INDEX

CONTENTS
1. Abstract
2. Introduction
3. Components
4. Schematic Description
5. Hardware Components
Power Supply
DTMF
RELAY
LOAD
6. Circuit Description
7. Software components
8. Future Enhancement

09.Conclusion
10.Bibliography

ABSTRACT:
Nowadays, many electrical appliances are equipped with controllers that
allow the user to turn them on or off from a remote place. The objective of this
project is to enable users to remotely control their appliances and systems using a
small electronic circuit. The control unit would relay the commands to a Relay
wirelessly which is placed at a remote place, and then the Relay placed at remote
place would perform the required function/action.

In this Project, it will be shown, how to use the mobile to design an electrical
appliance radio remote controller. In the designed circuit, the role of the mobile is to
select a desired appliance and turn it on or off. In addition to the mobile, the main
components of the designed circuit also include the DTMF modules, relay driver
loads. The decoder is used to make the data communication secure.

The objective of this project is to develop a system that allows the user to
remotely control multiple home appliances using a small circuit. This system will be
a powerful and flexible tool that will offer its service at any time and from anywhere
with the constraints of the technologies being applied. Possible target appliances
include (but are not limited to) climate control systems, security systems, appliance
and etc; anything with an electrical interface. The proposed approach for designing
this system is to design a mobile -based secured control module by which all the
electrical appliances can be controlled from a remote place .With the Help of this
system the energy consumption can be reduced by 20-30% of the total. And in this
way we can save lots of electrical energy.

INTRODUCTION:
INTRODUCTION TO EMBEDDED SYSTEMS
What is embedded system?
An Embedded System is a combination of computer hardware and software, and perhaps
additional mechanical or other parts, designed to perform a specific function. An embedded
system is a microcontroller-based, software driven, reliable, real-time control system,
autonomous, or human or network interactive, operating on diverse physical variables and in
diverse environments and sold into a competitive and cost conscious market.
An embedded system is not a computer system that is used primarily for processing, not a
software system on PC or UNIX, not a traditional business or scientific application. High-end
embedded & lower end embedded systems. High-end embedded system - Generally 32, 64 Bit
Controllers used with OS. Examples Personal Digital Assistant and Mobile phones etc .Lower
end embedded systems - Generally 8,16 Bit Controllers used with an minimal operating systems
and hardware layout designed for the specific purpose.
SYSTEM DESIGN CALLS:

Figure 3(a): Embedded system design calls

EMBEDDED SYSTEM DESIGN CYCLE

Figure 3(b):V Diagram

Characteristics of Embedded System

An embedded system is any computer system hidden inside a product other than a
computer.

They will encounter a number of difficulties when writing embedded system software in
addition to those we encounter when we write applications.

Throughput Our system may need to handle a lot of data in a short period of
time.

ResponseOur system may need to react to events quickly.

TestabilitySetting up equipment to test embedded software can be difficult.

DebugabilityWithout a screen or a keyboard, finding out what the software is

doing wrong (other than not working) is a troublesome problem.

Reliability embedded systems must be able to handle any situation without

human intervention.

Memory space Memory is limited on embedded systems, and you must make
the software and the data fit into whatever memory exists.

Program installation you will need special tools to get your software into
embedded systems.

Power consumption Portable systems must run on battery power, and the
software in these systems must conserve power.

Processor hogs computing that requires large amounts of CPU time can
complicate the response problem.

Cost Reducing the cost of the hardware is a concern in many embedded system
projects; software often operates on hardware that is barely adequate for the job.

Embedded systems have a microprocessor/ microcontroller and a memory. Some have a

serial port or a network connection. They usually do not have keyboards, screens or disk
drives.

APPLICATION
5

1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)

Military and aerospace embedded software applications

C ommu n i ca t io n App li ca t io ns
I nd us t ri al au to ma t io n a nd p ro ce s s c on tr ol s o ft w a re
Mastering the complexity of applications.
Reduction of product design time.
Real time processing of ever increasing amounts of data.
Intelligent, autonomous sensors.

CLASSIFICATION

Real Time Systems.

RTS is one which has to respond to events within a specified deadline.

A right answer after the dead line is a wrong answer.

RTS CLASSIFICATION

Hard Real Time Systems

Soft Real Time System

HARD REAL TIME SYSTEM

"Hard" real-time systems have very narrow response time.

Example: Nuclear power system, Cardiac pacemaker.

SOFT REAL TIME SYSTEM

"Soft" real-time systems have reduced constrains on "lateness" but still must operate very
quickly and repeatable.

Example: Railway reservation system takes a few extra seconds the data remains valid.

