an
electric power system, for a given initial operating condition, to regain a state of
operating equilibrium after being subjected to a physical disturbance, with most system
variables bounded, so that practically the entire system remains intact.
The Power System is an extremely non-linear and dynamic system, with operating
parameters continuously varying. Stability is hence, a function of the initial operating
condition and the nature of the disturbance. Power systems are continually subjected to
small disturbances in the form of load changes. The system must be in a position to be
able to adjust to the changing conditions and operate satisfactorily. The system must also
withstand large disturbances, which may even cause structural changes due to isolation of
some faulted elements.
A power system may be stable for a particular (large) disturbance and unstable for
another disturbance. It is impossible to design a system which is stable under all
The first form of instability is largely eliminated by modern fast acting voltage regulators
and the second form of instability is more common. The time frame of small signal
stability is of the order of 10-20 seconds after a disturbance.
Large-signal rotor angle stability or transient stability
This refers to the ability of the power system to maintain synchronism under large
disturbances, such as short circuit, line outages etc. The system response involves large
excursions of the generator rotor angles. Transient stability depends on both the initial
operating point and the disturbance parameters like location, type, magnitude etc.
Instability is normally in the form of a periodic angular separation. The time frame of
interest is 3-5 seconds after disturbance.
The term dynamic stability was earlier used to denote the steady-state stability in
the presence of automatic controls (especially excitation controls) as opposed to manual
controls. Since all generators are equipped with automatic controllers today, dynamic
stability has lost relevance and the Task Force has recommended against its usage.
MECHANICS OF ROTATORY MOTION
Since a synchronous machine is a rotating body, the laws of mechanics of rotating
bodies are applicable to it. In rotation we first define the fundamental quantities. The
angle
is defined, with respect to a circular arc with its center at the vertex of the angle,
s
r
d m
dt
(1)
m
is defined as
(2)
d m d 2 m
=
dt
dt 2
(3)
The torque on a body due to a tangential force F at a distance r from axis of rotation is
given by
T=rF
(4)
(5)
The unit of torque is N-m. When torque is applied to a body, the body experiences
angular acceleration. Each particle experiences a tangential acceleration a = r , where r
is the distance of the particle from axis of rotation. The tangential force required to
accelerate a particle of mass dm is
dF = a dm = r
dm
(6)
(7)
T=
(8)
Here
I=
r2dm
(9)
is called the moment of inertia of the body. The unit is Kg m2. If the torque is assumed
to be the result of a number of tangential forces F, which act at different points of the
body
rF
T=
F . ds
dW =
W=
and
T=
Frd
Td
m=
dW
d m
(10)
(11)
P=
d W T d m
=
= T m
dt
dt
(12)
(13)
1
1
2
I m = M
2
2
(14)
SWING EQUATION:
From (8)
I = T
or
I d 2 m
=T
d t2
(15)
Here T is the net torque of all torques acting on the machine, which includes the shaft
torque (due to prime mover of a generator or load on a motor), torque due to rotational
losses (friction, windage and core loss) and electromagnetic torque.
Let Tm = shaft torque or mechanical torque corrected for rotational losses
Te = Electromagnetic or electrical torque
For a generator Tm tends to accelerate the rotor in positive direction of rotation and for a
motor retards the rotor.
The accelerating torque for a generator
Ta = Tm
Te
(16)
measured with respect to a stationary reference axis on the stator, it is the measure of the
absolute rotor angle and increases continuously with time even at constant synchronous
speed. Since machine acceleration /deceleration is always measured relative to
synchronous speed, the rotor angle is measured with respect to a synchronously rotating
reference axis. Let
m =m
where
sm t
(17)
d m d m
=
dt
dt
sm
d 2 m d 2 m
=
dt 2
dt 2
(18)
I
Multiplying by
d 2 m
= Ta = Tm Te N-m
dt 2
(19)
(20)
(21)
deviates from the synchronous speed during and after a disturbance. However, under
stable conditions
is called the Swing equation. The constant M depends on the rating of the machine and
varies widely with the size and type of the machine. Another constant called H constant
(also referred to as inertia constant) is defined as
(22)
H falls within a narrow range and typical values are given in Table 9.1.
