THE ORIGINS OF SOCIETY

by
Chris Knight


THEORIGINSOFSOCIETYwaswrittenin1988,threeyearsbeforethepublicationof
myBloodRelations:Menstruationandtheoriginsofculture.Itstillprovidesagood
basicoutlineofmyargument.
Withhindsight,thisrenderingappearstomeasoneofseveralearly"mythical"
versionsofmystoryalthoughbynomeanstheworstofthese.Scientifically
speaking,itisnowsomewhatoutofdate.ThankslargelytotheworkofIanWatts,it
isnowknownthatthehumanrevolutionoccurredwellbeforetheEuropeUpper
Palaeolithic,andthatthelocation(almostcertainly)wassubSaharanAfrica.Inthe
lightofthisknowledge,thispamphlet'smanyreferencesto"theIceAge"nolonger
seemveryappropriate.Writingtoday,Iwouldalsoamendmystyleof
argumentation,whichinthispamphletishardlyDarwinian.ShortlyafterBlood
Relationswaspublished,CamillaPowerrecastthetheoryinmorerigorously
Darwinian("selfishgene")terms,makingitrathermorepersuasivetoscientists
workinginthisfield.Despitetheseshortcomings,Ihavefoundthatnewcomersto
thewholetopicappreciatethebrevityandconceptualsimplicityofthisparticular
version,soitseemedworthwhiletoreprintitintheforminwhichitwaswritten.
ChrisKnight,UniversityofEastLondon,June2003

C.D.Knight,1989.Reproductionisfreeforalleducationalpurposes.
PDFavailableonwww.radicalanthropologygroup.org
Comment,informationand/orcriticismwelcome.

Firstprinting(fiftycopies)November1988.
Secondprinting(fivehundredcopies)September1989.

Printed&Publishedin1989byIanWatts,RadicalAnthropologyGroupPublications,
58EastdownHouse,AmhurstRd.,LondonE8.

UNTILABOUTFIFTEENYEARSAGO,huntingwastakentobeanearlydevelopment
inhominidevolution.Recentreinterpretationsoftheevidence,however,indicate
howremarkablylateitwasbeforeourancestorssucceededinhuntingeffectivelyat
all.Itnowappearsthateffectivebiggamehuntingdidnotgetunderwayuntilwell
intotheMiddlePleistocene.Thoseinvolvedwouldhavebeenneither
AustralopithecusnorHomohabilisbutmuchlaterpopulationsofHomoerectus
and/orearlyNeanderthals.Theearlierstagesofhominidevolutionwerebasedon
omnivorousforagingandthegatheringofvegetablefoods.
Whywasthetransitiontobiggamehuntingandtothefullelaborationofsymbolic
culturesolate?Acontributingfactormayhavebeenthatinexperimentingwith
carnivory,ourancestorsfacedinitiallysevereproblemsin(a)organisingtheproper
distributionofmeatand(b)controllingthedestructivepotentialitiesofaweapons
technology.Onlyoncetheseproblemshadbeensolvedcanwespeakofthe
emergenceofcultureinthefullsense.
Howwasthistremendousleapmade?Whatfactorsenabledananimalscarcely
differentingenetictermsfromachimpanzeetobecomeHomosapiens?
Theselfishmale?
Studiesofbaboonsandchimpanzeeswhichoccasionallykillsmallanimalstoeat
haveoftenbeenusedinconstructingmodelsoftheoriginsofhumanhunting.But
apeandmonkeyhuntingactivityisoverwhelminglymale,andnotsurprisinglyit
isthemaleswhoeatmostofthemeat.Females,relativelyimmobilisedbytheir
offspring,obtainratherlittle.Ifprotohumansocialitywasatfirstbaseduponsome
versionofthedominancepatternofapesorbaboons(asearliertheorists
assumed),itisdifficulttounderstandhowfemalescouldhavesecuredanadequate
meatsupply.
Inthiscontext,totheextentthathuntingbegantomatterasapotentialfoodsource
whichwouldcertainlyhavebeenthecaseforlaterIceAgepopulationsmigrating
beyondthetropicsthefemalesineachpreculturalpopulation(withtheiryoung)
mustinitiallyhavebeendiscriminatedagainst.Huntingwouldhavecontributed
littletothesurvivalprospectsofpopulationsifmalessimplyatetheirownkillsout
inthebush,withfemalesandoffspringgoinghungry.Atitsworstifchimpanzee
aggressionisanythingtogobywecanevenimagineasituationinwhichmales
armedwithweaponsusedthesenotonlyforhuntingbutalsoforinternalsexual
threats,violenceormurder.
*****
Inthepast,malecentredsolutionstosuchproblemswerethoughttobesufficient.It
wasargued,forexample,thatifthehominidmaleweretobecomeaneffective
hunter,hewouldhaveneededtolearncooperation.Further,ifhewereto
immortalisehisgenes,hewouldhavehadtolearntobringmeattohisoffspringand
mate.SuchnotionsunderlaytheMantheHunterhypothesispopularinthe
nineteensixties.Thetwoparentfamily,cooperation,thesexualdivisionof