COMPONENTS:
RESISTOR

Fig 2.2.1
A resistor is a two-terminal electronic component that produces a voltage across its terminals
that is proportional to the electric current through it in accordance with Ohm's law:
V = IR
Resistors are elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous in most
electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various compounds and films, as well as
resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as nickel/chrome).
The primary characteristics of a resistor are the resistance, the tolerance, maximum working
voltage and the power rating. Other characteristics include temperature coefficient, noise, and
inductance. Less well-known is critical resistance, the value below which power dissipation
limits the maximum permitted current flow, and above which the limit is applied voltage. Critical
resistance depends upon the materials constituting the resistor as well as its physical dimensions;
it's determined by design.

Units:
The ohm (symbol: ) is a SI-driven unit of electrical resistance, named after Georg Simon Ohm.
Commonly used multiples and submultiples in electrical and electronic usage are the milliohm
(1x103), kilo ohm (1x103), and mega ohm (1x106).

Theory of operation:
Ohm's law:
The behavior of an ideal resistor is dictated by the relationship specified in Ohm's law:
V = IR
Ohm's law states that the voltage (V) across a resistor is proportional to the current (I) through it
where the constant of proportionality is the resistance (R).
7

Construction:

A single in line (SIL) resistor package with 8 individual, 47 ohm resistors. One end of each
resistor is connected to a separate pin and the other ends are all connected together to the
remaining (common) pin - pin 1, at the end identified by the white dot.

A. Carbon composition:
Carbon composition resistors consist of a solid cylindrical resistive element with embedded wire
leads or metal end caps to which the lead wires are attached. The body of the resistor is protected
with paint or plastic. Early 20th-century carbon composition resistors had uninsulated bodies; the
lead wires were wrapped around the ends of the resistance element rod and soldered. The
completed resistor was painted for color coding of its value.
The resistive element is made from a mixture of finely ground (powdered) carbon and an
insulating material (usually ceramic). A resin holds the mixture together. The resistance is
determined by the ratio of the fill material (the powdered ceramic) to the carbon. Higher
concentrations of carbon, a weak conductor, result in lower resistance. Carbon composition
resistors were commonly used in the 1960s and earlier, but are not so popular for general use
now as other types have better specifications, such as tolerance, voltage dependence, and stress
(carbon composition resistors will change value when stressed with over-voltages). Moreover, if
internal moisture content (from exposure for some length of time to a humid environment) is
significant, soldering heat will create a non-reversible change in resistance value. These resistors,
however, if never subjected to overvoltage nor overheating were remarkably reliable.
They are still available, but comparatively quite costly. Values ranged from fractions of an ohm
to 22 mega ohms.

B. Carbon film:
A carbon film is deposited on an insulating substrate, and a helix cut in it to create a long, narrow
resistive path. Varying shapes, coupled with the resistivity of carbon, (ranging from 90 to
400 nm) can provide a variety of resistances.[1] Carbon film resistors feature a power rating
8

range of 0.125 W to 5 W at 70 C. Resistances available range from 1 ohm to 10 mega ohm. The
carbon film resistor can operate between temperatures of -55 C to 155 C. It has 200 to 600
volts maximum working voltage range.[2]

C. Metal film:
A common type of axial resistor today is referred to as a metal-film resistor. Metal electrode
leadless face (MELF) resistors often use the same technology, but are a cylindrically shaped
resistor designed for surface mounting. Note that other types of resistors (e.g., carbon
composition) are also available in MELF packages.
Metal film resistors are usually coated with nickel chromium (NiCr), but might be coated with
any of the cermets materials listed above for thin film resistors. Unlike thin film resistors, the
material may be applied using different techniques than sputtering (though that is one such
technique). Also, unlike thin-film resistors, the resistance value

is determined by cutting a helix through the coating rather than by etching. (This is similar to the
way carbon resistors are made.) The result is a reasonable tolerance (0.5, 1, or 2%) and a
temperature coefficient of (usually) 25 or 50 ppm/K.

D. Wire wound:
Wire wound resistors are commonly made by winding a metal wire, usually nichrome, around a
ceramic, plastic, or fiberglass core. The ends of the wire are soldered or welded to two caps or
rings, attached to the ends of the core. The assembly is protected with a layer of paint, molded
plastic, or an enamel coating baked at high temperature. Wire leads in low power wire wound
resistors are usually between 0.6 and 0.8 mm in diameter and tinned for ease of soldering. For
higher power wire wound resistors, either a ceramic outer case or an aluminum outer case on top
of an insulating layer is used. The aluminum-cased types are designed to be attached to a heat
sink to dissipate the heat; the rated power is dependent on being used with a suitable heat sink,
e.g., a 50 W power rated resistor will overheat at a fraction of the power dissipation if not used
with a heat sink. Large wire wound resistors may be rated for 1,000 watts or more.
Because wire wound resistors are coils they have more undesirable inductance than other types
of resistor, although winding the wire in sections with alternately reversed direction can
minimize inductance.