If the rating of the machine is G MVA, from (22) the stored kinetic energy is GH
Mega Joules. From (14)
GH =
1
M s m MJ
2
(23)
or
M=
2 GH
s m
MJ-s/mech rad
(24)
(25)
pu
(26)
p
s m ) and Pa is
2
acceleration power in per unit on same base as H. For a system with an electrical
frequency f Hz, (26) becomes
H d 2
= Pa = Pm Pe pu
f dt 2
when is in electrical radians and
(27)
H d 2
= Pa = Pm Pe
180 f dt 2
pu
(28)
pu
(29)
d
= s
dt
(30)
in which , s and are in electrical units. In deriving the swing equation, damping
has been neglected.
H (MJ/MVA)
96
3600 rpm
74
3600 rpm
43
23
24
Non condensing
Water wheel generator
Synchronous condenser
Large
Small
2.0
In defining the inertia constant H, the MVA base used is the rating of the machine. In a
multi machine system, swing equation has to be solved for each machine, in which case,
a common MVA base for the system has to chosen. The constant H of each machine must
be consistent with the system base.
Let
Gmach
on both sides we get
Gsystem
Gmach 2 H d 2 m Pm Pe
=
G system s m dt 2
Gmach
Gmach
Gsystem
(31)
2 H system d 2 m
= Pm Pe pu (on system base)
s m
dt 2
where H system = H
Gmach
Gsystem
(32)
Example 1:
A 50Hz, 4 pole turbo alternator rated 150 MVA, 11 kV has an inertia constant of
9 MJ / MVA. Find the (a) stored energy at synchronous speed (b) the rotor acceleration if
the input mechanical power is raised to 100 MW when the electrical load is 75 MW, (c)
the speed at the end of 10 cycles if acceleration is assumed constant at the initial value.
Solution:
(a)
(b)
Pa = Pm Pe = 100 75 = 25 MW
M=
GH
1350
=
= 0.15 MJ s /e
180 f 180 50
0.15
d2
= 25
d t2
Acceleration =
d 2
25
=
=166.6 e/s2
2
0.15
dt
= 166.6
2
m/s2
P
= 166.6
2
1
rps /s
P
360
= 166.6
2
1
60 rpm/s
P
360
= 13.88 rpm/s
* Note e = electrical degree; m = mechanical degree; P=number of poles.
(c) 10 cycles =
10
= 0 .2 s
50
NS = Synchronous speed =
120 50
= 1500 rpm
4
0.2
Example 2:
Two 50 Hz generating units operate in parallel within the same plant, with the
following ratings:
Unit 1: 500 MVA, 0.8 pf, 13.2 kV, 3600 rpm: H = 4 MJ/MVA
Unit 2: 1000 MVA, 0.9 pf, 13.8 kV, 1800 rpm: H = 5 MJ/MVA
Calculate the equivalent H constant on a base of 100 MVA.
Solution:
H 1system = H 1mach
= 4
G1 mach
G system
500
= 20 MJ/MVA
100
H 2 system = H 2 mach
= 5
G2 mach
Gsystem
1000
= 50 MJ/MVA
100
H eq = H 1 + H 2 = 20 + 50 = 70 MJ/MVA
This is the equivalent inertia constant on a base of 100 MVA and can be used
when the two machines swing coherently.
POWERANGLE EQUATION:
In solving the swing equation, certain assumptions are normally made
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
Effect of voltage regulating loop during the transient is neglected i.e the
excitation is assumed to be a constant.
As discussed in section 9.4, the powerangle relationship plays a vital role in the
solution of the swing equation.
r
The power output of the generator is given by the real part of Eg Ia* .
Ia =
E g Vt 0
Neglecting Ra, I a =
P=
(38)
Ra + jxd
(E
E g Vt 0
jxd
E g 90
xd
Vt 90
xd
(Note-
E g cos 90
xd
E g Vt cos (90 + )
xd
E g Vt sin
(39)
xd
The maximum power that can be transferred for a particular excitation is given by
E g Vt
xd
at = 90o.
(40)
E d = Vt sin
(41a)
E q = Vt cos
Id =
Iq =
(41b)
E g Eq
= I a sin ( + )
xd
Ed
= I a cos( + )
xq
(41c)
(41d)
P=
E g Vt sin
xd
Vt (x d xq )sin 2
2
2 xd xq
(42)
(9.42) gives the steady state power angle relationship for a salient pole machine. The
second term does not depend on the excitation and is called the reluctance power
component. This component makes the maximum power greater than in the classical
model. However, the angle at which the maximum power occurs is less than 90o.
