SECTION D Growth and Meat (For 2013)

Section D
SECTION D
Animal Growth and Meat
Production
Section D
CONTENTS
SECTION D: ANIMAL GROWTH AND MEAT PRODUCTION

Page
D.1
INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................... 1
D.2
GROWTH CHARACTERISTICS ............................................................... 6
D.3
BODY AND CARCASS COMPOSITION CHARACTERISTICS................ 14
D.4
MEAT QUALITY CHARACTERISTICS .................................................. 24
D.5
FACTORS AFFECTING CHARACTERISTICS OF IMPORTANCE

TO MEAT PRODUCTION ...................................................................... 30
D.6
CARCASS CLASSIFICATION ............................................................... 44
D.7
CONCLUDING COMMENTS FOR SECTION D ...................................... 47
D.8
REVIEW ITEMS AND QUESTIONS ....................................................... 48
Section D
SECTION D
ANIMAL GROWTH AND MEAT PRODUCTION
D.1
INTRODUCTION
The topics of meat production and animal growth are considered together
because the former is very dependent on the latter, but it is important to
appreciate that animal growth patterns and processes are also very important to
most other forms of animal production (e.g. milk and fibre production), a point that
is made in a number of other sections of this Study Guide. In this section animal
growth and meat production will be considered together by first identifying and
explaining characteristics of importance for successful and profitable meat
production, and then by considering in broad terms how certain factors affect
those characteristics.
Some important features of a generalised system of meat production are
illustrated as a flow diagram in Figure D.1. This diagram divides the overall
process into four sections or levels from top to bottom, and within each level a
selection of key productive characteristics are shown in bold on the left side of
the diagram. In addition selected inputs in addition to the meat animal are
shown as feeding into the main flow from the right, and outputs other than meat
are shown as arrows leading out from the main flow to the left. Points to note
about Figure D.1 include the following:
At the population level the important characteristics from the meat

production point of view are the genotypes and phenotypes of the parents of
the animals destined for meat production and the fecundity of those
parents in terms of the number of offspring produced. If more offspring are
produced per parent per year, then fewer parents will be needed to produce
the same number of meat-producing animals and the breeding-animal
overheads associated with each kilogram of meat produced will be lower,
other things being equal. Often other things are not equal, however, so that
in assessing the value of increased fecundity to meat production
effectiveness, it is necessary to take into account the tendency for higher
peri-natal losses and lower pre-weaning growth rates associated with higher
lambing percentages, for example. Fecundity and other aspects of fertility
as important productive characteristics are covered in Section A of 17.254.
3
Section D
A particularly important question at the population level concerns the

extent to which the productive characteristics of the offspring are
determined by the genetic material received from their parents.
Heritability estimates provide a measure of this extent, and typical
examples of heritability estimates for a number of the characteristics to be
discussed below were given in Section C (Table C.7).
Figure D.1 A flow-diagram depicting a generalised meat-production

system
Section D
The individual-animal-level section within Figure D.1 covers the period

from when the animal is born through to the production of a carcass
following normal dressing procedures at a meat plant. As such, this section
includes all the post-natal growth of the animal and the associated growth
characteristics, the most important of which are the rate of growth (the
amount of weight gained per day), the efficiency of growth (the amount of
weight gained per unit of feed consumed), the composition of the growth in
terms of the main tissues and organs, and the extent of growth (usually
expressed in terms of a mature weight). These are discussed in Section
D.2 except for the composition of growth which is covered in Section D.3.
The only input specified at the individual animal level in Figure D.1 is feed.
It is the relationship between the amount of this input and the output in
terms of animal growth that is expressed in various ways as the efficiency of
growth.
Outputs shown at the individual animal level include not only the carcass
on the main flow path, but also the non-carcass components that are
removed during dressing (skin, head, feet, and a range of internal organs
and structures that make up the viscera), and other products that are
produced during the life of the animal. These will include items such as
wool (or other fibres), milk, and velvet, and will not be considered further in
this section.
There are five performance indicators listed within the individual-animallevel section of Figure D.1, with the first four of these referring to two of the
key growth characteristics of growth rate and growth efficiency as they
apply during the pre-weaning and post-weaning periods. Aspects of these
two characteristics will be covered in Section D.2. The fifth characteristic is
dressing-out percent which is included as a composition characteristic
(Section D.3).
The carcass-level section in Figure D.1 is concerned with the yield of

saleable meat from the carcass, with the key performance indicator being
expressed as the yield of saleable meat as a percentage of carcass weight
or saleable meat yield (SMY%). The outputs other than saleable meat from
the carcass are bones and excess fat, so it follows that one carcass may
have a lower SMY% than another either because it contains more bone
relative to saleable meat, and/or because it contains a higher proportion of
excess fat. Although the SMY% of a carcass is probably its most important
composition characteristic, there are other aspects of carcass composition
that are also of commercial importance, and these will be discussed in
Section D.3.
The final section in Figure D.1 is at the consumer level. This can be
considered the most important level in many respects, as there is little point
in producing large quantities of saleable meat if its value to consumers is
not sufficient to make the whole meat-production exercise profitable.
5
Section D
At the consumer level the two steps shown in Figure D.1 encompass, first,
the yield of meat consumed relative to the amount purchased, and secondly
the conversion from the weight of the product to the value of the product.
The first step is concerned with losses during cooking (drip loss and water
loss), and the losses due the removal of some parts prior to consumption
(primarily excess fat and bone).
The second step is much more
complicated as it encompasses all those factors that influence the price per
unit of meat that is consumed, and in Figure D.1 these are encompassed in
the term meat quality. Aspects of meat quality, and of some of the wide
range of characteristics that contribute to it are considered in Section D.4.
In summary this introductory section has set out the main features of a meatproduction system as a flow diagram, and has used this diagram to identify
groups of key characteristics that will influence the overall effectiveness of the
system. Some of these characteristics have been covered in other sections of
this paper, and those to be considered in the remainder of this section are done
so within three categories and subsections as follows:
D.2 Growth characteristics
D.3 Carcass and body composition characteristics
D.4 Meat quality characteristics
In considering each individual characteristic it is useful to consider a series of
questions, the answers to which would provide a good understanding of the
nature of that characteristic. These questions are listed in general terms in Table
D.1, along with explanations of why they are of interest. For some of these
questions the importance and the answer is obvious and clear-cut, while for
others they are less clear. With our current level of knowledge many of the
questions can be given fairly complete answers, but for others there are still
many unknowns, particularly for questions relating to the physiological basis of
variation in the growth and body composition characteristics.
In the following sub-sections the first six questions in Table D.1 will be considered
for the main characteristics separately, and then question 7, and to a lesser
extent question 8 will be considered in general terms in Section D.5.
Section D
Table D.1 Pertinent questions about important characteristics of
meat-producing animals
Question
Importance
1. How is the characteristic

defined?
A clear definition of each characteristic is essential before

the remaining questions can be addressed in an informed
manner. Unfortunately the definitions of a number of key
characteristics are not the same in all situations.
2. Why is the characteristic of

importance?
The importance needs to be explained in commercial as

well as biological terms.
3. How can the characteristic be

measured?
A characteristic must be measurable to permit an

evaluation of its importance, and of how it varies in different
situations. For most characteristics there are many
alternative methods of measurement, and new and
improved methods are continuously being developed.
4. How are the measurements

commonly expressed?
Here again many alternative approaches are often

available, and misleading conclusions can easily be drawn
if comparisons are made between results expressed in
different ways.
5. What patterns of change are

shown for the characteristic as
an animal grows and
develops?
A knowledge of these patterns is very important because of

the commercial importance of the characteristics to be
considered.
6. Are there important

interrelationships between this
and other productive
characteristics?
Some such relationships will be positive (desirable) while

others will be negative, so it is important to be aware of
them when setting out to make changes in any particular
characteristic.
7. What factors are responsible

for variation in the
characteristic?
This is a large question with clear commercial implications.

The factors can broadly be divided into those due to
different types of animal and those due the environment the
animal exists in. For meat quality characteristics, the post
mortem environment also needs to be considered.
8. What is the physiological

and/or anatomical basis of
variation in the characteristic?
Another big question that overlaps with the previous one.

There are more unknowns here than for most of the other
questions.
D.2
GROWTH CHARACTERISTICS
The three growth characteristics to be considered are described in Table D.2,

and are discussed for each characteristic individually in the text that follows.
(a)
Growth Rate:
This is the growth characteristic that is most widely
measured and monitored on farms. This is because all that is needed is set
of scales, and because the information provided enables the farmer to make
more informed management decisions about feeding, and about selection of
animals for breeding and slaughter.
7
Section D
Table D.2 Key growth characteristics of meat-producing animals
Growth
Characteristic
General Definition and Description
Examples of Expressions
Growth rate
The change in size per unit time.

Size is most often measured in terms
of live weight, but growth rates can
also be in terms of changes in
carcass weight, in lean meat weight,
or in some linear measurement such
as height per day.
1. Average daily gain (ADG) =
Growth
efficiency
The gain in weight relative to the

quantity of feed required to make that
gain. More efficient growth is that
which requires less feed to achieve
the same weight gain. Measures of
feed intake are commonly in terms of
the dry matter (DM) content or the
ME content of the feed.
1. Efficiency of feed utilisation =
Growth extent
or mature
weight
The weight of an adult (mature)

animal. The problem is to determine
when an animal has reached its
mature size or weight. Excess fat
(e.g. more than about 20% fat)
should not be included as part of
mature weight.
1. Live weight at maturity after
(Final weight - Initial weight)