E. Foil resistor:
The primary resistance element of a foil resistor is a special alloy foil several micrometers thick.
Since their introduction in the 1960s, foil resistors have had the best precision and stability of
9

any resistor available. One of the important parameters influencing stability is the temperature
coefficient of resistance (TCR). The TCR of foil resistors is extremely low, and has been further
improved over the years. One range of ultra-precision foil resistors offers a TCR of 0.14 ppm/C,
tolerance 0.005%, long-term stability (1 year) 25 ppm, (3 year) 50 ppm (further improved 5fold by hermetic sealing), stability under load (2000 hours) 0.03%, thermal EMF 0.1 V/C,
noise -42 dB, voltage coefficient 0.1 ppm/V, inductance 0.08 H, capacitance 0.5 pF.[3]

Resistor marking:
Most axial resistors use a pattern of colored stripes to indicate resistance. Surface-mount resistors
are marked numerically, if they are big enough to permit marking; more-recent small sizes are
impractical to mark. Cases are usually tan, brown, blue, or green, though other colors are
occasionally found such as dark red or dark gray.
Early 20th century resistors, essentially uninsulated, were dipped in paint to cover their entire
body for color coding. A second color of paint was applied to one end of the element, and a color
dot (or band) in the middle provided the third digit. The rule was "body, tip, dot", providing two
significant digits for value and the decimal multiplier, in that sequence. Default tolerance was
20%. Closer-tolerance resistors had silver (10%) or gold-colored (5%) paint on the other end.

Four-band resistors:
Four-band identification is the most commonly used color-coding scheme on resistors. It consists
of four colored bands that are painted around the body of the resistor. The first two bands encode
the first two significant digits of

the resistance value, the third is a power-of-ten multiplier or number-of-zeroes, and the fourth is
the tolerance accuracy, or acceptable error, of the value. The first three bands are equally spaced
along the resistor; the spacing to the fourth band is wider. Sometimes a fifth band identifies the
thermal coefficient, but this must be distinguished from the true 5-color system, with 3
significant digits.
For example, green-blue-yellow-red is 56104 = 560 k 2%. An easier description can be as
followed: the first band, green, has a value of 5 and the second band, blue, has a value of 6, and
is counted as 56. The third band, yellow, has a value of 10 4, which adds four 0's to the end,
creating 560,000 at 2% tolerance accuracy. 560,000 changes to 560 k 2% (as a kilo- is
103).

Each color corresponds to a certain digit, progressing from darker to lighter colors, as shown in
the chart below.
Color

1st band 2nd band 3rd

band 4th

band Temp. Coefficient

10

Black
Brown
Red
Orange
Yellow
White
Gold
Silver
None

0
11
2
3
4
9

0
1
2
3
4
9

(multiplier)
100
101
102
103
104
109
101
102

(tolerance)
1% (F)
2% (G)

100 ppm
50 ppm
15 ppm
25 ppm

5% (J)
10% (K)
20% (M)

Table No. 2.1

The operational temperature range distinguishes commercial grade, industrial grade and military
grade components.

Commercial grade: 0 C to 70 C
Industrial grade: 40 C to 85 C (sometimes 25 C to 85 C)

Military grade: 55 C to 125 C (sometimes -65 C to 275 C)

Standard Grade -5 C to 60 C

POTENTIOMETERS
.

11

Fig 2.3.1 A typical single-turn potentiometer

Type: passive
Electronic symbol
(Europe)
(US)
A potentiometer (colloquially known as a "pot") is a three-terminal resistor with a sliding
contact that forms an adjustable voltage divider.[1] If only two terminals are used (one side and
the wiper), it acts as a variable resistor or rheostat. Potentiometers are commonly used to control
electrical devices such as volume controls on audio equipment. Potentiometers operated by a
mechanism can be used as position transducers, for example, in a joystick.
Potentiometers are rarely used to directly control significant power (more than a watt). Instead
they are used to adjust the level of analog signals (e.g. volume controls on audio equipment), and
as control inputs for electronic circuits. For example, a light dimmer uses a potentiometer to
control the switching of a TRIAC and so indirectly control the brightness of lamps.
Potentiometers are sometimes provided with one or more switches mounted on the same shaft.
For instance, when attached to a volume control, the knob can also function as an on/off switch
at the lowest volume.