labourandmuchelseseemedsatisfactorilyexplainedonthisbasisallwithout
creditingthefemalewithanyinnovative,creativelyactiverole.Despitechangesin
detailandinemphasis,recentdiscussionsofhumanoriginshavegenerallybeen
conductedwithintheparametersestablishedbythishypothesis.
Theargumenthadtwomajordrawbacks.First,itsfindingsdidnotsufficiently
engagewiththoseofsocialanthropologists(infieldssuchasthestudyofkinship,
ritualorsymbolism)forthemodeltoactasananthropologicalresearchguide.
Socialanthropologists,consequentlymaintainingatraditionestablishedatthe
turnofthecenturyfeltjustifiedincontinuingtoignoreevolutionarybiologyand
theoriesofsocialorigins.
Second,evenonitsownlevel,thetheoryleftmajorproblemsunsolved.Grantedthat
thehominidmalehadtolearntohunteffectively,thequestionremained:howdid
thiscomeabout?Dominantprimatemalesforexample,chimpanzeesandbaboons
areimpededinhuntingefficientlybytheinternalsexualstructureofdominance,
whichsetstheanimalsinconflictwithoneanotherandpartiallyimmobilisesthem
byrequiringeachmalesroundtheclockphysicalattachmenttoitsownfemales.
Amalewhichwentofftohuntwouldrisklosingitsmateormatestomalesexual
rivalsduringitsabsence.Untilrecently,ithasnotbeenclearhowthisparticular
problemcouldhavebeenovercome.
Moreover,unlikewolvesandhuntingdogs(whichtransportmeatintheirstomachs,
regurgitatingitfordependentsintheden),nonhumanprimatemalesseemtolack
thenecessaryinstinctstoavoidonthespotselfishconsumptionofwhateverfood
theyfind.Arewetoassumethattheprotohumanmale,unlikehisnonhuman
primaterelatives,developedaninstincttocarrymeathomeratherthaneatingit
withoutdelay?Istheresuchaninstinctinthehumanmale?Andifnot,whatwere
themechanismsthroughwhichthismalesneedtoprovisionhissexualpartner
becametranslatedintonormativeculturalpractice?
Ahumaninnovation:thehomebase
Itiswidelyagreedthatacrucialhumanevolutionaryinnovationwasthe
establishmentofafixedhomebase.Nomonkeyorapehasthisfacility.
Chimpanzees,gorillasandotherprimatesdisplaydifferentpatterns,butinno
instancedowefindreproductivelyactivemaleswhoarefreetoleavetheir
femalesinahomebasewhilsttheydeparttohunt.Theywouldlosetheirfemalesto
rivalmalesiftheydidleave.Theabsenceofahomebasemakesitimpossiblefor
malestogoinonedirectioninsearchofgamewhilefemalesandjuvenilesdisperse
togathervegetablefoodsasystemoffoodgettingwhichseemsuniversalasan
optionavailabletohumanhuntergatherers.
Protohumanmales,then,inevolvingtheinstitutionofthehomebase,musthave
begunadoptingaverydifferentreproductiveandforagingstrategyfromother
primates,goingawayfromtheirfemalesforextendedperiodsoftimeand
returninglaterwithmeat.Itisimportanttorecognisethesocialandsexual

correlatesofsuchachange.Itisinthiscontextthattheproblemsarise.Giventhe
primacyofdominancerelationships,howcouldhominidfemaleshavestayed
awaywhentheirmaleswentofftohunt?Whatwouldhaveinducedthefemalesto
stayforlongperiodsawayfromtheirdominantprotectors?Howcouldtheyhave
beensurethatthemaleswouldreturn?Andifthefemalesweretypicallyavailable
assexual/reproductiveprizestobecompetedfor,howcouldthemaleshavetorn
themselvesawayeventemporarilyfromthematingopportunitiesandthe
competition?Finally,letussupposethatdespiteallthis,somemalesdidmanageto
formintoacooperativebandandthenwentofftohunt.Howcouldthesemales
havebeensurethatwhentheyreturned,theirfemaleswouldstillhavebeen
theirs?Whatwouldhavepreventedrivalmalesfromtakingadvantageofthe
situation,dominatingandclaimingtheunguardedfemalesintheirabsence?
Theprostitutionhypothesis
Manywritershavelinkedthehomebasewithasexualdivisionoflabour,inferring
somekindofsexualandeconomictradeoffbetweenthesexes.Theassumptionis
thatfemalesexualchoicewasimportant:malesbroughtmeatbecausetherewasno
otherwayofsecuringsexwithfemales.Maleswhofailedwouldhavereducedtheir
chancesofpassingontheirgenes.
Thisideaimpliesthatfemalesfavouredmaleswhoweregoodhunters,makingsex
dependentupongiftsofmeat.Rightlyorwrongly,thishasbeentermedthe
prostitutiontheoryofhumanorigins:femalestradedtheirsexualfavoursfor
economicgain.
Ithasfrequentlybeensuggestedthatthispatternisquitenormalinhumanhunter
gatherersocieties.Sexandhuntingareoftenintimatelyintertwined:womentendto
linkvirilitywithhuntingprowess.Agoodhunter,insomecommunities,maybeable
tomaintainsimultaneousliaisonswithseveralwivesormistresseswhovaluehis
giftsofmeat.
Butletusexplorethelogicofthisconceptionmoreclosely.Therearetwo
possibilities.First,letusremainwithintheprimatetraditionofrelationsbasedon
dominance.Imagineprecultural,protohumanfemalescompetingwithone
anotherinsecuringconsortshipswithdominant,occasionallymeateatingmales,
trailingafterthesecontinuouslyinthehopeofobtainingashareintheirmeat.
Underthesecircumstances,themostadaptivemalereproductivestrategywould
havebeentoattractfemalesonthisbasis.Maleswouldhavehadtomove
sufficientlyslowlyfortheirfemalesandoffspringtokeepupwiththem.Ifand
whentheymadeakill,theywouldhaveallowedsuchfemalestoeatfleshonthespot
inexchangeforimmediatesexualaccess.
Theproblemsherearethat(a)slowmoving,sexuallypossessive,parentally
burdenedmalesdonotmakethebesthuntersand(b)thosefemaleswhoremained
athomeduringahuntwouldhavebeenfurthestfromthemeatwhenakillwas
made,andsowouldhavebeentheleastlikelytoreceiveashare.Sincetherewould