Number of days.
2. Weight per day of age = Weight /
Age in days. This expression is
useful when only one weight is
available.
3. Age-corrected weight. ADG
values are used to calculate the
weight at a specified age (e.g.
200-day weight for cattle).
4. Relative growth rate =
ADG/weight. Expressed as a
proportion or percentage per day.
ADG/ Feed intake per day.
2. Feed conversion ratio (FCR) =
Feed intake per day / ADG.
adjusting for excess fat and time

of year.
2. Frame-size scores (e.g. hip
height at a set age or weight) are
useful as indexes of mature
weight, with a high frame-size
score being indicative of a higher
mature weight.
Unfortunately there are several different ways in which growth rate

information is expressed (see Table D.2) and it is important that the
distinction between these be understood. For example, why is an ADG
value from birth always less than a weight per day of age? And why is an
age-adjusted weight a measure of growth rate even though it is in terms of a
weight value rather than a weight per unit time?
Patterns of change in growth rate as an animal grows and develops from
conception to a newborn, and then on to maturity, show a characteristic
underlying sigmoid pattern, but during post-natal growth this underlying
pattern is often obscured by seasonal or other changes in the quantity and
quality of feed that is offered.
8
Section D
Q.1. Table D.3: Calculate growth rates in the four ways outlined in Table
D.2 for bulls 2 and 3 in the following table. Values are given for Bull 1 as an
example.
Bull number
1
Birth weight (kg)
32
38
28
230-day weight (kg)
196
217
182
390-day weight (kg)
362
402
327
ADG from birth to 230d (kg/d)
0.713
ADG from birth to 390d (kg/d)
0.846
ADG from 230d to 390d (kg/d)
1.038
Relative growth rate at 390 days (%/d)
0.287
Weight/day of age at 230d (kg/d)
0.852
Weight/day of age at 390d
0.928
200-day weight
174.6
400-day weight
372.4
This means that under New Zealand pastoral conditions, for example, there
are clear seasonal changes in growth rate, with animals usually showing the
highest growth rates in late spring when pastures are of high quality and in
plentiful supply. When growing healthy animals are offered a consistent,
adequate supply of a high quality feed, however, they will usually show the
characteristic sigmoid (S-shaped) growth curve such as that shown in
Figure D.2 for a cattle-beast with a mature weight of 600 kilograms. These
growth curves are typical for most species (cats, dogs, sheep, cattle,
horses) as all animals show an initial period of accelerating growth, which
takes place mainly prior to birth or around birth, followed by a period of
decelerating growth until the animal approaches its mature weight
asymptotically. In all species, once mature weight is achieved, energy
intake above maintenance, pregnancy or lactation requirements will result in
excess energy being deposited as predominately fat which can result in a
live weight above the expected mature weight.
The point at which the accelerating growth changes to decelerating growth
is termed the inflexion point and it has been shown to usually be at about
9
Section D
one third of mature weight for farm animals. The slope at any point on the
growth curve in Figure D.2 is equal to the ADG in kg/day. This means that
the ADG increases up to the inflexion point and declines after that point to
zero at maturity. Relative growth rates in contrast normally decline from
shortly after conception. According to the simulated curve in Figure D.2 the
animal did not reach its mature weight until it was almost five years old,
which is about what has been shown in practice for real cattle.
Figure D.2 An idealised growth curve for a cattle-beast

This curve was produced by computer using the Richards growth function which is one
of many that have been used to express animal weight as a function of time.
The aim in most meat-production systems is to have the animals growing as

fast as possible, because this means that target weights are reached more
quickly (or heavier weights are achieved after a set period of time), and the
efficiency of growth will generally be greater (explained below), but there are
some situations where faster growth rates may not lead to a more efficient
or a more profitable system. Examples of such situations include:
1.
If expensive feed supplements have to be used in order to achieve the

higher growth rates. It may be better to accept a period of slower
growth if it is known that a plentiful supply of cheaper feed will be
10
Section D
available in the near future (e.g. the flush of spring pasture relative to
winter supplements).
(b)
2.
If fast growth rates require the use of later-maturing breeding stock

with heavier mature weights. Because they are larger, it will be
necessary to have lower stocking rates, so the costs and benefits need
to be carefully weighed up for each situation. A common way to gain
some of the high growth potential of larger breeds, is to use them as
sires only, and have breeding females of a relatively small breed.
3.
In some cases very high growth rates brought about by feeding high
levels of a high quality diet may result in the animals growing less
efficiently. This means that it may sometimes be more profitable to
restrict the feeding level to, say, 85-90% of the ad lib intake. Possible
reasons for this effect include (1) a decreased digestion of the feed
(due to faster movement through the gut), (2) a higher proportion of fat
in the weight gain (particularly with pigs), and (3) an increase in
metabolic rate and therefore in maintenance requirements.
Growth Efficiency: The efficiency of growth (as defined in Table D.2) is

seldom measured on the farm in the way that growth rate is because there
is no simple method to measure animal intake under grazing conditions.
Intake is commonly measured in systems where the feed is brought to the
animals (e.g. pigs, chickens, and animals on feedlots), but usually for
groups rather than individuals. Because it is difficult to measure, it is
important to have a good understanding of some of the main factors
affecting growth efficiency, and four of the most important such factors are
listed in Table D.4. A knowledge of these four effects will often make it
possible to predict whether one animal (or group of animals) is growing
more or less efficiently than another. Growth rate and weight effects are
illustrated by the efficiency values that can be calculated from the data in
Table D.5.
Efficiency of growth usually declines with increasing animal age and weight
until it reaches zero when growth ceases at maturity. The decline with
growth can be attributed to the increased weight, the increasing proportion
of fat in the gain, and, for post-inflexion-point growth, the decline in growth
rate (Table D.4). It should be emphasised that this is an overall pattern, and
that periods of faster growth due to better feeding will normally be
associated with improved efficiency.
11
Section D
(c)
Mature Weight or the Extent of Growth: This is an important growth

characteristic because it determines how much feed will be required by
mature animals on the farm and because the mature weight of an animal as
a genetic trait is associated with other growth characteristics (e.g. growth
rate and composition of growth) earlier in its life. It has already been noted
that accurate information on mature weights is difficult to obtain because
adjustments should be made for differences in fatness and for different
seasons of the year. Animals with higher mature weights have both
disadvantages and advantages relative to similar animals with lower mature
weights. Therefore, whether one is preferable to the other will depend on
the particular situation being assessed. The main points to consider are:
1.
Animals that are still on the farm when mature, such as breeding
stock, will eat more if they are larger because of higher maintenance
requirements. Therefore feed costs per head will be higher and
stocking rates lower. [Usually a disadvantage].
2.
Heavier breeding animals will generally be worth more when sold at

the end of their breeding life. [Usually an advantage].
3.
Larger animals will generally produce more products other than meat
when this is an important aspect of the system (e.g. wool in the case of
sheep). [Usually an advantage].
4.
Animals with a higher mature weight usually grow faster at any set
weight. This is partly because they will be at a lower proportion of their
mature weight, but also because growth potential at any set proportion
of mature weight tends to be proportional to mature weight. This also
applies to their offspring. [Usually an advantage].
5.
Animals with a higher mature weight will usually be less fat at any
particular weight. This will also be because they are at a lower
proportion of their mature weight which means that they can be taken
to heavier weights before they become overfat. [Usually an
advantage].
6.
Despite their faster growth rates, animals with higher mature weights
will usually take longer to reach a specified level of finish or fatness.
[May be a disadvantage].
7.
Under some circumstances the use of sires with high mature weights
may lead to an increased incidence of birth difficulties (dystocia),
especially if the dam breed is smaller. [Usually a disadvantage].
12
Section D
Table D.4 Factors affecting the efficiency of growth

Only four basic factors are listed in this table, but a knowledge of these four can
explain many differences in the efficiency of growth that have been reported
between different groups of animals.
Factor
Effect on Efficiency
of Growth
Animal
weight
With increasing
With increasing weight the feed required for
weight the
maintenance is higher, so more needs to be
efficiency of
eaten to achieve the same growth rate. Hence
growth decreases
the ratio of ADG to daily feed intake (the
(other things
efficiency) declines.
being equal).
To show this effect the animals being compared
should be offered the same feed ad lib, and they
should be growing at similar rates.
Growth rate
(ADG)
With an increase
in ADG the
efficiency of
growth will
usually increase
(other things
being equal).
Faster growing animals will achieve a set weight

gain over a shorter period, which means the
maintenance requirements per unit gain will be
lower. To show this effect the animals should
be offered the same feed, and they should be of
the same weight.
This effect will usually apply both when the
animals are offered as much feed as they can
eat, in which case the faster growing animals
will tend to be those with bigger appetites, as
well as when those growing faster are doing so
because they are given more feed.
Sometimes referred to as a dilution of
maintenance effect.
Proportion of
fat in the
weight gain
With an increase
in the proportion
of fat in the gain
the efficiency of
growth will
usually be lower
(other things
being equal).
Because 1kg of adipose tissue contains 5 to 6

times more energy than 1kg of non-fat tissue
such as muscle.
This effect is offset to some extent by the fact
that feed energy is converted to energy in lipid
more efficiently than to energy in protein.
Comparisons need to be made between animals
with the same weight and growth rate in order to
show this effect.
Maintenance
feed
requirements
(MR)
With an increase
in MR the
efficiency of
growth will
usually be lower
(other things
being equal).
This is because more feed used for MR will

mean less is available for growth.
Apart from increasing with animal weight, MR
may also be affected by animal activity, low
temperatures, and animal gender (MRs are
higher for males of some species).
Explanation of the Effect
13
Section D
Q2: Table D.5: Estimates of feed requirements of lambs (MJ ME/d) for
lambs of three weights growing at rates from 0 to 300g/d. Calculate
efficiency values for the blank columns and draw graphs of efficiency vs
growth rate for lambs of the three weights. For lambs of 40kg, calculate the
returns per kg DM for lambs growing at 50 to 300 g/d from 40 to 45kg
assuming (1) the feed contained 10.8 MJ ME/kg DM, (2) carcass weight
gain was 43% of liveweight gain, and (3) the schedule value is 312c/kg of
carcass weight. Draw conclusions.
Growth
Lamb live weight (kg)
rate
20 kg
(ADG)
MJ ME/d
30 kg
Effic.
MJ ME/d
40 kg
Effic.
MJ ME/d
0 (maint.)
50
100
6.5
8.0
9.5
9.0
11.0
13.0
11.0
13.5
16.0
150
200
300
11.0
12.5
15.5
15.0
17.0
21.0
18.5
21.0
26.0
Effic.
c/kg DM
(Data from: Geenty, K.G.; Rattray, P.V. (1987). The energy requirements of grazing sheep and
cattle. In: Nicol, A.M. (Ed.) Feeding Livestock on Pasture (pp. 39-53). New Zealand Society of
Animal Production, Hamilton.).
The trend over a number of years has been for a move towards animals
with higher mature weights for most meat-producing species, mainly
because of the advantages of faster growth rates and the fact that they can
be taken to heavier weights before becoming over-fat. A concurrent trend
for consumers to favour meat products with lower fat content has also
favoured the use of animals with genetically higher mature weights. The
major disadvantage of higher mature weights is usually the higher feed
costs or lower stocking rates for breeding animals, but the opportunity for
minimising this by using animals with large mature weights as sires rather
than dams has been widely taken up for a number of the meat-producing
species. This is particularly the case for beef cattle production where the
total income from the breeding female is from her offspring. In the case of
sheep and dairy-beef systems the disadvantage of larger breeding females
is offset to some extent by higher production of wool and milk, respectively.
Movement towards animals with genetically higher mature weights can be
achieved either by selection within a breed, by cross-breeding, or by a
14
Section D
change of breed. A higher average mature weight is also a likely outcome
from selection for increased growth rates due to a positive genetic
association between these traits. Experiments have shown that selection
for increased growth rate while holding mature weight constant results in
appreciably slower genetic progress in growth rate, than when mature
weight is allowed to rise.
The question of patterns of change with normal growth and development
does not apply with respect to mature weight.
D.3
BODY AND CARCASS COMPOSITION