12

Potentiometer construction:

Fig 2.3.2 Constructional diagram of potentiometer

Construction of a wire-wound circular potentiometer. The resistive element (1) of the shown
device is trapezoidal, giving a non-linear relationship between resistance and turn angle. The
wiper (3) rotates with the axis (4), providing the changeable resistance between the wiper contact
(6) and the fixed contacts (5) and (9). The vertical position of the axis is fixed in the body (2)
with the ring (7) (below) and the bolt (8) (above).
A potentiometer is constructed using a semi-circular resistive element with a sliding contact
(wiper). The resistive element, with a terminal at one or both ends, is flat or angled, and is
commonly made of graphite, although other materials may be used. The wiper is connected
through another sliding contact to another terminal. On panel pots, the wiper is usually the center
terminal of three. For single-turn pots, this wiper typically travels just under one revolution
around the contact. "Multi turn" potentiometers also exist, where the resistor element may be
helical and the wiper may move 10, 20, or more complete revolutions, though multi turn pots are
usually constructed of a conventional resistive element wiped via a worm gear. Besides graphite,
materials used to make the resistive element include resistance wire, carbon particles in plastic,
and a ceramic/metal mixture called cermet.
One form of rotary potentiometer is called a String potentiometer. It is a multi-turn potentiometer
operated by an attached reel of wire turning against a spring. It is used as a position transducer.
In a linear slider pot, a sliding control is provided instead of a dial control. The resistive element
is a rectangular strip, not semi-circular as in a rotary potentiometer. Due to the large opening slot
or the wiper, this type of pot has a greater potential for getting contaminated.
Potentiometers can be obtained with either linear or logarithmic relations between the slider
position and the resistance (potentiometer laws or "tapers").
Manufacturers of conductive track potentiometers use conductive polymer resistor pastes that
contain hard wearing resins and polymers, solvents, lubricant and carbon the constituent that
13

provides the conductive/resistive properties. The tracks are made by screen printing the paste
onto a paper based phenol substrate and then curing it in an oven. The curing process removes all
solvents and allows the conductive polymer to polymerize and cross link. This produces a
durable track with stable electrical resistance throughout its working life.[citation needed]

Fig 2.3.3 PCB mount trimmer potentiometers, or "trimpots", intended for infrequent
adjustment.

Linear taper potentiometer:

A linear taper potentiometer (uses the letter 'B' in the designation eg 100kB) has a resistive
element of constant cross-section, resulting in a device where the resistance between the contact
(wiper) and one end terminal is proportional to the distance between them. Linear taper
describes the electrical characteristic of the device, not the geometry of the resistive element.
Linear taper potentiometers are used when an approximately proportional relation is desired
between shaft rotation and the division ratio of the potentiometer; for example, controls used for
adjusting the centering of (an analog) cathode-ray oscilloscope.
One of the advantages of the potential divider compared to a variable resistor in series with the
source is that, while variable resistors have a maximum resistance where some current will
always flow, dividers are able to vary the output voltage from maximum (VS) to ground (zero
volts) as the wiper moves from one end of the pot to the other. There is, however, always a small
amount of contact resistance.In addition, the load resistance is often not known and therefore
simply placing a variable resistor in series with the load could have a negligible effect or an
excessive effect, depending on the load.

14

Diode

Fig 2.5.1 Various semiconductor diodes. Bottom: A bridge rectifier

In electronics a diode is a two-terminal electronic component that conducts electric current in
only one direction. The term usually refers to a semiconductor diode, the most common type
today, which is a crystal of semiconductor connected to two electrical terminals, a P-N junction.
A vacuum tube diode, now little used, is a vacuum tube with two electrodes; a plate and a
cathode.
The most common function of a diode is to allow an electric current in one direction (called the
forward direction) while blocking current in the opposite direction (the reverse direction). Thus,
the diode can be thought of as an electronic version of a check valve. This unidirectional
15

behavior is called rectification, and is used to convert alternating current to direct current, and
remove modulation from radio signals in radio receivers.

Currentvoltage characteristic:
A semiconductor diodes behavior in a circuit is given by its currentvoltage characteristic, or I
V curve (see graph at right). The shape of the curve is determined by the transport of charge
carriers through the so-called depletion layer or depletion region that exists at the p-n junction
between differing semiconductors.
If an external voltage is placed across the diode with the same polarity as the built-in potential,
the depletion zone continues to act as an insulator, preventing any significant electric current
flow (unless electron/hole pairs are actively being created in the junction by, for instance, light.
see photodiode). This is the reverse bias phenomenon. However, if the polarity of the external
voltage opposes the built-in potential, recombination can once again proceed, resulting in
substantial electric current through the p-n junction (i.e. substantial numbers of electrons and
holes recombine at the junction).. For silicon diodes, the built-in potential is approximately 0.6 V.
Thus, if an external current is passed through the diode, about 0.6 V will be developed across the
diode such that the P-doped region is positive with respect to the N-doped region and the diode is
said to be turned on as it has a forward bias.

Fig 2.5.2 IV characteristics of a P-N junction diode (not to scale).

A diodes IV characteristic can be approximated by four regions of operation (see the figure at
right).

Types of semiconductor diode:

16

Diode

Zener
diode

Schottky
diode

Tunnel
diode

Light-emitting
diode

Photodiode

Varicap

Silicon controlled rectifier

Fig 2.5.3 Some diode symbols.