TRANSIENT STABILITY:
As defined earlier, transient stability is the ability of the system to remain stable under
large disturbances like short circuits, line outages, generation or load loss etc. The
evaluation of the transient stability is required offline for planning, design etc. and online
for load management, emergency control and security assessment. Transient stability
analysis deals with actual solution of the nonlinear differential equations describing the
dynamics of the machines and their controls and interfacing it with the algebraic
equations describing the interconnections through the transmission network.
Since the disturbance is large, linearized analysis of the swing equation (which
describes the rotor dynamics) is not possible. Further, the fault may cause structural
changes in the network, because of which the power angle curve prior to fault, during the
fault and post fault may be different. Due to these reasons, a general stability criteria for
transient stability cannot be established, as was done in the case of steady state stability
(namely PS > 0). Stability can be established, for a given fault, by actual solution of the
swing equation. The time taken for the fault to be cleared (by the circuit breakers) is
called the clearing time. If the fault is cleared fast enough, the probability of the system
remaining stable after the clearance is more. If the fault persists for a longer time,
likelihood of instability is increased. Critical clearing time is the maximum time
available for clearing the fault, before the system loses stability. Modern circuit breakers
are equipped with auto reclosure facility, wherein the breaker automatically recloses after
two sequential openings. If the fault still persists, the breakers open permanently. Since
most faults are transient, the first reclosure is in general successful. Hence, transient
stability has been greatly enhanced by auto closure breakers.
Some common assumptions made during transient stability studies are as follows:
1. Transmission line and synchronous machine resistances are neglected. Since
resistance introduces a damping term in the swing equation, this gives
pessimistic results.
dx
= f x ( x, y , t )
dt
dy
= f y ( x, y , t )
dt
Starting from initial values x0, y0, t0 at the beginning of a time step and a step size h we
solve as follows:
Let
Dx = fx(x0,y0,t0) =
dx
dt 0
Dy = fy(x0,y0,t0) =
dy
dt 0
x P = x0 + D x h
Predicted values
y P = y0 + Dy h
DxP =
dx
= fx(xP,yP,t1)
dt P
DyP =
dy
= fy(xP,yP,t1)
dt P
x1 = xo +
y1 = yo +
D x + D xP
h
2
D y + D yP
2
x 1 and y1 are used in the next iteration. To solve the swing equation by Modified Eulers
method, it is written as two first order differential equations:
d
=
dt
d Pa
P Pmax sin
=
= m
dt
M
M
Starting from an initial value
o,
d
dt
= D1 =
P Pmax sin 0
d
= D2 = m
dt 0
M
P
+ D1 t
0
0
+ D2 t
d
dt
= D1P =
P
d
dt
and
= D2P =
P
D1 + D1P
2
are used as initial values for the successive time step. Numerical errors are
Pm Pmax sin P
M
D 2 + D2 P
2
t
t
Solution:
Before fault transfer reactance between generator and infinite bus
XI = 0.3 + 0.2 +
Pmax I =
0 .4
= 0.7 pu
2
1 .2 1 .0
= 1.714 pu.
0 .7
Initial Pe = 0.8 pu = Pm
Initial operating angle
= sin-1
0 .8
= 27.82o = 0.485 rad.
1.714
When fault occurs at middle of one of the transmission lines, the network and its
reduction is as shown in Fig a to Fig c.
1 .2 1 .0
= 0.63 pu
1 .9
cos
cr
= sin 1
cr
Pm
Pmax III
= sin 1
0 .8
= 2.656 rad
1.714
1 .2 1 .0
= 1.333 pu
0 .9
= sin 1
0 .8
= 2.498 rad
1.333
Choosing a step size of 0.05 s, the swing is computed. Table a gives the values of the
derivatives and predicted values. Table b gives the initial values
the end of the interval
1,
= 0.761
= 2.072
1.