havebeennoselectionpressuresinfavouroffemalesstayingathome,thehome
baseinstitutionsimplycouldnothaveevolved.Arelativelysuccessfulcategoryof
meateatingfemalesmighthavecomeintoexistencebutthiswouldhaveconsisted
ofthenonpregnant,unburdenedoneswhocouldmaximallyprotecttheirmobility,
displaytheirsexualattractionsandtrailalongfollowingthehunters.Thiswould
havebeentheoppositeofwhatwasrequiredifalargebrained,neotenous,slow
developinghominidinneedofprolongednurturingwastoreproduceandevolve.
Thealternative:sexualmorality
However,asnoted,therewouldhavebeentwologicallypossiblewaysinwhichour
femaleancestorscouldhavemadesexdependentupontheavailabilityofmeat.Only
oneofthesewastheprostitutionstrategyofactive,mobilesolicitinginsearchof
meat.Theotherwouldhavebeenforfemalestostopwheretheywereandcompel
themalestobringtheirkillshome.
Letusprovisionallyassumethatthissecondoptionwaschosen,andfollowthelogic
through.Wecanthentesttheresultinglogicallydeducedpatterninthelightofthe
relevantevidence.
Thesecondoptionimpliesasexstrike.Femalesrefusetoleavethehomebase,and
refusesextoanymalewhodoesnotreturnhomewithmeat.
Unliketheyesstrategy(continuouslypresentingtomalesinthehopeofgaining
favours),thisnostrategy(refusingsexuntilmalesbringmeat)impliesinter
femalesolidarity.Itwouldhavebeenimpossibleforafemaletouserefusalasa
meansofputtingpressureononeormoremalesunlessshecouldrelyonhersisters
tobackherup.Tohaveallowedmalestoplayoffonefemaleagainstanotherto
haveallowedhersexpartnertoturnelsewherewhenevershesignalledno
wouldhaveunderminedhercompletely.Inotherwords,thesecondoptionfemale
strategyrequiredgendersolidarityforinternalreasons,justasbycontrastthe
prostitutionstrategynecessarilyinvolvedinterfemalerivalryandcompetition
withineachgendergroup.
Assumingthesecondoption,animplicationisthatwheneverthemalecommunity
wasunsuccessfulinobtainingmeatorwhenevermeatsuppliesseemed
dangerouslylowthefemalecommunityhadtorefuseallsexualfavours.Abanon
sexualrelationsaccordingtothismodelwouldhavebeennecessaryasthe
preludetoeachsuccessfulhuntingexpedition;itwouldhavebeenthemeans
throughwhichprotowomenmotivatedmalesnotonlytohuntbutalsoto
concentratetheirenergiesonbringingbackthemeat.
Kinselection
Theconceptofinclusivefitnessisthecorescientificinsightaroundwhichthe
variousclaimsofsociobiologyhaveformedasaccretions.Itmayberelevantin
developingamodelforthesecondoptionasoutlinedabove.

Supposethataparticulargeneconferreduponafemaleprotohominidanunusual
capacityforrestrainingherownsexuality,andthatbehaviourallythisexpressed
itselfinaltruistictendenciestowardshersisters.Itmightbethathormonally
governedoestrusbehaviour(seenextsectionbelow)wasinhercaseweakerthan
normal,sothatwhenshewasovulatingshewasstillabletoavoidsex.Oestrusloss
ofsuchakindwouldhavemadeiteasierforhertorefrainfromsexualcompetition
withhersisters.Intheeventthatthesewererefusingamalessexualadvances,it
wouldhavebeeneasierforhertodefendthem,insteadofundercuttinghersisters
bymakingadvancesherself.Suchahypothesisedtendencywouldbealtruisticin
thatitwouldmeanincurringacost(intermsofopportunitiesforpersonal
reproductivesuccess)toherself,andasimilarbenefittohersisterorsisters.Are
thereanycircumstancesunderwhichsuchagenecouldbefavourablyselectedand
thusincreaseinfrequencyoverthegenerations?
Normally,wewouldexpectanygenethatriskeddamagingitscarrierspersonal
reproductivesuccesstobeselectedagainst.However,inthecaseofaltruism
towardsasister,eachrecipientofthebenefitwouldalreadyhaveachanceof
carryingacopyofthesamegeneasaresultofdescentfromthesameancestor.To
theextentthatsuchwerethecase,thealtruisticgenewouldreallybedoingwhat
allgenesmustdotosurvivenamely,helpingitsownreplication.
Thedaughters(orsons)ofahominidmothercarryingsuchagenewouldhaveno
moreprobabilityofcarryingthatgenethanwouldthemothersfullsiblings.From
thegenespointofview,therefore,itwouldbeasusefulforthemothertoriskher
futurereproductivesuccessindefendinghersisterastoriskitindefendingher
offspring.Totheextentthatasisterschildbearingyearswerestillaheadofher,the
genesfuturewouldbefosteredbythatroutejustaseffectively.Itisinfactonsucha
basisthatsociobiologistsaccountforthewelldocumentedphenomenonofsibling
solidarityingrouplivingmonkeys,bothinpeacefulactivitiessuchasgrooming,and
alsoincomingtotheaidofbrothersandsistersunderattack.
Therelevanceofthistotheabovemodelwillbeappreciated.Kinselectioncan
accountforadegreeofbiologicalsiblingsolidarityasageneticallyviableaspectof
reproductivestrategy.Ifforvariousreasonssuchsolidarityamongprotohumans
couldhavedevelopedtothepointatwhichrelatedfemalessupportedoneanother
inassertingthemselvessexuallyasonstrike,thethresholdofculturemighthave
beenreachedbeforebeingcrossed.
Lossofoestrus
Itisasuggestionwhichfacilitatesanelegantsolutiontoanoldproblemthatof
oestruslossinthehumanfemale.Innonhumanprimates,thefemaleexperiencesa
hormonallygovernedstrongimpulsetocopulateduringovulationwhensheisin
oestrus.Themomentispubliclyannounced,eachfemalesignallingherenhanced
receptivitytomales.Whileinsomespeciessuchsignalsarepurelybehavioural,in
otherstheyalsotaketheformofvisibleswellingofthegenitalregion,changesin
colouringofthesexualskin,scentemissionsandsoon.