Numbering and Coding schemes:

There are a number of common, standard and manufacturer-driven numbering and coding
schemes for diodes; the most common European Pro Electron standard:

Pro Electron:
The European Pro Electron coding system for active components was introduced in 1966 and
comprises two letters followed by the part code. The first letter represents the semiconductor
material used for the component (A

= Germanium and B = Silicon) and the second letter represents the general function of the part
(for diodes: A = low-power/signal, B = Variable capacitance, X = Multiplier, Y = Rectifier and Z
= Voltage reference), for example:

AA-series germanium low-power/signal diodes (eg: AA119)

BA-series silicon low-power/signal diodes (eg: BAT18 Silicon RF Switching Diode)

BY-series silicon rectifier diodes (eg: BY127 1250V, 1A rectifier diode)

BZ-series silicon zener diodes (eg: BZY88C4V7 4.7V zener diode)

17

Other common numbering / coding systems (generally manufacturer-driven) include:

GD-series germanium diodes (ed: GD9) this is a very old coding system
OA-series germanium diodes (eg: 0A47) a coding sequence developed by Mullard, a
UK company

As well as these common codes, many manufacturers or organizations have their own systems
too for example:

HP diode 1901-0044 = JEDEC 1N4148

UK military diode CV448 = Mullard type OA81 = GEC type GEX23

18

LIGHT EMITTING DIODES

Electronic symbol

Fig 2.6.1Pin configuration:

A light-emitting diode (LED) (pronounced /l.idi/[1], or just /ld/) is a semiconductor light
source. LEDs are used as indicator lamps in many devices, and are increasingly used for lighting.
Introduced as a practical electronic component in 1962,[2] early LEDs emitted low-intensity red
light, but modern versions are available across the visible, ultraviolet and infrared wavelengths,
with very high brightness.
The LED is based on the semiconductor diode. When a diode is forward biased (switched on),
electrons are able to recombine with holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of
photons. This effect is called electroluminescence and the color of the light (corresponding to the
energy of the photon) is determined by the energy gap of the semiconductor. An LED is usually
small in area (less than 1 mm2), and integrated optical components are used to shape its radiation
pattern and assist in reflection.
LEDs present many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower energy
consumption, longer lifetime, improved robustness, smaller size, faster switching, and greater
durability and reliance. However, they are relatively expensive and require more precise current
and heat management than traditional light sources. Current LED products for general lighting
are more expensive to buy than fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output.
They also enjoy use in applications as diverse as replacements for traditional light sources in
automotive lighting (particularly indicators) and in traffic signals. The compact size of LEDs has
allowed new text and video displays and sensors to be developed, while their high switching
rates are useful in advanced communications technology.

19

Construction of LED:

Fig 2.7.1 Parts of an LED

2.7.2 The inner workings of an LED

20

Colors and materials:

Conventional LEDs are made from a variety of inorganic semiconductor materials, the following
table shows the available colors with wavelength range, voltage drop and material:
Color
Infrared

Wavelength
(nm)
> 760

Voltage
(V)
V < 1.9

Red

610 < < 760

1.63 < V
< 2.03

Orange

590 < < 610

2.03 < V
< 2.10

Yellow

570 < < 590

2.10 < V
< 2.18

Green

500 < < 570

1.9[32] < V
< 4.0

Blue

450 < < 500

2.48 < V
< 3.7

Violet

400 < < 450

2.76 < V
< 4.0

Semiconductor Material
Gallium
arsenide
(GaAs)
Aluminum gallium arsenide (AlGaAs)
Aluminum
gallium
arsenide
(AlGaAs)
Gallium
arsenide
phosphide
(GaAsP)
Aluminum gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP)
Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP)
Gallium
arsenide
phosphide
(GaAsP)
Aluminum gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP)
Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP)
Gallium
arsenide
phosphide
(GaAsP)
Aluminum gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP)
Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP)
Indium gallium nitride (InGaN) / Gallium(III) nitride
(GaN)
Gallium(III)
phosphide
(GaP)
Aluminum gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP)
Aluminum gallium phosphide (AlGaP)
Zinc
selenide
(ZnSe)
Indium
gallium
nitride
(InGaN)
Silicon
carbide
(SiC)
as
substrate
Silicon (Si) as substrate (under development)
Indium gallium nitride (InGaN)
21

Purple

multiple types

Ultraviolet < 400

2.48 < V Dual

blue/red
LEDs,
< 3.7
blue
with
red
phosphor,
or white with purple plastic
3.1 < V < diamond
(235 nm)[33]
4.4
Boron
nitride
(215 nm)[34][35]
Aluminum
nitride
(AlN)
(210 nm)[36]
Aluminum
gallium
nitride
(AlGaN)
Aluminum gallium indium nitride (AlGaInN) (down
to 210 nm)[37]

Table No 2.7.1 Material used in LEDs

CAPACITOR

Electronic symbol

Fig 2.9.1 A typical electrolytic capacitor

A capacitor or condenser is a passive electronic component consisting of a pair of conductors
separated by a dielectric. When a potential difference exists across the conductors, an electric
field is present in the dielectric. This field stores energy and produces a mechanical force
between the conductors. The effect is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large
areas of conductor, hence capacitor conductors are often called plates.
22

An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, capacitance, which is measured in

farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the potential difference
between them. In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of leakage
current. The conductors and leads introduce an equivalent series resistance and the dielectric has
an electric field strength limit resulting in a breakdown voltage.
Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits to block the flow of direct current while
allowing alternating current to pass, to filter out interference, to smooth the output of power
supplies, and for many other purposes. They are used in resonant circuits in radio frequency
equipment to select particular frequencies from a signal with many frequencies.