o,
Pm = 0.8
M=
5 .2
= 0.0331 s2 / rad
50
D1P = 1.892
D2P =
1=
1
1,
0.761 +
= 2.072 +
2.072 + 1.892
0.05 = 0.860
2
3.604 6.482
0.05 = 1.82
2
D1
D2
D1P
D2P
0+
0.0
15.296
0.485
0.765
0.765
15.296
0.05
0.765
14.977
0.542
1.514
1.514
14.350
0.10
1.498
14.043
0.636
2.200
2.200
12.860
0.15
2.17
- 0.299
0.761
2.155
2.155
- 3.600
0.20
2.072
- 3.604
0.865
1.892
1.892
- 6.482
0.25
1.820
- 6.350
0.951
1.502
1.502
- 8.612
0.30
1.446
- 8.424
1.015
1.025
1.025
- 10.041
0.35
0.984
- 9.827
1.054
0.493
0.493
- 10.843
0.40
0.467
- 10.602
1.065
- 0.063
- 0.063
- 11.060
0.45
- 0.074
- 10.803
1.048
- 0.614
- 0.614
- 10.720
0.50
- 0.612
- 10.46
1.004
- 1.135
- 1.135
- 9.800
Table b : calculations of
o,
and
1,
Pmax(pu)
0-
1.714
0.485
rad
rad / sec
rad
rad / sec
deg
0+
0.630
0.485
0.0
0.504
0.765
28.87
0.05
0.630
0.504
0.765
0.561
1.498
32.14
0.10
0.630
0.561
1.498
0.653
2.170
37.41
0.15
1.333
0.653
2.170
0.761
2.072
43.60
0.20
1.333
0.761
2.072
0.860
1.820
49.27
0.25
1.333
0.860
1.820
0.943
1.446
54.03
0.30
1.333
0.943
1.446
1.005
0.984
57.58
0.35
1.333
1.005
0.984
1.042
0.467
59.70
0.40
1.333
1.042
0.467
1.052
- 0.074
60.27
0.45
1.333
1.052
- 0.074
1.035
- 0.612
59.30
0.50
1.333
1.035
- 0.612
0.991
- 1.118
56.78
0.0
dx
= fx (x, y, t)
dt
dy
= fy (x, y, t)
dt
Starting from initial values x0, y0, t0 and step size h, the updated values are
x1 = x0 +
1
(k1 + 2k2 + 2k3 + k4)
6
y1 = y0 +
1
(l1 + 2l2 + 2l3 + l4)
6
k1
l
h
h
, y0 + 1 , t0 +
2
2
2
k3 = fx x0 +
k2
l
h
h
, y0 + 2 , t0 +
2
2
2
k1
l
h
h
, y0 + 1 , t 0 +
2
2
2
l3 = f y x 0 +
k2
l
h
h
, y0 + 2 , t0 +
2
2
2
d
=
dt
P
P Pmax sin
d
= a = m
dt
M
M
Starting from initial value
0,
0, t0
k1 =
l1 =
Pm Pmax sin 0
M
k2 = 0 +
l1
2
Pm Pmax sin 0 +
l2 =
l2
2
l3 =
k2
2
k4 = (
Pm Pmax sin 0 +
k1
2
k3 = 0 +
l4 =
+ l3 ) t
Pm Pmax sin ( 0 + k 3 )
M
0
+
0
1
[k1 + 2k2 + 2k3 + k4]
6
1
[l1 + 2l2 + 2l3 + l4]
6
Example
Obtain the swing curve for previous example using Runge - Kutta method.
Solution:
0
Choosing a step size of 0.05 s, the coefficient k1, k2, k3, k4 and l1, l2, l3, and l4 are
calculated for each time step. The values of and
coefficient for different time steps. Table b gives the starting values
and the updated values
1,
0,
used as initial values for the next time step and process continued. Calculations are
illustrated for the time step t = 0.2 s.
0
= 0.756
M = 0.0331 s2 / rad
0
= 2.067
Pm = 0.8
Pmax = 1.333 (after fault is cleared)
k1 = 2.067 0.05 = 0.103
l1 =
k2 = 2.067
k3 =
0.103
2
0.0331
2.067
0.246
0.05 = 0.097
2
0.05 = 0. 246
0.099
2
0.0331
0.05 = 0. 244
= 0.756 +
1
[0.103 + 2 0.099 + 2 0.097 + 0.091] = 0.854
6
= 2.067 +
1
[ 0.173 + 2 0. 246 + 2 0. 244 0. 308] = 1.823
6
= 1.823 are used as initial values for the next time step. The
computations have been rounded off to three digits. Greater accuracy is obtained by
reducing the step size.