Accentuatedoestrusdisplaysarerelatedinanobviouswaytointerfemalesexual
competitionforconsortshipswithdominantmales.Theymayberegardedas
uncontrollable,involuntaryyessignalssentoutbyfemalesaroundtheperiod
whentheyaremostlikelytoconceive.Nomaturemaleinthevicinitycanresistthe
temptationsofafemaleinsuchastate.
Inhumanfemales,theyessignalhasbeenlost.Insteadofbeingexternally
displayed,ovulationhasevolvedinthereversedirection,tothepointatwhichthe
crucialmomenthasbecomeeffectivelyconcealed.Inneitherappearancenor
behaviourisitpossibletodetermineahumanfemalesfertileperiod.Farfrom
malesinherpresencebeingmadepubliclyawareofherovulation,thehuman
femalesspecialconditioniskeptsocloseasecretthatunlesssheisunusuallyaware
ofherownphysiologyshewillnotevenknowthemomentherself.
Moreover,thehumanisinprinciplesexuallyreceptivethroughoutthewholeofher
cycle.Despitepossibleslightpeaksatovulationand/orfollowingmenstruation,her
interestinsexneverbecomesasoverwhelmingasitisforprimatesinoestrus.Being
abletosayNoatanytime,sheisnevertheslaveofherhormonalstate.
Yethormonallycontrolledsexualsignalsarenotentirelymissing,formenstruation
inthehumancasehasbeenaccentuatedasanexternaldisplay.Awomanloses
considerablymoremenstrualbloodthandoesanyotherprimate.Althoughthereis
nobiologicalimperativetoavoidsexduringthisperiod,intraditionalhuman
culturalcontexts,menstruationalmostalwayssignalssexstrikeorno.
Explainingtheaccentuationofmenstruationinhumanshaspresentedasgreata
challengetobiologistsasaccountingfortheeliminationofoestrus.
Wecansumupbysayingthattakingtogether(1)oestrusloss,(2)accentuated
menstruationand(3)continuoussexualreceptivity,thehumanconfigurationin
theserespectsisnotjustdifferentfromtheusualprimatepattern:itdisplaysthe
inverseimageofit.Whereasthebasicprimatepatternistodeliveraperiodicyes
signalagainstabackgroundofcontinuoussexualno,thehumanoneistoemita
periodicnosignalagainstabackgroundofcontinuousavailabilityoryes.
Lossofoestrus:aproductoffemalesolidarity
Thisinversioncanbesimplyexplained.
Pictureaprotohumanpopulationadoptingthestrategyoftheperiodicsexualstrike.
Whatmightbetheeffectsofthisnewsocialandsexuallogiconthefemalecycle?
Whilstwehavesupposedaperiodicon/offsexualalternationembodiedinthesex
strike,itmustberememberedthatthereproductivecycleisitselfalreadya
periodicon/offalternationintermsofreproductivereceptivity.Howdothesetwo
rhythmsinterrelate?Ortoaskthisanotherway:Atwhichpointintheirmenstrual
cycleswouldevolvingprotohumanfemaleshavebeenbestadvisedtogoon
strike?

Accordingtotheinitialpremisesofthesexstrikemodel,theoverriding
considerationindeterminingthemomentanddurationofanyperiodofcelibacy
wouldhavebeeneconomic.Fertilitywouldnothavebeenaconsideration:ifthere
wasnomeat,therehadtobenosex,andthesexstrikehadtolastuntilthehunt
hadbeensuccessfullycompletedandmeatbroughthome.Thewholepointofthe
actionwouldhavebeenunderminedwereitnecessarytoenditatacertainmoment
onhormonalgrounds,regardlessofwhetherthemaleshadbroughtmeatornot.
Undersuchconditions,itwouldhavebecomeparticularlyimportantduringeachsex
strikenomatterwhenthisoccurrednorhowlongithadtolastforeachwomanto
displaysolidaritywithhersistersbyshowingnottheslightestsignofsexual
flirtatiousnessordesire.Eachstrikewouldhavedemandedaunitedfrontagainst
allmalepotentialsexualpartners.Hadonewomaninvoluntarilydisplayedsignsof
inappropriatelytimedsexualinterest,shewouldhavearousedtheantagonismofher
sisters.Itcanbeseenatoncethatsuchasituationwouldhavedemandedofeach
womanthathermomentofovulationbekeptassecretandprivateaspossible.
Withinthepopulation,then,thesexstrikewouldhavesoughtoutthosefemales
bestabletoadapttoitsrequirements.Thosewithstrongoestruspatternswould
havetendedtorejectthenewsystemorberejectedbyit;thosewithweakeroestrus
wouldmoreeasilyhavethrived.
Fromthispointofview,theevolvinghumanfemalehadtogainincreasingcontrol
overherself.Shecouldnolongeraffordtobechaineddownbyherhormones.Ifthe
malesinherlifewereuncooperative,theyhadtobecoaxed,persuadedor
otherwisedealtwithnomatterwhathercyclicalstatehappenedtobe.Iftheywere
lazyorfailedinthehunt,theyhadtobetreatedcoldly.Eachfemale,linkingupwith
others,hadtocontrolherownsexualinclinationsandparticipateincontrolling
thoseofhersisters.
Totheextentthathuntingwasachancybusiness,thisruledoutanyfixedtimefor
sexualactivity.Femaleswouldhaveneededthepowertosaynoatanytimeand
foraslongaperiodasnecessary.Bythesametoken,theywouldhaveneededthe
freedomtosayyesatanytime,too,sincenoonecouldhavepredictedthemoment
ofthehuntssuccessfulconclusion.Continuousreceptivityandanequally
continuousabilitytosaynoarerequirementswithabasisinphysiology;overa
period,giventhelogicofthestrike,thenecessaryphysiologywouldhaveevolved.
Biologicalandculturalperiodicity:onerhythmortwo?
Freedomfromhormonalcontrol,then,wastheinitialpreconditionifthesexstrike
wastowork.Inthelongterm,however,theentirestrategywouldhavebeenbeset
withreproductiveproblemsunlesstherewereharmonybetweentheperiodicsex
strikeandtheperiodicityofthemenstrualcycle.Femaleswouldotherwisehave
riskedbeingonstrikeduringtheirfertileperiodsandavailablewhentheywere
infertile.