CHARACTERISTICS
The five characteristics covered in this section are given in Table D.6. Except in
the case of dressing-out percentage, which is a simple ratio between two
weights, the composition characteristics are more complex than growth
characteristics because they are concerned with more than two variables.
Carcass composition, for example, is concerned with muscle, fat and bone, and
muscle distribution is concerned with the relative sizes of hundreds of different
individual muscles. This has led to a wider variety of methods of expression, and
this can make the subject confusing.
Composition characteristics also differ from most growth characteristics in being
more difficult to measure directly under normal commercial conditions, which
means that they are often predicted from simpler measurements (e.g. the
prediction of carcass or live-animal fat% from a simple fat depth). The
measurement of the composition of live animals presents a particular challenge
which has received a lot of attention in recent years, because an ability to do this
would enable farmers to more accurately select breeding animals that will
produce superior offspring for meat production. Similarly, more accurate
methods of rapidly assessing the composition of intact carcasses are
continuously being developed in order to improve the effectiveness of carcass
classification systems.
15
Section D
Composition
Characteristic
Table D.6 Key composition characteristics

Examples of Ways the Characteristic
General Description
may be Expressed
Dressing-out
percentage
(DO%) (Also
known as the
killing-out %, or
carcass yield.)
The ratio of (carcass weight

to live weight) x 100.
Variation in the definition of
carcass weight (hot vs cold;
with or without items such
as skin, kidney & pelvic fat,
head, etc) and live weight
(full vs fasted wt) make
comparisons between
studies hazardous.
Usually expressed as a simple

percentage value.
As regression relationships between
carcass weight and live weight, using
either raw weights, or logarithms of
weights.
Proportions of
muscle, fat &
bone in the
carcass
The key trait for meat

production is the muscle
percentage.
Muscle % may be higher
either because fat% is
lower and/or because the
muscle to bone ratio (M:B)
is higher.
Muscle, fat, and bone are often

expressed as percentages of carcass
weight, but this can cause confusion.
Bone content is better expressed as
M:B because it is then unaffected by
changes in fat% (which is the most
variable carcass component).
Distribution of
muscle over the
carcass
A measure of the proportion Muscle or muscle group weights

relative to total muscle weight.
that each muscle makes up
of total muscle, but usually
Proportion of total muscle in the
for simplicity muscles are
hindquarter.
combined into 5 to 10
Proportion of total muscle in the highmuscle groups within
priced cuts.
specified anatomical areas.
Partitioning &
distribution of
adipose tissue
(fat) throughout
the body
Partitioning of fat refers to

the way total fat is
partitioned between the
different carcass and noncarcass depots (Table
D.10).
Distribution of fat refers to
the way in which fat is
distributed within a depot
(particularly the
subcutaneous depot).
Partitioning is expressed as a depot

weight relative to total body fat, or
total carcass fat, or carcass weight.
Distribution may be expressed as the
relative depths or weights of fat at
specified sites within a depot.
Carcass shape
A measure of the
compactness, blockiness,
thickness or legginess of a
carcass. Thicker, blockier
carcasses are usually
considered to have a better
shape (other things being
equal).
Conformation = the thickness of

muscle + fat relative to a skeletal
dimension (e.g. a bone length).
Muscularity = the thickness of muscle
only relative to a skeletal dimension.
Fleshiness = the thickness of muscle
+ intermuscular (seam) fat relative to
a skeletal dimension.
16
Section D
(a)
Dressing-out Percentage(DO%): A very important characteristic for the

farmer because it relates the live weight that can be measured on the farm
to the carcass weight that is a common basis of payment (i.e. $/kg carcass
weight). Some approximate representative values for DO% and other
carcass characteristics for various classes of livestock used for meat
production in New Zealand are set out in Table D.7.
Care needs to be taken when comparing DO% values for different species,
and for different conditions for the same species, both because of variation
in gut contents in different situations (e.g. varying time off-feed, animals on
different diets, etc.), and also because of variation in what is meant by a
carcass (or the alternative spelling carcase) for different species and in
different countries. This variation in meaning is unavoidable when carcass
has to be defined in commercial terms as That part of the animal that
remains after normal commercial dressing procedures have been
completed. An example of species differences is the fact that the carcass
includes the skin, and feet for pigs and chickens, but not for sheep, cattle,
goats or deer. An example of a country difference is the fact that the kidney
plus pelvic fat remains with beef carcasses in the USA, but is removed in
New Zealand and Australia.
Within a species, factors that have been shown to be responsible for
differences in DO% include:
Level of fatness, with fatter animals generally having higher DO%.
Fat partitioning patterns, with animals laying down more fat in the noncarcass depots (see Table D.10) tending to have lower DO%.
Level of muscling or M:B, with better muscling and high M:B values
being associated with higher DO%.
Animal gender, with entire males having lower DO% values in some
cases, either due to low levels of fatness and/or to the contribution of
the testes to the weight of non-carcass components. This effect is
most apparent for ram lambs.
Higher levels of gut-fill will lead to lower DO%. This may be due a
short time off feed, to high levels of nutrition, or to feed of low
digestibility.
For females pregnancy (particularly the last ) will be associated with

lower DO%.
Heavy hide weights relative to body weight will lead to lower DO%.
For sheep a full fleece will lead to a lower DO%, other things being
equal.
Weaned lambs tend to have lower DO% than milk-fed lambs at the
same weight, probably due to a better developed rumen and possibly
lower levels of fatness.
17
Section D
Table D.7 Approximate representative values for selected carcass
characteristics of several classes of livestock
Class
Carcass
weight (kg)
Carcass
fat %
(Sub.):
C
(Inter.)
Carcass
muscle
%
Carcass
M:B
Finished steer
Finished lamb
290
A
16
52
43
21
B
23
0.6
1.1
60
57
4.3
B
4.1
Finished pig
Goat
65
A
10
73
41
22
B
8
3.0
0.4
61
65
5.2
B
3.3
Red deer
Fallow deer
53
30
57
59
10
9
71
73
5.1
5.3
Broiler chicken
Heavy turkey
1.5
16
72
79
15
12
61
58
2.5
2.0
Rabbit
Ostrich
1
54
50
54
8
9
67
63
3.8
2.4
A
B
C
Dressin
g-out %
Carcass weights will tend to be higher for later-maturing breeds and strains.
Large differences have been shown between breeds or lines within the species.
Ratio of subcutaneous fat weight to intermuscular fat weight.
With this extensive list of factors affecting DO%, it is often difficult to predict
whether one group of animals will be better or worse than another in this
respect, but it is important for a farmer to have a good understanding of the
sort of DO% values to expect because the step/stair nature of the
schedule payment systems widely used in New Zealand can mean that
small differences in DO% will lead to quite large differences in returns if it
means a move from one carcass weight range to another.
As animals grow and develop, and carcass weights get heavier, DO%
values usually increase gradually (Figure D.3), mainly because of the
combined effects of an increase in carcass fat% and an increased M:B.
(b)
Proportions of Muscle, Fat and Bone: In many respects these are the
most important composition characteristics as they determine carcass meat
yield, but unfortunately they are also some of the most difficult to measure
accurately under commercial conditions. The main standard method of
measurement is to physically dissect one or both sides of a carcass into
muscle, fat and bone using a knife or scalpel, and then to calculate the
characteristics specified in Table D.6 (muscle%, fat%, M:B) after weighing
18
Section D
each component. Muscle% is commonly referred to as the lean meat yield
(LMY%) and is a function of fat% and M:B such that:
LMY% = (100 - fat%) x (M:B / (M:B + 1)).
This equation can be used to show how LMY% changes with changes in
either fat% or M:B. An important carcass characteristic that is closely
related to LMY% is the saleable meat yield (SMY%) which differs from
LMY% in including some fat with the meat so that the comparable equation
for SMY% has excess fat% in place of fat%, and meat to bone ratio in
place of muscle to bone ratio.
An alternative standard method to physical dissection, that may be more
appropriate for some situations, is by chemical analysis of an
homogeneous sample that is obtained by thorough mincing and mixing.
The chemical analysis may be of the whole body, the carcass, a side, or any
sub-component of the body or carcass. A wide range of chemical analyses
are possible, but the most common are for water (by drying), lipid (by
solvent extraction), protein (from nitrogen content), and inorganic material or
minerals (by ashing).
It is seldom feasible to carry out a detailed dissection or full chemical
analysis of a carcass because of the time and cost involved and because it
means cutting up the carcass in a way that is likely to be commercially
unacceptable. As a result many other measurements have been used as
predictors or indicators of composition. A selection of such indirect
predictors are listed and briefly explained in Table D.8.
19
Section D
Figure D.3 Changes in composition characteristics with cattle growth
The usual commercial range of carcass weight (250 - 350kg) is shown by the box in each
graph, but by showing changes over a wider carcass weight range, patterns become
more apparent. The top three graphs show the change in weights of muscle, fat and
bone, the second row shows corresponding percentage values, and the bottom three
show changes in M:B, dressing-out % (based on an empty live weight), and gut contents
(relative to full live weight). (Based on data from Moulton, C R; Trowbridge, P F; Haigh, L D. 1922:
Studies in animal nutrition. II Changes in proportions of carcass and offal on different planes of nutrition.
Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station, Research Bulletin; 54.)
20
Section D
Table D.8 Examples of indirect predictors of carcass or whole-body
composition
Measurement or Explanation and Comments
Predictor
1. Subjective
Assessments made without the aids of instruments or measuring
assessments
equipment.
of fatness and
Provide an overall evaluation of fatness or shape rather than at
carcass shape.
specific sites.
Often suffer from imperfect repeatability between people or over
time.
Repeatability can be improved by using standard photographs or
pictures.
Applicable to several characteristics & to live animals as well as
carcasses
2. Fat depth over A useful predictor of fat% and therefore of LMY% when most of the
a muscle.
variation in LMY% is due to variation in fat% (i.e. M:B does not vary
much).
Can be measured directly at the time of quartering, on intact
carcasses by electronic probes, and on live animals by ultrasound.
Most accurate for pigs where most fat is in the subcutaneous
depot.
For beef carcasses, fat removal by hide pullers is a problem.
Ultrasonic methods enable measurement in live animals and on the
hide-on carcass, but the procedure is not yet automated.
Video-Image Analysis (VIA) can be used to assess the fat cover of
a carcass, and also the fat depth after quartering.
3. Soft tissue
Similar to 2 above, but some muscle may be included in the depth.
depth over a
Having the hard bone surface to measure to is an advantage.
bone.
Best example is GR, as used for classifying lamb, mutton, &
venison in NZ.
4. Eye-muscle
An indicator of M:B or muscling, but relationships with LMY% are
area (EMA)
poor.
(i.e. the cross It should be a better predictor of LMY% when variation in fat% is
sectional area
low.
of M
Measurable on the intact carcass or live animal using ultrasonic
longissimus
scanners.
thoracis et
More sophisticated scanning technologies involving X-rays (CT
lumborum).
scans) or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) can also be used.
When quartered, EMA may be measured by grids, by VIA, or
following tracing.
5. Carcass shape Not necessarily related to LMY%.
measured
Measurable objectively by VIA, and measures such as the
objectively.
Fleshing Index (weight per unit length).
Table D.8 Cont. over
21
Section D
Table D.8 Cont. Examples of indirect predictors of carcass or
whole-body composition
6. Weight of
kidney plus
pelvic fat.
An objective measure that is available on the slaughter floor.