Theory of operation:

Fig 2.9.2 Charge separation in a parallel-plate capacitor causes an internal electric field. A
dielectric (orange) reduces the field and increases the capacitance.

23

A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by a non-conductive region. [7] The nonconductive substance is called the dielectric medium, although this may also mean a vacuum or a
semiconductor depletion region chemically identical to the conductors. A capacitor is assumed to
be self-contained and isolated, with no net electric charge and no influence from an external
electric field. The conductors thus contain equal and opposite charges on their facing surfaces, [8]
and the dielectric contains an electric field. The capacitor is a reasonably general model for
electric fields within electric circuits.
An ideal capacitor is wholly characterized by a constant capacitance 'C', defined as the ratio of
charge 'Q' on each conductor to the voltage 'V' between them:[7]

Sometimes charge buildup affects the mechanics of the capacitor, causing the capacitance to
vary. In this case, capacitance is defined in terms of incremental changes:

In SI units, a capacitance of one farad means that one coulomb of charge on each conductor
causes a voltage of one volt across the device.[9]

Current-voltage relation:
The current i (t ) through a component in an electric circuit is defined as the rate of change of the
charge q (t ) that has passed through it. Physical charges cannot pass through the dielectric layer
of a capacitor, but rather build up in equal and opposite quantities on the electrodes: as each
electron accumulates on the negative plate, one leaves the positive plate. Thus the accumulated
charge on the electrodes is equal to the integral of the current, as well as being proportional to the
voltage (as discussed above). As with any anti derivative, a constant of integration is added to
represent the initial voltage v (t0). This is the integral form of the capacitor equation,[11]

24

.
Taking the derivative of this, and multiplying by C, yields the derivative form,[12]

.
The dual of the capacitor is the inductor, which stores energy in the magnetic field rather than the
electric field. Its current-voltage relation is obtained by exchanging current and voltage in the
capacitor equations and replacing C with the inductance L.

Applications
Capacitors have many uses in electronic and electrical systems. They are so common that it is a
rare electrical product that does not include at least one for some purpose.

VOLTAGE REGULATOR 7805

25

Features
Output Current up to 1A.
Output Voltages of 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15, 18, 24V.
Thermal Overload Protection.
Short Circuit Protection.
Output Transistor Safe Operating Area Protection.

Description
The LM78XX/LM78XXA series of three-terminal positive regulators are available in the
TO-220/D-PAK package and with several fixed output voltages, making them useful in a Wide
range of applications. Each type employs internal current limiting, thermal shutdown and safe
operating area protection, making it essentially indestructible. If adequate heat sinking is
provided, they can deliver over 1A output Current. Although designed primarily as fixed voltage
regulators, these devices can be used with external components to obtain adjustable voltages and
currents.

26

Internal Block Diagram

FIG
4.2(a): BLOCK DIAGRAM OF VOLTAGE REGULATOR

Absolute Maximum Ratings

TABLE 4.2(b): RATINGS OF THE VOLTAGE REGULATOR

27

POWER SUPPLY
Description:
Power supply is the circuit from which we get a desired dc voltage to run
the other circuits. The voltage we

get from

the main line is

230V AC but the other components of our circuit require 5V DC. Hence a step-down
transformer is used to get 12V AC which is later converted to 12V DC using a
rectifier. The output of rectifier still contains some ripples even though it is a DC
signal due to which it is called as Pulsating DC. To remove the ripples and obtain
smoothed DC power filter circuits are used. Here a capacitor is used. The 12V DC is
rated down to 5V using a positive voltage regulator chip 7805. Thus a fixed DC
voltage of 5V is obtained.
A 5V regulated supply is taken as followed:

Each of the blocks is described in more detail below:

Transformer - steps down high voltage AC mains to low voltage AC.

Rectifier - converts AC to DC, but the DC output is varying.

Smoothing - smoothes the DC from varying greatly to a small ripple.

Regulator - eliminates ripple by setting DC output to a fixed voltage.

TRANSFORMER
Transformer is the electrical device that converts one voltage to another with little
loss of power. Transformers work only with AC. There are two types of transformers
as Step-up and Step-down transformer. Step-up transformers increase voltage, step28

down transformers reduce voltage. Most power supplies use a step-down

transformer to reduce the dangerously high mains voltage to a safer low voltage.
Here a step down transformer is used to get 12V AC from the supply i.e. 230V AC.