Assume,now,anIceAgepopulationinwhichthenostrategyhasbeenin
operationforsometimetensofthousandsofyears,perhaps.Assumethatbiggame
huntinghasbeendevelopedtoafineart,thatgameisabundantandthateach
huntingexpeditioncaningeneralbecountedontoproduceresults.Ifallthiswere
thecase,thentheverysuccessofthenewstrategywouldmakeitpossibleforanew
stabilitytoemerge.Femaleswouldnothavetoorganisesexstrikesonthespurof
themoment,knowingneitherthelikelydurationofeachactionnoritsprospectsof
success.WhilstretainingasafallbackoptiontheabilitytosayNoatanytime,in
practice,asanormalrule,theywouldbeabletosettledownintoaregular,
predictablepatternwhosefeatureswemaynowpredict.
Inthelongrun,abalancehadtobestruckbetweentwogreatrhythmsandtwo
correspondingimperativescultural/economicontheonehand,
natural/reproductiveontheother.Theimpactofthefirstimperativetheprinciple
thatwithoutmeattherecouldbenosexwasimmediate,operatingonthelevelof
consciousfemalewillanddecision.Itwasaneconomicrhythmanddeterminant,
whichonanyparticularoccasionhadtotakeprecedenceoverallothers.Thesecond
sexmustbepermittedduringthefertileperiodwasabiological,natural
constraint,andactedasadeterminantonlyinthelongerterm,atalevelbeyondthat
ofconsciousdecisionmakingorwill.Onnoparticularoccasioncoulditbeallowed
toimposeitselfastheoverridingconsideration(thatwouldhaveimpliedareturnto
oestrusbehaviour);yetoveraperioditsdemandscouldnotbeescaped.
Intermsofstrikingabalance,themostperfectlyadaptiveoutcomewouldhavebeen
oneinwhichtheculturalon/offalternationofthehuntexactlymatchedthenatural
on/offalternationofthefemalereproductivecycle.Sincethemenstrualcyclecannot
bestretchedortelescopedfrommonthtomonthsoastofitinwithhunting
contingencies,theonlylongtermsolutionwastoestablishsomecompatible
regularityinthehuntitself.Itisheresuggestedthatsuchasolutionwasfound.
Wheretechnology,theabundanceofgame,aclimatepermittingthecoldstorageof
meatandotherfactorsmadeitpossibleformonthlyextendedhuntingexpeditions
tobepredictablysuccessfulandtosuffice,thenecessaryconditionsforharmonyin
atleastcertainlocalitiesorforcertainperiodswouldhavebeenmet.
Totheextentthatanadaptivebalancebetweenthetwogreatimperativeswas
struck,then,harmonywouldhavebeenachievedifnotperfectly,thenatleastasa
tendency.Inthiscontext,justasthefemaleswouldhavebeenabletobringtheir
periodic,hormonallyliberatednoincreasinglyintophasewiththemenstrualflow,
sotheycouldhavebeenquiteliberatedaboutsayingyes,makingthisdependent
notonfertilitybutonsuccessinthehuntandyetabletotimetheirperiodofsexual
activityonmostoccasionssoastooverlapwiththeirfertileperiod.Womenwould
thenhavegotthebestofbothworlds.Ofnecessitytheywouldhaveliberated
themselvesfromhormonalcontrol,retainingthefallbackoptionofbeingableto
sayNoatanytimebuttheywouldhavedonethisonlytoreestablisha
normativeattunementwiththeircyclesnowonanotherlevel,asanexpressionof
collectivewillsettinguparhythmicpatterninwhichthewholeofculturenow

participated.Inthoselocalitieswhereconditionsbestpermittedsuchanoutcome,
ourancestorswouldhavebeenparticularlysuccessful,bothinpassingontheir
geneticcharacteristicsandinextendingthehegemonyoftheircultural
configuration,whichwouldeventuallyhavebecomethedominantcultureof
humanityleavingitstraces,therefore,inallsubsequentculturaltraditions.
Thehumanfemalereproductivecycle:conclusion
Inevaluatingtheselectionpressuresshapingevolutionofthehumanfemale
reproductivecycle,wehaveexaminedacultural/economicdeterminantintheform
ofthelogicofthestrike,andanatural/reproductiveonestipulatingthatdespite
everything,fertilesexmuststilloccur.Thecombinedeffectsofthesetwokindsof
determinantsmaynowbesummarised.Everyfemaleriskedbeingoccasionallyout
ofphase.Butpronouncedmenstruationatthewrongmoment,however
embarrassing,wasnotnearlysoseriousariskasuntimelyoestrussignalling.To
haveallowedevenonefemalesoestrussignallingtohaveendedacollectivesex
strikeatthewrongmomentwouldhavebeenpotentiallydisastrous.Toreducethe
riskofthistonil,suchsignallinghadtobeeliminatedaltogether.Bycontrast,the
oppositemistakebleedingduringwhatforotherswasthefertileperiodmay
havebeeninconvenientfortheindividualconcerned,arousingsocialuneaseand
provingreproductivelymaladaptiveinthelongterm,butitwouldnothave
underminedtheentireculturalenterpriseinsodirectaway.Itwouldhavebeen
tolerableonoccasion,provideditdidnotsettledownintobecomingthenormative,
regularpattern.Whileoestrussignallingsimplyhadtogo,then,itwasaffordablefor
menstrualsignallingtobestrongandeventobecomeaccentuated(forreasonstobe
discussed)despitesomeriskofitsbeingoccasionallyoutofphase.
Intermsoffemalebiologicalevolution,then,thesexstrikehypothesiswouldleadus
toexpectselectivepressurestowards(a)acapacityformenstrualsynchrony(b)
continuoussexualavailability,(c)enhancedcorticalcontroloversexuality(d)the
completeeliminationofoestrusbehaviourandoestrussignallingand(e)
accentuatedmenstrualbleedinginthehumanfemale.Thesearepreciselythe
featureswhichwedofind.
WithitsemphasisonNoornegativity,themodelwouldalsopredictthatthe
mainimpactofanyhormonalsurgesindeterminingfemalebehaviourwouldpeak
aroundthenegativepoleofthecycleindicatingrefusal,irritability,orrebellion
ratherthanaccentuatedmaritalavailabilityordesireforsexualsurrender.
Premenstrualtensionconfirmsthispredictionnicely.Wemaythinkofitasa
physiologicaltracestilloperativeamongstwomentodayofearliestWomankinds
struggletoassertthepowerofhersexstrike.Itisinterestingtospeculatewhat
mightbethecreativeformstakenbysuchirritabilityorunpredictabilityin
cultureswhichendorsedwomensperiodicityratherthandemandingitsdenialor
suppression.