Other fat removed during dressing may also be weighed.
Its relationship with fat% is known to vary between breeds.
7. Total body
electrical
conductivity
(TOBEC).
Conductivity is higher when fat % is lower.

This method has so far been applied mainly to cartons of meat.
The equipment is expensive and the item being evaluated must
pass through a tunnel surrounded by a coil.
Also based on the different electrical properties of muscle and fat.
Still experimental, but results look promising for carcasses & live
animals.
Results are not obtained until the carcass is cut. Not yet in
commercial use.
Accuracy is dependent on accurate and consistent cutting
methods.
Feasibility will be enhanced by traceability requirements.
8. Bioelectrical
impedance.
9. Yields of
selected cuts.
The pattern of change in LMY% as an animal grows and develops over the
normal range of slaughter weights is usually a decrease at an increasing rate as
the animal moves into the fattening phase of growth (Figure D.3). This is
because the clear increase in fat% with increasing weight more than cancels out
the relatively gradual increase in M:B. This is not invariably the case, however,
and slower decreases or increases in LMY% with growth will be more likely in the
following three situations:
1.
2.
3.
(c)
When the animal has a low propensity to fatten (e.g. late maturing
breeds and/or entire males).
When the animal is at a lower proportion of its mature weight.
Following treatments that decrease fat growth (e.g. high-protein diets
or certain growth promotants).
Distribution of Muscle: This characteristic is important because meat in

some cuts is worth more than that in other cuts. Unfortunately the scope for
improving muscle distribution in animals of the same species and at a
similar weight is limited because there is little variation between animals.
There is a tendency for heavily-muscled animals to have a slightly higher
proportion of total muscle in the high-value cuts, but the differences are
seldom more than 1 or 2 percentage points.
22
Section D
Changes in muscle distribution with growth are significant and are similar
across species. Results from one study with cattle are shown in Table D.9
within Q3 below.
(d)
Partitioning and Distribution of Fat: The principal fat depots of relevance

for meat production, together with an indication of their relative values, are
described in Table D.10.
Four reasons why fat partitioning and distribution are important are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
If more fat is partitioned toward the non-carcass depots, dressing-out

percent will decrease ( other things being equal).
Partitioning of fat preferentially toward the subcutaneous depot will
mean a set fat depth will be attained at a lower carcass or body fat%.
Partitioning of fat toward the intramuscular fat depot, rather than other
carcass depots, may be beneficial for certain markets where marbling
fat is favoured.
Distribution of subcutaneous fat such that more is at the classification
sites means that set depths at those sites will be reached at a lower
subcutaneous fat %.
Q3: Table D.9: Using the values given for percentage of total muscle
within 7 anatomical groups for cattle at birth, and the percentage change in
these values from birth to 4 years, calculate the percentage each of these
groups made up of total muscle at 4 years and enter these values in the
final column. Draw conclusions.
Muscle Group
% of total
muscle at birth
% change in %
contribution to
total muscle
1. Proximal muscles of hind leg

2. Distal muscles of hind leg
3. Muscles around spinal column
31.5
7.1
12.2
104
70
100
4. Muscles of abdominal wall

5. Proximal muscles of foreleg
6. Distal muscles of foreleg
7.0
12.7
4.5
135
90
60
25.0
103
7 Muscles of the neck & thorax
% of total
muscle at 4
years of age
23
Section D
Species differences in fat partitioning are illustrated by the (Sub):(Inter)
values in Table D.7. As an animal grows and develops the main changes
that take place in the partitioning of fat are that an increasing proportion of
total fat is normally found in the subcutaneous fat and in the kidney plus
pelvic fat, while a decreasing proportion is found in the intermuscular depot.
(e)
Carcass Shape: The terminology to describe carcass shape outlined in

Table D.6 is not universally accepted and articles on carcass shape can be
confusing. This is partly because a blockier shape can arise from thicker
muscles (generally desirable) or excess fat (generally undesirable). The
term muscularity was introduced to overcome this confusion by excluding
the contribution of fat to soft-tissue, or overall carcass, thickness.
As an animal grows its shape usually becomes less leggy, thicker, and
more blocky or compact.
24
Section D
Table D.10 The main carcass and non-carcass fat depots
Depot Name(s)
Anatomical Location
Relative Value
Carcass Fat Depots:
Subcutaneous (also
known as bark fat, or
selvidge)
Intermuscular (also
known as seam fat)
Intramuscular (also
known as marbling
fat)
Immediately under the skin

and over muscles (except
M. cutaneous trunci). May
be present as distinct
layers.
High, up to the level at

which trimming is
necessary, then very low
due to the cost of trimming.
In the seams between

muscles. Continuous with
subcutaneous fat.
As for subcutaneous fat,

but more difficult to trim
when in excess.
Within muscles as visible

speckles of fat when the
concentration is high
enough.
Usually of high value,

especially for some
markets (e.g. Japan).
Non-Carcass fat Depots:

Perinephric ( also
Around the kidneys and
known as perirenal or adrenal glands.
kidney fat).
In the pelvic canal.
Pelvic (also known
as channel or retroperitoneal fat).
Around the stomach, and
Omental (also known
as caul fat)
Mesenteric (also
known as intestinal
fat)
Thoracic (also known
as heart fat)
D.4
Low value as a rendered

by-product.
Low value, as for kidney
fat.
fore-stomachs of
ruminants.
Low value.
Within the mesentery that

encloses the intestines.
Low value.
In the thoracic cavity (not

restricted to that around
the heart)
Low value.
MEAT QUALITY CHARACTERISTICS
Meat quality is a difficult concept to define accurately because it has different

meanings for different consumers or groups of consumers, and even for the
same consumer at different times or in different environments. It is further
25
Section D
complicated by the fact that the term quality has more than one meaning. As
used here it is taken to mean the level of goodness or acceptability of a
product, but in other contexts it is used to indicate the fitness for purpose of a
product in terms of how well the product meets the specifications set for it. The
distinction between these meanings is important because, whereas the former is
a key determinant of price, the latter is largely affected by price.
The characteristics contributing to quality vary at different points in the chain of
meat production as shown in Figure D.4, which causes further confusion when
considering this characteristic, because with movement back along the chain
from the consumer to the producer additional components need to be added at
each step.
Figure D.4 Components of quality at different levels of the
meat marketing chain
Quality components of MEAT as it is consumed:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Appearance characteristics (e.g. colour).

Palatability characteristics(e.g. tenderness, flavour).
Nutritive value characteristics (e.g. protein% & lipid%).
Safety & wholesomeness characteristics.
Quality components of a MEAT PRODUCT at the time of purchase:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Those listed in the box above, plus

Edible meat yield.
Ease of preparation and cooking advice.
Storage requirements and other convenience aspects.
On-farm production system involved.
Quality Components for a CARCASS at the time of purchase by a processor:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
All those listed in the two boxes above, plus

Saleable meat yield (%) from the carcass.
Proportion of the saleable meat in the more valuable cuts.
The shape of the carcass, and therefore of the cuts.
Processing properties of the meat (if the meat is to be processed).
Quality components of a young MEAT ANIMAL at the time of purchase by a farmer:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
All those listed in the three boxes above, plus