RECTIFIERS
A rectifier is a circuit that converts AC signals to DC. A rectifier circuit is made using
diodes. There are two types of

rectifier circuits as Half-wave rectifier and Full-wave

rectifier depending upon the DC signal generated.

Half-wave Rectifier: It is the rectifier circuit that rectifies only half part of the AC
signal. It uses only a single diode. It only uses only positive part of the AC signal to
produce half-wave varying DC and producegaps when the AC is negative.

29

Full-wave Rectifier: It is also called as

Rectifier. A center tap rectifier can be

made using two individual diodes. It is called a full-wave rectifier because it uses
the total AC wave (both positive and negative sections).

30

SMOOTHING

Smoothing is performed by a large value electrolytic capacitor connected across the

DC supply to act as a reservoir, supplying current to the output when the varying
DC voltage from the rectifier is falling. The diagram shows the unsmoothed varying
DC (dotted line) and the smoothed DC (solid line). The capacitor charges quickly
near the peak of the varying DC, and then discharges as it supplies current to the
output. Here a capacitor of 330uF is used as a smoothing circuit.

31

VOLTAGE REGULATION
Voltage regulators produce fixed DC output voltage from variable DC (a small
amount of AC on it). Normally we get fixed output by connecting the voltage
regulator at the output of the filtered DC. It can also used in circuits to get a low DC
voltage from a high DC voltage (for example we use 7805 to get 5V from 12V).
There are two types of voltage regulators
1. fixed voltage regulators (78xx,79xx)
2. Variable voltage regulators (LM317)
In fixed voltage regulators there is another classification
1. Positive voltage regulators
2. Negative voltage regulators
POSITIVE VOLTAGE REGULATORS:
This includes 78xx voltage regulators. The most commonly used ones are 7805 and
7812. 7805 gives fixed 5V DCvoltage if input voltage is in (7.5V-20).

You may

sometimes have questions like, what happens if input voltage is <7.5 V or some 3V,
the answer is that regulation won't be proper. Suppose if input is 6V then output
may be 5V or 4.8V, but there are some parameters for the voltage regulators like
maximum output current capability, line regulation etc. won't be proper. Remember
that electronics components should be used in the proper voltage and current
ratings as specified in datasheet. You can workwithout following it, but you won't be
able to get some parameters of the component.

NEGATIVE VOLTAGE REGULATORS:

32

Mostly available negative voltage regulators are of 79xx family.The mainly available
79xx IC's are 7905,7912 1.5A output
current,short circuit protection,ripple rejection are the other features of 79xx IC's.

Many of the fixed voltage regulators have 3 leads and look like power transistors,
such as the 7805 (+5V 1A) regulator shown on the above. If adequate heat sinking
is provided then it can deliver up to maximum 1A current. For an output voltage of
5v-18v the maximum input voltage is 35v and for an output voltage of 24V the
maximum input voltage is 40V.For 7805 IC, for an input of 10v the minimum output
voltage is 4.8V and the maximum output voltage is 5.2V. The typical dropout
voltage is 2V.

33

34

DTMF Decoder MT 8870

This circuit detects the dial tone from a telephone line and decodes the
keypad pressed on the remote telephone. The dial tone we heard when
we pick up the phone set is call Dual Tone Multi-Frequency, DTMF in
short. The name was given because the tone that we heard over the
phone is actually make up of two distinct frequency tone, hence the
name dual tone. The DTMF tone is a form of one way communication
between the dialer and the telephone exchange.
35

A complete communication consist of the tone generator and the tone

decoder. In this article, we are use the IC MT8870DE, the main
component to decode the input dial tone to 5 digital output. These digital
bits can be interface to a computer or microcontroller for further
application (eg. remote control, phone line transfer operation, etc...).

Keypad Dial Tone Frequency Table

In the early days, our phone system used to be operated by human

operator in a telephone exchange room. The caller will pick up the
phone, giving instruction to the operator to connect their line to the
destination over the other end of the telephone. As more and more
people find phone technology a useful communication tools, line
connection use human operator has become a tedious task.
As technology matures, pulse/dial tone method was inverted for
telephony communication. It uses electronics and computer to assist in
the phone line connection. Basically on the caller side, it is a dial tone
generator. When a key is being pressed on the matrix keypad, it
generates a unique
tone consisting of two
1209
1336
1477
1633
audible tone
frequencies. For
Hz Hz Hz Hz is being press on the
example, if the key '1'
697
phone, the tone you
hear is actually
1
2
4 A
consisting of a 697 Hz Hz
& 1209 Hz sine
signal. Pressing key '9' 770
will generate the tone
4
5
6
B
form by 852 Hz &
1477 Hz. The
Hz
frequency use in the
dial tone system is of
852
8
9 C for transmission over
audible range suitable Hz 7
the telephone cable.
941
*
0
# D
Hz
36