Culturalselectionthelogicofthestrike
Inprinciple,itwouldonlyhaveneededtwofemalesperhapssisters,ormother
anddaughtertohavesetintrainthemovementtowardscultureasanunstoppable
force.Letussupposethatthetwofemalessupportedeachother,actedinconcert,
andbegantosynchronisetheirmenstrualcyclesaphenomenonwhichwouldhave
tendedtooccurspontaneously.Ifthesefemaleswereabletomotivatetwoormore
malestohuntforthembymakingsexdependentonhuntingsuccess,thenthey
mighthavebeenunusuallysuccessfulinsecuringmeatmuchmoresothanother
femalesinthepopulation.Inthatevent,theirstrategymighthaveseemedan
attractivemodelforotherfemalestofollow,anygeneticcharacteristicsfacilitating
suchsolidaritygraduallyspreadingthroughthepopulation.
Unlikeotherfamilyunitsinthepopulation,suchaunitwouldhavebeencapableof
recruitingnewmembersalmostindefinitely.Therearelimitstotheviablesizeor
territorialrangeofanyprimatetypehordeorothergrouping,butwithastrikethe
biggerthebetter.Strikeactioncutsacrossparochialboundariesspontaneouslyand
ofnecessity.Thestrikinggroupwouldhavehadapowerfulmotivetoextendits
influenceandrecruit,sincewitheachsexstrikeaswithanystrike,including
withincontemporaryculturetherecouldhavebeennotoleranceofneutrality.If
thesurroundingfemalescouldnotbebroughtintothestrike,thentheywerea
threattoit.Everyfemaleencounteredbyanymalewaspotentiallyononesideor
theother.Andthemorefemalesbroughtintothefold,themorepowerfulthestrike
oneachoccasion,andthegreatertheattractionsofjoiningthemovementnexttime.
Moreover,thefemalesadoptingthenewstrategywouldhavebeenlinkednottoone
ormoredominantindividualmalesbuttoanimmeasurablymoreeffectiveforce,
bothforhuntinganddefence.Inadditiontolinkswithoffspringorbiologicalkin,the
femaleswouldhavebeenattachedsexuallytoamalegroupwhosecapacityforjoint
actionwouldhavefarexceededthatofunorganisedmalesstillprioritisingtheir
individualisticstrugglesforstatus,sexandfood.Thebandofhuntermales,likethe
females,couldnothavebeenindifferenttothebehaviourofthesurroundingmale
population.Anymalewhocouldnotberecruitedintothenewstrategyhunting
bandwouldhaveconstitutedapotentialdanger.Thedominantindividualmale,the
lonerortherapistwouldhaveseemedasexualthreat.Anyofsuchmalesaswere
unabletocooperatewiththenewstrategywouldhavebeentreatedinprinciple
likeanyotheranimalpredatorchasedaway,woundedorpossiblykilled.Inany
event,whereconflictsoccurred,noviolentmalewouldhavebeenabletomatchthe
coercivepoweroftheorganised,sexuallymotivatedhuntingband.Thetraditional
malesexualstrategyofimmortalisingonesgenesthroughcompetitiveassertionsof
dominancewouldnolongerhaveworked.Andifthiswerethecase,thenthe
culturalconfigurationonceestablishedwouldhavespreadthroughthe
protohumanpopulationrapidly,sweepingallbeforeitspathandprecipitatingthe
extinctionofallcompetinghominidgroupsunabletoadoptthenewwayoflife.

Theuniverseofrules
Thefemalesinanyhypothesisedprotohumanpopulationwouldhavebeendivided
into(a)thosemoreliabletobreakranksandmateregardlessoftheirsisters
feelingsand(b)thosemoreliabletoformcoalitionswithotherfemales,following
thesexstrikestrategy,placingpressureonotherfemalestofollowsuiteand
submittingtosimilarpressuresthemselves.Ofthesetwofemaletypes,thereseems
littlequestionastowhichwouldmostplausiblyhaveledsociallifetowardsculture.
Weneedhardlyaskwhichwouldmosthaveneedednewcommunicativeskillsor
whichwouldhavebeenmostreceptive,potentially,tothenotionofarule.
Assumingthatsomeaccidentmadeittemporarilypossibletocontrolfire,itseems
unnecessarytoaskwhichfemaleswouldhavebeenmostlikelytosucceedin
keepingitalight.Andassumingthatthecomplexofactivitiesimpliedabove
speaking,rulemaking,firetending,huntingetc.representedaviablemodeof
production,andthatindividuallyorcompetitivelyobtainablefoodresourceswere
scarce,itisclearwhichcategoryoffemaleswouldhavesucceededinproducingthe
mostsurvivingoffspring.
Thesexstrikewouldhaveprovidedthemostfundamentalandobviousfeatureof
humanculture,andtheonewhichunderliesallthecapabilitiesforjointaction
whichhavebeensuggestedabovethefactthatitisbasedonrule.Here,thecrucial
pointisnotwhetherconventionalisedpatternsofbehaviourexist.Suchpatterns,
whichcanperhapsmisleadinglybecalledrulesbyexternalscientificobservers,
arediscerniblethroughouttheanimalworld.BaboonsandchimpanzeesbehaveIn
predictableways,accordingtoconventionalisedpatternsdeterminedboth
geneticallyandincomplexinterplaywiththesocialandexternalenvironment.But
thishasnothingtodowithrulesasdefinedhere.
Aculturalruleexistswhenthereisgenuinelycollectiveagreementtosecure
adherencetoit.Wheretheruleisconcerned,indifference,toleranceandneutrality
areofnecessityabandoned.Everyindividualwhohasenteredtheagreementhasto
submittoitsterms.Aviolationoutragesthecommunityasawhole.
Suchasituationdoesnotprevailamongnonhumanprimates.Totouchonacentral
issuethatofincestinsexualrelationsimagineadominantmalegorillawiththree
females.Twoofthesearehisdaughters.Thequestionisnotwhetherhehassexual
relationswithallthree.Thatwouldbeamatterofbehaviournotofrule.The
questionis:intheeventofthismalesattemptingsuchrelations,whatwouldbethe
reactionoftheothergorillasinthewidercommunity?Wouldtheyexpresssome
gorillaversionofcollectivemoraloutrage?
Wecanonlyanswernegatively.Althoughoneorotherneighbouringgorillamight
feelaggrieved,thesurroundingsocietyassuchwouldsimplyshowindifference,
leavingindividualstogetonwiththingsasbesttheycouldintheirownway,each
basicallypreoccupiedwithitsownaffairs.