The animals growth potential (growth rate and efficiency of growth)
Productivity in terms of products other than meat (wool, milk, velvet, etc.).
The dressing-out percentage when it reaches a finished weight.
Complementarity with other farm activities.
The characteristics that are listed in the lower outer-most box of Figure D.4
include some of the growth characteristics discussed in D.2, while those in the
next box up include several of the composition characteristics covered in D.3.
The items in the two inner boxes are more directly related to meat quality, with
those in the top inner-most box being intrinsic properties of the meat itself, and
26
Section D
those in the second box generally being aspects external to the meat, such as
the way it is presented and the production system involved. The edible meat
yield in that box will be a function of carcass composition, of how the product is
prepared (level of trimming and boning), and of how much weight is lost during
cooking.
The main meat quality characteristics are listed and briefly explained within five
categories in Table D.11. The two categories focussed on in this paper are the
appearance and the palatability characteristics of meat, because these are the
ones that are sometimes included in carcass classification or grading systems,
and because many of these characteristics can be influenced by the type of
animal, by the way animals are treated on the farm, and by pre-slaughter
treatments.
The nutritive value characteristics of meat are also very important, but for lean
meat they do not show very much variation, and the brief list of features of meat
as a source of nutrients for humans that is given in Table D.11, provides an
overview of the principal strengths and weaknesses of meat in this respect.
(a)
Appearance Characteristics of Meat: This group of characteristics is

particularly important at the point of sale, because at that stage it is not
possible to assess the palatability characteristics directly. Meat and fat
colour are probably the most important appearance characteristics. Meat
colour is largely determined by the concentration of myoglobin present and
by the form that the myoglobin is in. Myoglobin is a complex molecule
which is made up of a protein (with a molecular weight of about 17 kDa)
that is very similar to haemoglobin of red blood cells (except that it consists
of only one of the four sub-units of haemoglobin) plus a haem group and an
iron atom. Changes in colour may result from changes in any one of these
parts. For example, the change from the puplish-red colour of fresh-cut
meat to a bright red colour is due to the uptake of oxygen, while the
formation of a brown colour after a longer period of exposure to air is due to
the oxidation of the iron from the ferrous to the ferric form. This is different
from the formation of greyish brown pigments on cooking which is mainly
due to denaturation of the protein part of the molecule. White meats (for
example chicken and pig meat) contain less myoglobin so colour
assessment is based around normal fresh meat being a pale pink colour.
27
Section D
Yellowness of fat is mainly due to the presence of pigments such the
carotenoids which are present in particularly high concentrations in fresh
pasture compared to grain-based rations.
Colour measurements can be made subjectively or semi-subjectively by
using sets of standard colours or photographs, but can also be made
objectively by reflectance spectrophotometry or by video image analysis
(VIA).
28
Section D
Table D.11 Five categories of meat quality characteristics
Meat Quality Characteristic
Appearance Characteristics
Lean meat colour
Fat colour
Meat texture
Firmness
Composition
Palatability Characteristics
Meat tenderness
Meat flavour
Meat juiciness
General Comments/Explanations
Red/pink (depending on species) is the favoured colour,
and brown, or meat that is too dark or too pale, are the
main problems.
Yellowness is usually the main problem.

A measure of fineness/coarseness on a cut surface.
The ability to maintain shape on display.
Proportions of muscle, fat & bone on display to the
consumer.
Basically the forces needed to bite through and chew a

sample.
Includes both meat taste as well as aroma or smell or
odour.
Affected both by water content and level of salivation.
Nutritive Value Characteristics

There are too many characteristics in this category to list here, but some important features of
lean meat as a source of nutrients for humans are:
It has a high ratio of protein to energy, and is said to be nutrient dense in this respect.
The protein of meat is of high quality in terms of its amino-acid composition.
Lean meat is highly digestible.
It is a good source of iron & zinc and the iron, being mainly haem-iron, is particularly well
absorbed.
It is a good source of most B vitamins, and particularly of vitamin B12.
Lean meat usually has a low fat content (except when it is heavily marbled).
Meat contains cholesterol, but only in moderate concentrations (about 70-80mg/100g).
Meat is a poor source of calcium, vitamin C, and dietary fibre.
The lipid with meat from ruminants contains 25-40% of its fatty acids as saturated fatty
acids.
Processing Properties of
Meat
Water-holding capacity
Binding capacity
Emulsifying capacity
Safety & Wholesomeness
Characteristics
Presence of pathogens
Presence of spoilage
organisms
Presence of dangerous
residues
The ability of meat to retain water during processing.

The ability of meat pieces to bind in reformed products.
The capacity to form a stable emulsion with fat.
Micro-organisms (mainly bacteria) that cause disease.

Micro-organisms that lead to spoilage symptoms (e.g. off
odours).
Residues may be from a several sources (e.g. feed,
medications).
As an animal grows towards maturity, meat colour gradually becomes a

deeper red (e.g. the difference between veal, and beef from a mature cow
29
Section D
or bull), fat colour is more likely to be yellow, and the texture of meat tends
to become coarser. As explained in Section D.3, the ratio of fat to muscle in
a carcass usually increases as an animal increases in weight, but it is likely
that the composition of a meat product on display will be determined more
by the extent to which fat is trimmed off during preparation, than by the
fatness of the carcass it came from. Bone decreases as a percentage of
carcass weight as the animal grows (Figure D.3), but most meat products
on display in retail shops have no bone, so it makes a minimal contribution
to appearance.
(b)
Palatability Characteristics of Meat:

These characteristics, and
particularly tenderness, are commonly considered the most important
determinants of overall meat quality because numerous consumer surveys
have identified them as being the characteristics of meat that consumers
are most often dissatisfied with.
The standard method of measuring palatability of meat is by the use of
sensory panels (also known as taste panels). These are made up of
groups of people who evaluate various characteristics of the meat and rate
them on some form of scoring system. Meat tenderness can also be
measured reasonably satisfactorily by mechanical devices such as the
Warner-Bratzler shear device and the MIRINZ tenderometer, both of which
measure the force required to shear through a sample of standard size that
has been cooked under standard conditions. Such mechanical measures of
tenderness are not satisfactory on uncooked meat, however, and an
accurate and quick method of assessing meat tenderness for an intact
carcass has yet to be developed.
Some components within meat have been shown to be correlated with
certain aspects of flavour in some situations, but generally the measurement
of meat flavour is more dependent on the use of sensory panels than is the
case for tenderness.
Juiciness is usually considered the least important of the three palatability
characteristics, but it can still have a major effect on the overall acceptability
of meat, and higher juiciness scores are usually associated with higher
scores for tenderness.
30
Section D
Changes in palatability characteristics as an animal gets bigger and older
are difficult to predict accurately because many of the determinants of
palatability are changing in ways that lead to some effects cancelling out
others. Over wide age ranges, a drop in tenderness and an increase in
flavour strength can be expected, but changes over shorter intervals of age
may go in either direction.
D.5
FACTORS AFFECTING CHARACTERISTICS

IMPORTANCE TO MEAT PRODUCTION
OF
Information on factors affecting animal growth, body composition, and meat

quality is too extensive to be covered in detail here, so the approach taken has
been to select a limited range of examples that illustrate both the way the various
characteristics can be affected, and also some of the mechanisms involved
where these are known. In considering the potential ways in which the
characteristics can be affected, it is helpful to divide the factors involved into a
number of categories according to the stage in the pathway from conception (of
the meat animal) to consumption (of the meat). An example of a split into seven
stages is shown in Table D.12. Examples of influencing factors within these
categories will be considered below for growth, composition, and selected meat
quality characteristics separately.
31
Section D
Table D.12 Categories of factors that can influence animal growth,
composition and meat quality
Category or Stage
Examples of factors
Comment
1. Factors associated with

the type of animal
chosen.
Species of animal.
Breed of animal within a
species.
Genetic line within a
breed.
Gender/castration class.
All these factors involve

differences in the genetic
makeup of the animals.
Very often significant
progress can be made by
manipulating these
factors.

the choice of the age or
weight end-point.
Animal weight (either

measured live weight or
predicted carcass weight).
Animal age.
Most of the characteristics

being considered are
influenced to some extent
by animal age and/or
weight.

the on-farm
environment.
The amount of feed

offered.
The nature of the feed
being offered.
Medications.
Growth promotants.
Climate, topography, light.
A very important group of

factors which are often
the ones that the farmer
has most control over.

the pre-slaughter period
(from when the animal is
removed from feed to the
time of slaughter).
Stresses.
Water and food supplies.
Mixing of unfamiliar
animals.
Handling & transport
facilities.
The preslaughter period

includes a period on the
farm, a period of
transportation, and a
period at the meat plant.
Therefore many people
are usually involved.

Hygiene conditions.
treatments during the post Temperature.
mortem, but pre-rigor
Special treatments such
period.
as electrical stimulation.

the post rigor, but precooking period.

the cooking of the meat.
Method of cooking (e.g.

wet vs dry heat)
Final cooked temperature.
Rate of heating.
Temperature.
Oxygen availability.
Packaging
Special treatments such
as irradiation.
Only the meat quality

characteristics are
influenced by this and
subsequent categories.
This is a stage that is
particularly important for
meat tenderness.
Of importance to meat
quality characteristics
only.
A critical phase when the

quality of even the best
piece of meat can be
ruined by inappropriate
cooking.
32
Section D
(a)
Factors Affecting Growth Characteristics: Some factors that influence

the rate and efficiency of animal growth are obvious and well understood.
Thus, animals that are fed more of a better diet will grow better due to an
improved supply of required nutrients at the growing tissues, and entire
males will usually grow faster than females because of androgenic
hormones. The variation in growth between similar animals offered the
same feed, however, is often more difficult to explain, although it is possible
to identify some mechanisms that, in theory, could account for such
variation. For example, the faster growth of some such animals may be due
to one or more of the following:
They may eat more because they are more competitive or because
they have larger appetites (hence the interest in learning what controls
feed intake).
They may digest and absorb the feed they consume more effectively
(although this is not thought to be an important source of betweenanimal variation).
They may metabolise the absorbed nutrients more efficiently, thereby
losing less energy as heat.
Their protein metabolism may be such that protein turnover rates are
lower and therefore net protein gain (synthesis rate less degradation
rate) shows a greater energetic efficiency.
Their bodies may be made up of a higher proportion of the
metabolically less active tissues (adipose tissue, bone) and a lower
proportion of the metabolically more active tissues and organs (liver,
gut, brain, muscle).
They may be better able to resist the effects of disease-causing
organisms or factors in the environment.
These factors may be considered as potential bottlenecks that could be

responsible for limiting the growth capacity of one animal relative to another. It is
likely that within a population of similar animals in the same environment a range
of these and other limiting factors are responsible for the variation in growth that
is typically seen. Although much is known about the metabolic pathways and
processes occurring in animal cells, there are few examples of explicit
explanations of the actual metabolic basis of variation in growth rates between
similar animals. The somatotrophic axis (Figure D.5) is an example of an aspect
of the endocrine system that appears to be closely related to animal growth, as
GH, for example, has been shown in many species to increase growth rate and
to decrease animal fatness. IGF-1 also stimulates muscle and bone growth
under certain conditions. Information such as this has led to interest in the
possibility of using substances shown in Figure D.5 as growth promotants, or in
33
Section D
using plasma levels of these hormones as an early indictor of an animals growth
potential.
Figure D.5 The somatotrophic axis
Both GH and IGF-1 have been shown to have important effects on growth-related events.
Specific examples are given in the following reference. (Adapted from: Bass, J J, Clark, R G.
1989: The endocrine control and coordination of animal growth. Pp. 103-112. In Purchas, R W,
Butler-Hogg, B W, Davies, A.S. (Eds.) Meat Production and Processing. NZ Society of Animal
Production Occasional Publication 11, Hamilton.)
Examples of factors affecting growth rate, together with explanations of the