On the telephone exchange side, it has a decoder circuit to decode the

tone to digital code. For example, the tone of 941hz + 1336hz will be
decoded as binary '1010' as the output. This digital output will be read in
by a computer, which will then act as a operator to connect the caller's
telephone line to the designated phone line. The telephone exchange
center will generate a high voltage signal to the receiving telephone, so
as to ring the telephone bell, to notified the receiving user that there is an
incoming call.
This project article focus on a simple DTMF (dual tone multi frequency)
decoder circuit. This circuit can be interface to a computer, allowing
caller to computer interaction. Many communication application can be
build for example, a computerize call receiving/diverting phone network
system. Remote control to Home/Office electrical appliances using a
telephone network.
DTMF is a popular project especially in DSP (digital signal processing)
subject. DSP software algorithm can be implement to generate as well as
to decode DTMF tone. It is very interesting, and I will try to cover that
aspect in near future. For now we do the hardware way.

Key Tone
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
0

Output Logic
Q4
Q3
Q2
Q1
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
37

*
#
A
B
C
D

1
1
1
1
1
0

0
1
1
1
1
0

1
0
0
1
1
0

1
0
1
0
1
0

These are the decoder output table for the given dial tone
detected. Notice that there are key tone for A B C and D.
These are special tone which are normally not found on
our telephone. It is a common standard build into the
decoder chip.

38

39

RELAY
A relay is an electrically operated switch. Current flowing through the coil of the relay creates
a magnetic field which attracts a lever and changes the switch contacts. The coil current can be
on or off so relays have two switch positions and they are double throw (changeover) switches.
Relays allow one circuit to switch a second circuit which can be completely separate from the
first. For example a low voltage battery circuit can use a relay to switch a 230V AC mains
circuit. There is no electrical connection inside the relay between the two circuits; the link is
magnetic and mechanical.
The coil of a relay passes a relatively large current, typically 30mA for a 12V relay, but it can be
as much as 100mA for relays designed to operate from lower voltages. Most ICs (chips) cannot
provide this current and a transistor is usually used to amplify the small IC current to the
larger value required for the relay coil. The maximum output current for the popular 555 timer IC
is 200mA so these devices can supply relay coils directly without amplification.
Relays are usually SPDT or DPDT but they can have many more sets of switch contacts, for
example relays with 4 sets of changeover contacts are readily available.
Most relays are designed for PCB mounting but you can solder wires directly to the pins
providing you take care to avoid melting the plastic case of the relay.
The animated picture shows a working relay with its coil and switch contacts. You can see a
lever on the left being attracted by magnetism when the coil is switched on. This lever moves the
switch contacts. There is one set of contacts (SPDT) in the foreground and another behind them,
making the relay DPDT.
The relay's switch connections are usually labeled COM, NC and NO:
COM = It is the moving part of the switch.
NC = Normally Closed, COM is connected to this when the relay coil is on.
NO = Normally Open, COM is connected to this when the relay coil is off.

Protection diodes for relays:

40

Transistors and ICs must be protected from the brief high voltage produced when a relay coil is
switched off. The diagram shows how a signal diode (eg 1N4148) is connected 'backwards'
across the relay coil to provide this protection.
Current flowing through a relay coil creates a magnetic field which collapses suddenly when the
current is switched off. The sudden collapse of the magnetic field induces a brief high voltage
across the relay coil which is very likely to damage transistors and ICs. The protection diode
allows the
induced
voltage to
drive
a
brief
current
through the
coil
(and diode)
so
the
magnetic
field
dies away
quickly
rather than instantly. This prevents the induced voltage becoming high enough to cause damage
to transistors and ICs.
Relays and transistors compared:
Like relays, transistors can be used as an electrically operated switch. For switching small DC
currents (< 1A) at low voltage they are usually a better choice than a relay. However transistors
cannot switch AC or high voltages (such as mains electricity) and they are not usually a good
choice for switching large currents (> 5A). In these cases a relay will be needed, but note that a
low power transistor may still be needed to switch the current for the relay's coil!
The main advantages and disadvantages of relays are listed below:
Advantages of relays:
Relays can switch AC and DC, transistors can only switch DC.
Relays can switch high voltages, transistors cannot.
Relays are a better choice for switching large currents (> 5A).
Relays can switch many contacts at once.
Disadvantages of relays:
Relays are bulkier than transistors for switching small currents.
Relays cannot switch rapidly (except reed relays), transistors can switch many times
per second.
Relays use more power due to the current flowing through their coil.
Relays require more current than many ICs can provide, so a low power transistor
may be needed to switch the current for the relay's coil.

41

Circuit Diagram:

DTMF
Power
Supply

Relay

Load

42