Primatesocietyinthissensedoesnotexist.Admittedly,individualprimatesina
localcommunitymaytakesides,involvethemselvesinothersaffairs,express
angerandattempttoinvolvealliesintheiremotionsorschemesbutdespiteall
thisthereisnooverarchingcollectivebodywhichmakesititsbusinesstointerfere
withitsmembersprivateaffairs.Althoughcoalitions(asamongchimpanzees)may
comeintobeing,theyareformedarounddominantorthreatenedindividuals
seekingimmediateadvantageforthemselves,andallegiancesandcoalition
boundariesshiftasperceptionsofselfinterestchange.Theresultisthatindividuals
arelefttofollowthepossibilitiesopenedupbysocialinteraction;theydowhatthey
cangetawaywithdoing.Thereiscertainlynocollectivitywhichenduresbeyond
anddespitethefluxofalliancesandcoalitionsbetweenIndividuals.Nosocialgroup
canberelieduponeithertoarbitrateimpartiallyortoassertthevalidityor
otherwiseofuniversallyacknowledgedcategoriesofbehaviour.Thereexists,
consequently,nocollectivelyimposedsystemofconstraints,nosupraindividual
forcetoimposesanctionsnorule,nolaw.Wecanputthisanotherwayby
sayingthatinchimpanzeesociety,coalitionsindeedformbuteverycoalitionis
alwayssectional,opportunisticandunstable,nonebeingcapableofembodying
societyasawhole.
Humancultureinitstraditionalformsparticularlyisabovealltheruleoflawin
thissense:thatthebehaviourpatternscultureprescribesemanatefromasource
beyondinstinctandbeyondprivateenforcementbycoalitionsorindividuals.Ina
humanculturalsystemwithitsharmonisingcollectiveritualsanditsformal
structuresofkinshipwefindsomethingwhichtranscendstheparochial,pettylevel
ofinteractiontowhichprimatesareconfined.Beyondallprivatecoalitionsor
alliancesisawideroneasetofsharedunderstandingsunitingthecommunityasa
whole.Whilstitistruethatpracticalexperiencefallsshortofideals,andthat
complexsocietiesareindeedcharacteristicallyconflictridden,thefactremains
thatsharedperceptionsandunderstandingsarewhatlanguage,ritualandculturein
itstraditionalformsareessentiallyabout.Nohuntergatherercommunity,inany
event,canbeunderstoodwithoutreferencetothislevelofitsbeing,whichtendsto
bethemostmeaningfulforitsmembersthemselves.Anditissurelyinconceivable
thatprimatedominancecouldhaveledtosuchalevel.Itcouldneverhaveledto
sharedsymbolandrite,becausewithitsrootsinthedominanceofprivateinterest
itcouldneverhaveledtoasufficientlywideandrepresentativecoalition.Itcould
nothavesustainedthewhollynecessaryelementofcollectiveresponsibilityand
collectiveintolerancewhichcharacteriseshumanculturalrulemakingatitsbest
intoleranceofrape,ofmurder,ofincestuousabuse,ofantisocialgreed.
Dominanceisfromthisperspectivetheantithesisofculture.Itisthepseudolaw,the
pseudoorderofalliancesintheserviceofprivateinterestandforcethepatterned,
structuredoutcomeofselfseekinginteractionbasedoninducement,threatand
fear.Despiteallthesubtletiesofsocialinteractionwhichprimatologists
understandablycelebrate,anddespitewhateverglimpsestheremaybeofgenerous
andsharingbehaviour,thepopularconceptionofjunglelawretainsitsessential
validityinthisrespect.Excepttotheextentthatgeneticrelatednessmotivates

altruism,suchasituationleadseachindividualtolooktoitself,toattempttobend
otherstoitsprivateinterests(interpretableultimatelyasthoseofitsgenes)andto
displayultimateindifferencetothefateofthewidercommunityofwhichitisapart.
Thereisnowaythatthiscouldhaveledtocultureexceptalongtheroadof
revolutionary,pointbypointnegationandtranscendenceofitsdeepestlogic.
Ontheotherhand,ifwearelookingforasourceofcollective,impersonal
intoleranceleadingtotheuniverseofrules,wecanhavenobettermodelthanthat
ofthestrike.Likechimpanzeealliances,thestrikeisacoalition.Butitisacoalition
withadifference.Thestrikebyitsverynatureunderminesthedominanceofprivate
interest.Ithasitsownlogic,sweepingalongindividualscaughtupinitscurrent.It
cannotbeindifferent.Itmustimposethelawitsownlawofsolidaritywith
intolerance,itssurvivaldependingonit.Ithastoextend,intrude,embraceand
includeevermorewidelytoavoidbeingthrownintoreverse.Andyetthestrike
conceptavoidstheantiDarwinianmysticismorveiledtheologismwhichhas
accompaniedpreviousattemptstoassertinhumanityaspiritual,moralor
psychologicaluniquenessdemarcatingusfromtheanimalrealm.Wearenot
requiredtoassumeanythinggeneticallyorsociallyunrealisticintermsofaltruism
ormorality.Theindividualseeksher/hismaterialinterestswhichmaywell
includethoseofreproductionandgeneticselfperpetuationthroughthoseofthe
collectivitywhichisinvolvedinthestrike.Atthispoint,kinselectionindeed
transcendsitself,forinprinciplethestrikingindividualmustbemotivatedtodefend
andidentifyequallywithallkinwhomustnowbedefinedasallthoseinvolvedin
thestrikeinsteadofdiscriminatinginfavourofthosegeneticallymostclose.The
modelleadsustotheconceptofculturebecauseitprovidesarealisticframework
withinwhichbiologicalinterestscanfinallytranscendthemselvesapointof
intersectionatwhichgenetic,personalandcollectiveinterestscanbeexperienced
tocoincide.
Sexualmorality
Baboonsandchimpanzeesshownotraceofsexualmorality.Afemalechimpanzee
maybecoyorwithdrawn,butsheshowsnosexualembarrassmentorshame.
Whethersheengagesinintercoursemaydependonmanyfactors.Butindeciding
whetherthereexistssexualmoralityornot,thequestionisnotwhetheranymale
maycomeupandstarttocopulatesometimeshewillbeinvited,sometimeshewill
not.Neitheriscoynessrelevantinallanimalspecies,courtingbehaviourtakes
place,andoneorotherparticipantmayoftenplayatbeinghardtocatch.In
determiningthepresenceorabsenceofsexualmorality,wehavetoaskadifferent
question.Supposethataprimatefemalemadeitclearthatwhenevershewas
receptivephysiologically,malesingeneralwerewelcomepubliclytoexamineher
intimateregions,tocompeteforintimatecontactorcopulatewithheratwill,
regardlessofwhatotherfemalesfeltaboutthis.Whatwouldbetheattitudeofher
sisters?Wouldtheyfeelunderminedbyher?Wouldtheytrytoexertpressureon
hernottobesoloose?