mechanisms involved are shown in Table D.13. Comparable examples for
growth efficiency and mature weight are not included here because these
were covered to a greater extent in Section D.2.
34
Section D
Table D.13 Examples of factors affecting animal growth rate
Numbers given following each example correspond to the numbered categories in Table D.12.
Nature of the Effect
Explanation and Mechanisms Involved
Differences between breeds and

between genetic lines within breeds in
growth rate (1).
The physiological mechanisms are poorly

understood, but much of the variation is due
to the tendency for higher mature weights to
be associated with faster growth.
Castrate males usually grow faster

than females for some species (cattle,
sheep), but often more slowly for
others (pigs)(1).
Probably due to different patterns of hormone

production, but the reasons for the species
differences are not clear. Differences in
appetite may be involved.
Followed a period of restricted

nutrition, animals often grow faster
than unrestricted control animals.
This is a form of compensatory growth
(3).
This effect is not always demonstrated, and

when it is several mechanisms appear to be
involved, including an increased appetite, and
some changes in patterns of hormone
production.
Steers grow 10-15% faster when

treated with oestrogenic growth
promotants (e.g. oestradiol 17) (3).
Oestrogens appear to influence growth of

muscle and bone directly as well as by
increasing the production of somatotrophin
in the pituitary gland.
Effects are smaller in heifers and bulls
than steers, probably due to endogenous
sex hormone production.
(b)
Factors Affecting Composition Characteristics:

All composition
characteristics of animals change appreciably as an animal grows and
develops (see Section D.3 and particularly Figure D.3), so in assessing the
influence of factors on composition it is common practice to make
comparisons at the same weight in order to eliminate differences in weight
as possible causes of differences in composition. In order to understand
how differences in composition may arise, it is helpful to know about the
processes that lead to growth within the various tissues and organs. This is
a very large subject, but two aspects that are thought to be particularly
important are:
(1) the processes involved in converting an undifferentiated stem cell
into to a cell that is committed to become part of a specific tissue
such as muscle or fat or bone, and
(2) the relative dependence of the growth of a tissue on cell division vs
cell growth in size vs the accumulation of non-cellular material.
35
Section D
The former process, which is sometimes referred to as the recruitment of
cells for a particular purpose, appears to be under the control of hormones
and growth factors and could play a major role in determining the
composition of growth. A related question concerns the changes in the
ability of a tissue to recruit new undifferentiated cells as an animal grows
and develops. In the case of muscle, for example, most of the evidence
indicates that no new muscle fibres are produced after birth, but some work
suggests that there are certain growth factors that can bring about the
formation of new fibres post-natally under some circumstances such as in
an injured muscle. IGF-1 has been implicated in this role.
Point (2) above is illustrated in Figure D.6 where it is shown
diagrammatically that the same increase in growth can be achieved in three
ways. The second two options in Figure D.6 have the advantage that they
do not require cell division or the recruitment of new cells, but there is likely
to be a limit to the size cells can grow to, and extracellular material is not
usually capable of supporting further growth alone, as, apart from water,
almost all components of new tissue have to be produced within cells and
then secreted. For most tissues, growth involves a combination of the three
processes, with a change in emphasis from growth mainly by hyperplasia at
early stages to an increasing dependence on growth by hypertrophy.
Variation in the timing and extent of these changes within the various
tissues may have a major effect on the composition of growth. Good
examples of tissues with an appreciable amount of accretionary growth are
bone and blood.
Figure D.6 Three ways of achieving the same growth in size
Growth in most tissues in all species
involves a combination of these options,
usually with the importance of growth by
hyperplasia declining as growth advances.
36
Section D
Examples of factors affecting carcass fat percentage and M:B are given in Table
D.14 together with a brief explanation of the possible mechanisms involved.
Dressing-out percent is not included in this Table because factors affecting it
were covered in Section D.3, and factors affecting the other composition
characteristics (Table D.6) are not included either. Factors affecting LMY% or
SMY% are considered indirectly rather than directly, because LMY% is a function
of fat% and M:B.
Table D.14 Examples of factors affecting carcass fat% and M:B
(Numbers following each example correspond to the categories in Table D.12)
Carcass fat% at a set weight:

Animals with a heavier mature weight
will tend to be less fat (1).
Attributable to the fact that they are at a lower

proportion of their mature weight.
The physiological reasons for such differences
are not well understood.
Clearest for breed differences with sheep and
cattle.
Entire males are normally significantly

less fat than those that are castrated
(1).
Due to the removal of the testosteroneproducing cells with castration.

Cryptorchids are usually very similar to entire
males with respect to fatness as they still
produce the male hormones.
Females are more fat than castrate males for
some species (cattle, sheep), but less fat for
others (pigs).
Animals from genetic lines where

selection has been for a decreased fat
depth will generally be less fat (1)
Due to the fact that measures of fatness are

moderately heritable.
A number of possible mechanisms may be
responsible for differences between genetic
lines.
Animals that have been grown on a

very high plane of nutrition may be
more fat than those grown on a low
plane of nutrition to the same weight
(3).
This effect, which is not always apparent, is

sometimes called an overflow effect because
it appears that the lean-tissue growth capacity
has been saturated and excess nutrients
overflow into lipid synthesis.
This effect is more likely in animals with lower
lean-tissue growth potential (e.g. females,
early-maturing animals).
More commonly reported with pigs than with
ruminants.
Table D.14 Continued over.

37
Section D
Table D.14 Cont. Examples of factors affecting carcass fat% and M:B
Animals that have received a diet with

a high protein to energy (P/E) ratio will
often be less fat (3).
This effect will arise when the protein content

of the diet is limiting, relative to the energy
content.
Most apparent in monogastric animals and in
young ruminants.
Supplying extra protein to finishing ruminants
may act as a high-plane-of-nutrition effect
leading to increased rather than decreased
carcass fatness.
Animals treated with somatotrophin

(growth hormone) will be less fat (3).
Growth hormone decreases fatness mainly by

stimulating hormone-sensitive lipase in
adipocytes.
The same treatment will stimulate muscle and
bone growth leading to an overall increase in
growth rate.
Somatotrophin is not widely used as a
commercial growth promotant for meat animals
although its use is legal in some countries.
Spring-born lambs at the end of their

first winter will tend to be less fat than
lambs of the same weight at the start of
the winter (3).
The physiological mechanisms involved in this

effect are not known.
The ability to build up energy supplies in the
form of fat before winter may have enhanced
an animals chances of survival in the wild.
Carcass M:B at a set weight:

Breeds developed for meat production
or for draught purposes often have
better M:B than breeds selected for
other purposes such as milk or wool
production (1).
The physiological basis of such breed

differences are not well understood.
Cattle homozygous for the muscular

hypertrophy (MH) or double muscling
gene will have higher M:B levels (1).
Not all muscles are significantly larger in such

animals, but those that are, have both more
muscle fibres, and also fibres that are larger.
Double-muscled animals also have very low
levels of carcass fat, but unfortunately they are
more likely to have reproductive problems.
The MH gene appears to decrease the
production of myostatin which is involved in
limiting the recruitment of cells during
embryonic muscle development.
Table D.14 Continued over.

38
Section D
Table D.14 Cont. Examples of factors affecting carcass fat% and M:B
Sheep homozygous for the callipyge

gene have higher M:B values (1).
Extra muscle growth appears to result from a

reduced turnover of muscle protein because a
specific protease is less active.
Sheep with the callipyge gene also have very
low fat levels, but unfortunately the meat of
certain cuts is significantly tougher.
Carcasses from ewe lambs have

higher M:B values than carcasses of
ram lambs.
This appears to be primarily due to a finer

bone structure rather than thicker muscles.
The physiological mechanisms involved are
not known, but are presumably associated with
hormonal differences.
Comparable male/female differences are not
apparent for cattle or pigs.
Carcasses from animals treated with

beta-adrenergic agonists (BAAs) (e.g.
clenbuterol) have higher M:B values.
These substances mimic the action of

hormones of the adrenal medulla, and have
their effect by inhibiting protein turnover in
muscle.
BAAs are not legal as growth promotants and
tend to lead to tougher meat.
(c)
Factors Affecting Meat Quality Characteristics: The only two meat

quality characteristics to be considered in this section for illustrative
purposes are meat tenderness and meat colour. In order to understand the
way in which meat tenderness in particular is affected by various factors, it
is necessary to have a reasonable knowledge of basic muscle structure, of
how muscle functions in the living animal and of the changes that take place
in meat following slaughter.
Muscle structure is similar for all species of animal. A skeletal muscle (as
distinct from cardiac and smooth muscle) is made up mainly of muscle
fibres (usually >96%), but these fibres are set within a connective tissue
framework made up largely of the protein collagen (from 0.5% to 3% of
muscle weight), and some adipocytes are also present between the muscle
fibres (the marbling fat; usually < 3%, but in some cases >20%). The
connective tissue is referred to as endomysium when it surrounds
individual muscle fibres, perimysium when it surrounds bundles of fibres,
and epimysium when it surrounds the whole muscle. The epimysium is
continuous with tendons which attach the muscle to bones.
39
Section D
A muscle fibre is equivalent to a cell in other tissues with an outer

membrane (the sarcolemma) and similar internal structures to most other
cells despite the fact that they often have special names (e.g. sarcoplasm
rather the cytoplasm, sarcoplasmic reticulum rather than endoplasmic
reticulum). The main differences between skeletal muscle fibres and most
other cells are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
A skeletal muscle fibre is a multinuclear syncitium which permits its

very long thin shape.
The nuclei cannot divide (a common characteristic of specialised
cells).
Muscle fibres contain varying amounts of the oxygen-carrying
molecule myoglobin.
They have a very well developed contractile system enabling them to
carry out their primary function of bringing about movement by
contraction.
The contractile apparatus is highly organised, with each fibre containing