Table a : Coefficients in Runge - Kutta method
T
k1
l1
k2
l2
k3
l3
K4
l4
0.0
0.0
0.764
0.019
0.764
0.019
0.757
0.038
0.749
0.05
0.031
0.749
0.056
0.736
0.056
0.736
0.075
0.703
0.10
0.075
0.704
0.092
0.674
0.091
0.667
0.108
0.632
0.15
0.108
0.010
0.108
0.094
0.106
0.095
0.103
0.173
0.20
0.103
0.173
0.099
0.246
0.097
0.244
0.091
0.308
8.25
0.091
0.309
0.083
0.368
0.082
0.363
0.073
0.413
0.30
0.073
0.413
0.063
0.455
0.061
0.450
0.050
0.480
0.35
0.050
0.483
0.038
0.510
0.037
0.504
0.025
0.523
0.40
0.025
0.523
0.012
0.536
0.011
0.028
Table b: ,
t
Pmax
(sec)
(pu)
(rad)
rad/sec
rad
rad/sec
deg
0-
1.714 0.485
0.0
0+
0.630 0.485
0.0
0.504
0.759
28.87
0.756
0.559
1.492
32.03
1.492
0.650
2.161
37.24
2.161
0.756
2.067
43.32
2.067
0.854
1.823
48.93
1.823
0.936
1.459
53.63
1.459
0.998
1.008
57.18
1.008
1.035
0.502
59.30
0.502
Note:
0,
1,
fault is cleared at 0.125 seconds. Pmax = 0.63 at t = 0.1 sec and Pmax = 1.333 at t = 0.15
sec, since fault is already cleared at that time. The swing curves obtained from modified
Eulers method and Runge - Kutta method are shown in Fig. It can be seen that the two
methods yield very close results.
dx
= fx (x, y, t)
dt
dy
= fy (x, y, t)
dt
With values of x and y known for four consecutive previous times, the predicted value for
n + 1th time step is given by
xnP+ 1 = xn 3 +
4h
2 x n 2 xn 1 + 2 x n
3
y nP+ 1 = y n 3 +
4h
2 y n 2 y n 1 + 2 y n
3
Where x and y are derivatives at the corresponding time step. The corrected values are
xn+1 = xn 1 +
h
x n 1 + 4 xn + x n + 1
3
yn+1 = y n 1 +
h
y n 1 + 4 y n + y n + 1
3
(
(x
y n +1 = f y
P
n +1
, y nP+1 , t n +1
)
)
To start the computations we need four initial values which may be obtained by
modified Eulers method, Runge - Kutta method or any other numerical method which is
self starting, before applying Milnes method. The method is applied to the solution of
swing equation as follows:
Define n =
n =
d
dt
d
dt
= n
n
=
n
nP+1 = n 3 +
Pm Pmax sin n
M
4 t
2 n 2 n 1 + 2 n
3
nP+1 = n 3 +
n+1
n+1
n-1
t
n 1 + 4 n + n +1
3
t
n 1 + 4 n + n +1
3
n-1
4 t
2 n 2 n 1 + 2 n
3
where n +1 = nP+1
n +1 =
Example
Solve example using Milnes method.
Solution:
To start the process, we take the first four computations from Range Kutta method
t = 0.0 s
1=
t = 0.05 s
0.504
= 0.759
= 0.559
= 1.492
t = 0.10 s
= 0.650
= 2.161
t = 0.15 s
= 0.756
= 2.067
The corresponding derivatives are calculated using the formulae for n and n . We get
1 = 0.759
1 = 14.97
2 = 1.492
2 = 14.075
3 = 2.161
3 = 12.65
4 =2.067
4 = 3.46
We now compute
and
5P = 1 +
5,
4t
2 2 3 + 2 4
3
= 0.504 +
5P = 1 +
4 0.05
[2 1.492 2.161 + 2 2.067] = 0.834
3
4t
2 2 3 + 2 4
3
4 0.05
[2 14.075 12.65 + 2 (3.46)] = 1.331
3
= 0.759 +
5 = 1.331
5 =
5
t
3 + 4 4 + 5
3
= 0.65 +
5
0.05
[2.161 + 4 2.067 + 1.331] = 0.846
3
t
3 + 4 4 + 5
3
= 2.161 +
5 =
5 =
0.05
[12.65 4 3.46 5.657 ] = 2.047
3
= 2.047
The computations are continued for the next time step in a similar manner.