several thousand myfibrils arranged in parallel along the fibre, each of
which is surrounded by envelopes of sarcoplasmic reticulum. Each myofibril
in turn contains hundreds of thick and thin filaments running along the
length of the fibril and arranged precisely into repeating sarcomeres as
illustrated in Figure D.7. One sarcomere is the distance between adjacent Z
discs, and contraction within the sarcomere is achieved when the thick
myosin filaments slide relative to the thin actin filaments in what is referred
to as the sliding filament mode of contraction. It can be seen from Figure
D.7 that contraction (the Z discs move closer together) is achieved without
any change in the length of individual filaments. In order for contraction to
take place there must be a supply of energy in the form of ATP, and a nerve
impulse is required to bring about the release of calcium ions from within the
sarcoplasmic reticulum.
Muscle structure is similar for all animal species but species may differ in
the proportion of intramuscular fat and collagen associated with the muscle.
Further details on muscle structure and function are provided in the
reference with Figure D.7 and in almost any basic biology or physiology text.
40
Section D
Figure D.7 The arrangement of filaments within a sarcomere
A single sarcomere is shown at three levels of contraction. (From: Davies, A S 1989: The
structure and function of carcass tissues in relation to meat production. Pp. 43-59. In: Purchas, R
W, Butler-Hogg, B W, Davies, A.S. (Eds.) Meat Production and Processing. NZ Society of Animal
Production Occasional Publication 11, Hamilton.)
Changes that take place in muscle following slaughter are very important
because of the implications for several meat quality characteristics. The
sequence of some key post mortem changes that are of direct or indirect
importance to meat quality follows:
With exsanguination (bleeding) the muscle loses both its oxygen

supply as well as any external supply of nutrients.
The loss of oxygen (apart from a small amount associated with the
myoglobin) causes a switch to anaerobic (glycolytic) metabolism with
the end product of glucose catabolism being lactic acid, rather than the
CO2 and water as in aerobic metabolism. The accumulation of lactic
acid results in a drop in pH (Figure D.8).
In addition to leading to a different end product, anaerobic metabolism
is also much less efficient as a means of producing ATP (by a factor of
about 15 times), so ATP concentrations drop after an initial delay
phase. During the delay phase ATP levels are maintained by the
release of phosphate from creatine phosphate.
Apart from its role as an energy supply, ATP is also responsible for
maintaining the plasticity or extensibility of muscle, and a drop in ATP
concentration eventually leads to a loss in extensibility as the myosin
and actin filaments lock together to form actomyosin (Figure D.8;
lower graph). This loss of extensibility at the filament level causes the
whole muscle to become stiff and is referred to as the onset of rigor
mortis.
Muscle pH will decrease as long as glycolysis and the accumulation of
lactic acid continues. This will cease either because glycogen supplies
are depleted or are inaccessible in some way, or because the acid
conditions prevent glycolysis (at a pH of about 5.5).
The final pH reached is referred to as the ultimate pH. Normal
ultimate pH values are in the region of 5.4 to 5.6, and elevated levels
41
Section D
will arise primarily when muscle glycogen levels are low at the time of
slaughter. Depleted levels of muscle glycogen (< ca 1% of muscle
weight) can arise from pre-slaughter stresses (due the action of
adrenaline on glycogen breakdown), from excessive muscle activity
(e.g. due to the riding activity of bulls), or from very poor nutrition.
Figure D.8 Changes in muscle pH and extensibility post mortem
Changes are shown for a typical longissimus

lumborum (loin) muscle in a lamb carcass,
with and without electrical stimulation. The
rate of pH drop will be somewhat slower for
beef muscle, and considerably faster for
pork or chicken muscle. The time to reach a
pH of 6.0 is shown because the muscle
o
should not be chilled to less than 10 C when
the pH is above 6, if cold-shortening and
toughening is to be minimised. (For details
on typical ES specifications and effects on
meat tenderness, see: Chrystall, B B et al.
1989: Trends and developments in meat
processing. Pp. 185-208. In Purchas, R W,
Butler-Hogg, B W, Davies, A.S. (Eds.) Meat
Production and Processing. NZ Society of
Animal Production Occasional Publication
11, Hamilton.)
Selected examples of factors affecting meat tenderness and meat colour

(including fat colour), along with brief explanations of the mechanisms involved,
are given in Table D.15. This is only a small sample of the many effects that
have been reported. They have been included here to illustrate the fact that meat
quality can be influenced at many different points in the overall meat-production
process, but it is important to remember that only two of a large number of meat
quality characteristics are considered here.
42
Section D
Table D.15 Examples of factors affecting meat tenderness and meat and fat
colour
Meat Tenderness:
Cattle of the Bos indicus breeds
(zebu type) produce meat that is
more likely to be tough than beef
from Bos taurus breeds (1).
The reason for this difference is not totally clear

Concentrations of calpastatin have been shown to be
higher in Bos indicus beef (calpastatin inhibits the calpain
proteolytic enzymes which are responsible for some of
the tenderness improvement with ageing.)
Meat from some cuts of lambs with

the callipyge gene is more likely to
be tough (1).
This effect is more clearly related to elevated levels of

calpastatin in the muscle.
In some comparisons beef from

bulls has been tougher than that
from steers (1).
Many studies have shown no differences between bull

and steer beef, particularly when the animals are young.
Differences in fatness (both subcutaneous fat as well as
marbling) could lead to more cold-shortening for bull
beef.
Elevated ultimate pH values are more likely with bull
beef. This may lead to increased toughness if
intermediate pH values are common.
Meat from old animals is more

likely to be tough (2).
Usually reasonably wide age ranges are needed to

demonstrate this effect.
The decreased tenderness is due mainly to collagen that
is less soluble because there are more crosslinks
between the individual collage molecules in older
animals.
Animals on very low levels of

nutrition are more likely to produce
tough meat (3).
Probably an indirect effect, as the animals will be older

when they reach a target weight.
Alternatively, if they are slaughtered at the same age, the
carcasses will be smaller and more susceptible to cold
shortening.
Pre-slaughter stresses may lead to

changes in tenderness through an
effect on ultimate pH (4).
The effect of ultimate pH on tenderness is curvilinear so

that meat is most likely to be tough at intermediate pH
values of about 6. Meat with Normal values (ca. 5.5)
and very high values between 6.5 and 7.0 is more likely
to be tender.
Rapid cooling of meat is likely to

lead to cold-shortening and
toughening (5).
Low temperatures close to freezing cause muscle to

contract, apparently through the leakage of calcium
from the sarcoplasmic reticulum.
This effect is avoided if the muscle is unable to shorten
due to skeletal attachments. Various modified carcass
hanging methods have been developed to increase the
number of muscles that can not shorten (e.g. hiphanging).
Cold-shortening can be minimised by ES because low
pH values are achieved sooner (Figure D.8).
Table D.15 continued over..
43
Section D
Table D.15 Cont. Examples of factors affecting meat tenderness and meat
and fat colour
Ageing meat at temperatures

above freezing (-1.5oC or above)
will improve its tenderness (6).
The decreased toughness is due to the action of a number

of proteolytic enzymes on the myofibrillar proteins.
Important enzymes involved include the calpains and the
cathepsins.
Connective tissue proteins such as collagen show little
change with ageing relative to the myofibrillar proteins.
Tenderness changes significantly

with increasing cooking
temperature, but it is not possible
to generalise about the direction
and size of these changes (7).
With heating the myofibrillar proteins denature and lose

their ability to bind water, thereby increasing the likelihood
of tough meat.
With heating collagen shrinks and is eventually converted
to soluble gelatin thereby increasing tenderness.
Solubilisation requires more heating when more crosslinks
are present.
Therefore optimum cooking conditions will vary depending
on animal age and the collagen content of the meat.
Meat and Fat Colour:

Meat with high levels of
intramuscular fat or connective
tissue will appear paler.
These components dilute out the muscle fibres, and it is

only within the fibres that myoglobin is found.
Fat on carcasses and meat of

Jersey cattle is more likely to be
yellow (1).
Yellow carotenoid pigments in the diet are converted to

colourless pigments by enzymes in the gut wall for most
breeds of cattle, but the activity of these enzymes is much
lower for Jersey cattle.
High-pH meat due to pre-slaughter

stress or excess activity is typically
darker (often termed dark, firm
and dry DFD meat, or darkcutting meat) (4).
The darkness is partly due to the dry surface of the meat

which reflects less light, and partly because less
oxymyoglobin is formed.
High-pH meat also has a high water-holding capacity
(hence the dry appearance), and a poor keeping quality.
Its flavour is usually less acceptable.
Very high rates of pH drop will lead

to pale, soft and exudative (PSE)
meat.
A rapid pH drop leads to a combination of low pH while

muscle temperature is still quite high, and this leads to
some protein denaturation which is responsible for the
pale colour (denaturation of myoglobin), and low water
holding capacity (hence the exudation).
Mainly a problem with pork where a pH of < 6.0 at 45 min
post mortem indicates that the chances of PSE pork are
high.
Packaging meat in an oxygen-rich

atmosphere (e.g. >70% oxygen)
leads to a bright red colour.
The high oxygen concentration leads to a high proportion

of the myoglobin in the form of oxymyoglobin.
The concentration and form of

myoglobin
The structure of myoglobin and ways in which changes in

structure can affect its colour were outlined in Section
D.4(a).
44
Section D
D.6
CARCASS CLASSIFICATION
A short section on carcass classification systems in New Zealand is included

here because such systems provide a good illustration of ways in which
information on composition and meat quality characteristics is passed from the
processor to the producer. The systems also provide a widely-used framework
for differential pricing so that price signals are received by producers along with
information describing the carcasses and meat from their animals.
A summary of some important features of carcass classification systems used in
New Zealand is provided below, but it is important to appreciate that many more
details than are given here are needed to fully specify a particular system.
Beef Carcasses (Administered and overseen by the NZ Meat Classification

Authority.):
Separate classes exist for bobby calves (under 2 weeks old), bull, cow, and
steer and heifer.
A cow carcass is one from a bovine female with more than 6 permanent
incisor teeth (as an index of age), but there are no age classes for bull or
steer except in the case of young-lean beef (see below).
All classes are divided into carcass weight ranges with the price per
kilogram usually increasing at higher weights. Steer carcass weight ranges,
for example, (in kg) are: 145-160, 160-195, 195-220, 220-245, 245-270,
270-295, 295-320, 320-345, and >345.
Fatness is assessed by fat depth over the rib-eye muscle (Figure D.9). The
fat depth ranges and corresponding letter designations (referred to as
ciphers) for steer and heifer carcasses are: A: devoid of fat; L: under 3mm;
P: 3-10mm; T: 11-16mm; F: 17mm and over.
There are 3 muscling classes for most categories, with 1 being the most
convex leg profile, and 3 having poor muscling with a concave profile.
erupted.Select Young Beef (SYB) carcasses must be from cattle finished
on grass, that have not received hormonal growth promotants, and that
have no more than 4 permanent incisor teeth, and the carcass must be
between 245 and 360 kg.
Meat quality is taken into account only by penalising a carcass if it has
excessively yellow fat, and indirectly by the limited sorting of carcasses by
animal age.
45
Section D
Lamb and Mutton Carcasses (Administered and overseen by the NZ Meat
Classification Authority.):
A lamb is an animal with not more than 2 permanent incisors in wear, and
a hogget has not more than 4 permanent incisors in wear. Carcasses
from all other sheep are mutton.
A distinction between carcasses from ewes and rams is made for mutton,
but not for lamb or hogget.
Carcass weight ranges (hot weight) for lamb carcasses with their
corresponding letters are: A: < 9.1kg; L: 9.1-13.25kg; M: 13.3-17.05; X:
17.1-21.25; H: 21.3 and over.
Fatness is assessed on the basis of soft-tissue depth GR (Figure D.9). The

GR ranges for lamb carcasses and the corresponding letters are: A: almost
devoid of fat; Y: up to 6, 7, and 9mm, for L, M, and X weight ranges,
respectively; P: 6-12, 7-12, and 9-12mm for L, M, and X/H weight ranges,
respectively; T: over 12 and up to 15mm; F: over 15mm.
Muscling is taken into account only to the extent that there is classan E
class for lamb only representing superior muscling characteristics. This can
be applied only to carcasses within the M, X, and H weight ranges and
within the Y or P fatness classes.
Pigmeat Carcasses (Overseen by the Pork Industry Board):
Age and sex/castration status is taken into account by making no distinction

between gilts (young females), barrows (castrate males) and entires (males
with no mature boar characteristics and with carcasses of less than 75kg),
but having separate classes for sows and mature boars.
The design for carcasses of gilts/barrows/entires is basically a 2-way grid of

carcass weight vs fat depth, with carcass weight divided into 5kg jumps
starting at 30kg.
Fat depth is measured 65mm off the midline (Figure D.9, but at the last rib
which will be rib 14 or 15 for pigs), usually with an electronic probe that
detects colour changes, or with an intrascope. Fat depth ranges are from 610mm, and then in 3mm jumps up to 25mm.
No account is currently taken of muscularity in pig carcass classification.
Venison Carcasses (Red Deer) (Overseen by Deer Industry New Zealand):
Systems for classifying venison carcasses differ somewhat between

companies and will only be described in general terms here. Systems will
be different for Fallow deer carcasses.
There are commonly three fatness ranges based on a measure of softtissue depth GR over the 12th rib (Figure D.9). Actual GR cut-offs between
classes increase with increasing carcass weight, but for the carcass weight
46
Section D
range from 55 to 75kg the three fatness classes are usually: P (prime): up to
12mm; T (trimmer): 12-16mm; and F (overfat): over 16mm.
Carcass weight ranges are commonly at 5kg intervals over the main weight
range, but at larger intervals at the extremes. No account is taken of
muscling or carcass shape.
Figure D.9 Fat-depth and soft-tissue-depth measurement sites for carcass

classification purposes
Further details on carcass classification are given in the article that was the source of this figure. (From:
Kirton, A H 1989: Principles of classification and grading. Pp. 143-157. In: Purchas, R W, Butler-Hogg, B W,
Davies, A.S. (Eds.) Meat Production and Processing. NZ Society of Animal Production Occasional
Publication 11, Hamilton.)
47
Section D
D.7
CONCLUDING COMMENTS FOR SECTION D

This section on animal growth and meat production has been built around a
series of characteristics that are of commercial importance, either for the
growth of farm animals, and/or for the production of meat from those
animals.
The characteristics considered are categorised as either growth
characteristics, composition characteristics, or meat quality characteristics,
but it should be noted that some of them (e.g. fatness) can fit within more
than one category.
While some mention has been made of how the various characteristics are
commonly measured and expressed, greater emphasis has been placed on
describing how they typically change as an animal grows and develops, and
why these changes take place.
Of particular importance to farm-animal growth and meat production are the
interrelationships between the various key characteristics, and the extent to
which they are influenced by the type of animal chosen and the treatments
imposed. These aspects have been illustrated by selected examples.
The final part of this section provides an introduction to carcass
classification systems operated in New Zealand, and illustrates how farmers
can be rewarded for producing animals that best suit market requirements
for certain characteristics. This is currently more feasible for composition
characteristics than for meat quality characteristics.
48
Section D
D.8
REVIEW ITEMS AND QUESTIONS
(The first 3 questions in this series are within the text for Section D)
4.
Why are the patterns of change with animal growth and development of
importance for growth and composition characteristics? Summarise the
nature of these changes for each characteristic with a single sentence and a
graph.
5.
Explain why it is important to make a clear distinction between the two main
ways of expressing the efficiency of animal growth.
6.
Describe what is meant by the inflexion point of a typical growth curve, and
explain why it may be difficult to pinpoint for grazing animals.
7.
Explain how the efficiency of growth is influenced by the composition of

growth.
8.
List situations where animals with larger mature weights may be more or
less desirable than those with lower mature weights. Explain why in each
case.
9.
Explain why dressing-out percent values vary widely between species (give
examples), and also sometimes between countries for the same species.
10. How are the different electrical properties of the carcass tissues sometimes
used to help determine carcass composition? Explain.
11. What is the distinction between fat partitioning and fat distribution? How are
these composition characteristics of commercial importance?
12. Discuss the problems associated with satisfactorily explaining the term
meat quality.
13. List and explain the 7 stages of meat production within which there are
opportunities to influence aspects of meat quality.
49
Section D
14. What is the somatotrophic axis, and why is it thought to be of importance to
animal growth?
15. What does the term recruitment mean when it is applied to undifferentiated
cells?
16. Describe the three main ways in which tissue growth can occur, and discuss
the limitations of each.
17. Explain the overflow effect as it relates to the effect of plane of nutrition on
animal fatness at a set weight. Why is it important to specify a set weight
in this context?
18. Are there differences in the extent of growth by hypertrophy or hyperplasia
in muscles of double-muscled cattle, relative to cattle without the MH
gene?
19. What is the role of Ca++ ions in muscle contraction? How is this of
importance in explaining the way post mortem temperatures influence meat
tenderness?
20. Explain the structural relationship between endomysium, a muscle fibre, a
myofibril, and myosin and actin filaments.
21. Why should certain modified carcass hanging methods lead to more tender
meat?
22. Compare the site of measurement and the values involved for measures of
fatness used in carcass classification schemes for different livestock
species.
For each of the following items, indicate whether it is true or false and write a onesentence explanation (the explanation will often need to include exceptions to the
generalisation):
23. Lower protein turnover rates could lead to lower growth rates, other things
being equal.
24. Adipose tissue is metabolically more active than gut tissue.
50
Section D
25. IGF-1 production in the liver is increased by GH.
26. Castrate male pigs (barrows) grow faster than gilts (females).
27. Compensatory growth is the faster growth shown by animals following a
period of nutritional restriction.
28. Increased somatotrophin production would be expected to lead to fatter
animals.
29. Growth by hypertrophy leads to more cells.
30. Diets with a higher P/E ratio lead to fatter animals.
31. Cold-shortening commonly leads to tougher meat.
32. Elevated calpastatin levels in muscle will increase the likelihood that meat
will be tender.
33. Myoglobin is a simple protein molecule that is largely responsible for fat
colour.
34. Carcass shape is taken into account to a greater extent in the classification
of beef carcasses than pig meat carcasses in NZ.
51

SECTION D Growth and Meat (For 2013)

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SECTION D Growth and Meat (For 2013)

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Section D

SECTION D: ANIMAL GROWTH AND MEAT PRODUCTION

GROWTH CHARACTERISTICS ............................................................... 6

BODY AND CARCASS COMPOSITION CHARACTERISTICS................ 14

MEAT QUALITY CHARACTERISTICS .................................................. 24

FACTORS AFFECTING CHARACTERISTICS OF IMPORTANCE

CARCASS CLASSIFICATION ............................................................... 44

CONCLUDING COMMENTS FOR SECTION D ...................................... 47

REVIEW ITEMS AND QUESTIONS ....................................................... 48

At the population level the important characteristics from the meat

A particularly important question at the population level concerns the

Figure D.1 A flow-diagram depicting a generalised meat-production

The individual-animal-level section within Figure D.1 covers the period

The carcass-level section in Figure D.1 is concerned with the yield of

1. How is the characteristic

A clear definition of each characteristic is essential before

2. Why is the characteristic of

The importance needs to be explained in commercial as

3. How can the characteristic be

A characteristic must be measurable to permit an

4. How are the measurements

Here again many alternative approaches are often

5. What patterns of change are

A knowledge of these patterns is very important because of

6. Are there important

Some such relationships will be positive (desirable) while

7. What factors are responsible

This is a large question with clear commercial implications.

8. What is the physiological

Another big question that overlaps with the previous one.

The three growth characteristics to be considered are described in Table D.2,

This is the growth characteristic that is most widely

General Definition and Description

The change in size per unit time.

1. Average daily gain (ADG) =

The gain in weight relative to the

1. Efficiency of feed utilisation =

The weight of an adult (mature)

1. Live weight at maturity after

(Final weight - Initial weight)

adjusting for excess fat and time

Unfortunately there are several different ways in which growth rate

Birth weight (kg)

230-day weight (kg)

390-day weight (kg)

ADG from birth to 230d (kg/d)

ADG from birth to 390d (kg/d)

ADG from 230d to 390d (kg/d)

Relative growth rate at 390 days (%/d)

Weight/day of age at 230d (kg/d)

Weight/day of age at 390d

Figure D.2 An idealised growth curve for a cattle-beast

The aim in most meat-production systems is to have the animals growing as

If expensive feed supplements have to be used in order to achieve the

If fast growth rates require the use of later-maturing breeding stock

Growth Efficiency: The efficiency of growth (as defined in Table D.2) is

Mature Weight or the Extent of Growth: This is an important growth

Heavier breeding animals will generally be worth more when sold at

Table D.4 Factors affecting the efficiency of growth

Faster growing animals will achieve a set weight

Because 1kg of adipose tissue contains 5 to 6

This is because more feed used for MR will

Explanation of the Effect