x(t )
x(t ) = f I ( x(t ))
t 0
x(t ) = f II ( x(t ))
0 < t t ce
t ce < t <
governing the generator rotor dynamics, dynamics of flux decay and associated generator
controller dynamics (like excitation control, PSS, governor control etc). The function fI
describes the dynamics prior to the fault. Since the system is assumed to be in steady
state, all the state variable are constant. If the fault occurs at t = 0, fII describes the
dynamics during fault, till the fault is cleared at time tcl. The postfault dynamics is
governed by fIII. The state of the system xcl at the end of the fault-on period (at t = tcl)
provides the initial condition for the postfault network described which determines
whether a system is stable or not after the fault is cleared. Some methods are presented in
the following sections to evaluate multi machine transient stability. However, a detailed
exposition is beyond the scope of the present book.
Damping is neglected.
With these assumptions, the multi machine system is represented as in Fig. 9.26.
S L* i
VLi
PLi jQLi
VLi
Step 3: The internal voltages are calculated from the terminal voltages, using
Ei i = Vi + j x d i I i
= Vi + jxdi
= Vi + j xd'i
S G* i
Vi
(P
Gi
j QG i )
Vi
i is the angle of Ei with respect to Vi. If the angle of Vi is i, then the angle of
Ei, with respect to common reference is given by i = i + i . PGi and QGi are obtained
from load flow solution.
Step4: The bus admittance matrix Ybus formed to run the load flow is modified to include
the following.
(i) The equivalent shunt load admittance given by, connected between the
respective load bus and the reference node.
(ii)
In
0
Y2
Y4
En
Vt
where En is the vector of internal emfs of the generators and Vt is the vector of external
bus voltages. From (9.91) we can write
In = Y1 En + Y2 Vt
0 = Y3 En + Y4 Vt
we get
Vt = Y41Y3 E n
In = (Y1 Y2 Y4 1 Y3 ) En = Y En
where Y = Y1 Y2 Y41 Y3 is called the reduced admittance matrix and has dimension
n n . Y gives the relationship between the injected currents and the internal generator
voltages. It is to be noted we have eliminated all nodes except the n internal nodes.
[Ei I i* .]
G i i +
j =1 i
Ei E j B i j sin ( i j ) + G i j cos ( i j )
i = 1..n
The mechanical power PMi is equal to the pre-fault electrical power output, obtained from
pre-fault load flow solution.
Step 8: The n second order differential equations can be decomposed into 2n first order
differential equations which can be solved by any numerical method .
Though reduced order models, also called classical models, require less
computation and memory, their results are not reliable. Further, the interconnections of
the physical network of the system is lost.
Eg V
xd
an increase in xd , would reduce Pmax. Hence, to transfer a given power Pe, the angle
would increase since Pe = Pmax sin , for a machine with larger xd . This would reduce the
critical clearing time, thus, increasing the probability of losing stability.
Generating units of present day have lower values of H, due to advanced cooling
techniques, which have made it possible to increase the rating of the machines without
significant increase in the size. Modern control schemes like generator excitation control,
Turbine valve control, single-pole operation of circuit breakers and fast-acting circuit
breakers with auto re-closure facility have helped in enhancing overall system stability.
Factors which can improve transient stability are
(i)
(ii)
Since most faults are transient, fast acting circuit breakers with rapid
re-closure facility can aid stability.
(vi) The most common type of fault being the single-line-to-ground fault,
selective single pole opening and re-closing can improve stability.
(vii) Use of braking resistors at generator buses. During a fault, there is a sudden
decrease in electric power output of generator. A large resistor, connected at
the generator bus, would partially compensate for the load loss and help in
decreasing the acceleration of the generator. The braking resistors are
switched during a fault through circuit breakers and remain for a few cycles
after fault is cleared till system voltage is restored.
(viii) Short circuit current limiters, which can be used to increase transfer
impedance during fault, there by reducing short circuit currents.
(ix) A recent method is fast valving of the turbine where in the mechanical
power is lowered quickly during the fault, and restored once fault is cleared.