Therearenosocialconditionsunderwhichtheywoulddothis.Femalechimpanzees
cannotcollectivelyjudgeorshapesexualbehaviour.Thenecessaryelementof
unanimityisalwayslacking.Couldsufficientunanimitybeachieved,theresult
wouldbeachimpanzeeversionoftheculturalinstitutionknownashumansexual
morality.
Thesexstrikegivesussuchconditions.Fromthemomentwhentwoormore
protohumanfemaleswentonstrike,supportingoneanotherinthemaintenanceof
suchaction,thecontextoftheirsexualityhadbecometransformed.Eachmaynot
havebeenmotivatedtowearapubiccoveringorclothes.Butnolongercouldshein
publicdowithherbodyassheliked.Eachhadtotakeaccountofhersisters,whose
responseswouldhavebeenshapedbytherequirementsoftheirownsolidarity.All
aroundher,then,wasasetofcollectiveconstraints.Sexualbehaviourwasnowin
moraltermseitherrightorwrong.Evenaprivateactoflovemaking,farawayin
somesecludedspot,couldnowbeviewedasawrongdirectedagainstallifit
underminedwhatwassupposedtobeageneralsexualstrike.
Suchmoralitywasallintrusive.Bygoingonstrike,thefemaleswereextendingtheir
claimseveroutwards,stretchingtheirinfluenceintoallcornersoflife,exertinga
collectivestakeinthevaluewhichtheirsexualitynowrepresentedforthem.Such
collectivesexualselfcontrolwhichistheantithesisofprimateoestrusbehaviour
wasthesourceoftheirpride,theirstatusaswomen,theireconomicandsocial
power.Eachfemalecouldnolongerallowherinstinctstocarryherwherethey
would.Asasexualbeing,shewasanassettohergendergroupasawhole.Herbody
wasnolongerjustthatofaphysicalindividual.Itwastheincarnationofsomething
collective,somethinguniversalor,tousetheterminologyoflaterreligions,
somethingdivine.Itwaspartofthemostprecious,irreplaceable,inviolable
treasureofallthebodyofWomankind,whichwastobeguardedagainstallmale
attemptsatseductionorprivatisation.
*****
Thestrikenotonlygeneratesfemalesexualmorality.Italsogivesusmalemorality
asitsmirrorimage.Foroncetwoormoremaleswereactingascooperative
hunters,respectingtheinviolabilityoftheirsexualpartnersperiodicstrike,they
too,bytheinternallogicofthesituation,wouldhavefeltthreatenedbyanymale
defianceoftherules.Withoutvigilantselfdefenceagainstthespectreofthe
dominantmale,theymighthavelosttheirwomen.Beforethewholecommunity
headedforstarvationfollowingculturalcollapse,themembersofthehuntingband
wouldhavebecomesexuallyexpropriatedreduced,perhaps,tosomethinglikethe
statusofbaboonlikebachelormalesexcludedfromaccesstofemalesbyafew
dominantoverlords.Such,inanyevent,mighthavebeenthefear.Itwasthis
tangiblecollectivefearwhichgaveforcetothemensmoralvigilance.
Thehuntersnewsexualsecurityrestedonaninversionofpreviouspatternsof
femalemateselection.Whatfemalesfoundsexuallyappealinginmalesnowwas
neitheraggressivenessnordominance,butadherencetoruleandsuccessinco

operativehunting.Thispattern,althoughlogicalunderthenewcircumstances,was
notnatural.Itwasareversaloftheusualhigherprimatepattern,andcouldbe
sustainedbyeachindividualwomanonlytotheextentthatshefeltherselftobeina
widersystemwhichworkedandwhichvalidatedherchoice.Itcouldeasilybe
undermined:Indeed,givenafewmalessuccessinbreakingwomensresistance,
individualfemalesmightquicklyreverttothesearchfordominanceinsexual
partners.Thedominancesuppressingbandofmales,inotherwords,hadasgreata
collectiveinterestasthefemalesinupholdingtheneworderatallpoints.Withthe
humanrevolution,theyhadwonforthemselvescollectivesexualsecuritywithout
strugglesfordominance,withouthavesandhavenots,withoutfearofcomplete
sexualexpropriation.Itwasatreasuretheycouldnotaffordtolose.
Incestandexogamy
Thesexstrikemodelnotonlygivesussexualmoralityinageneralsense.Italso
accountsfortheincesttaboo.
Nootherpostulatedstartingpointcanaccountfortheemergenceofthefully
culturalincesttaboososimplyandneatly.Wearenotaskedtobelievethatfemale
protohumansatacertainstagebegancomplicatinglifebyaddinganincesttaboo
tothealreadyexistingconfigurationofartificialconstraints.Stilllessneedwe
followLeviStraussinpostulating(ashedoesinTheElementaryStructuresof
Kinship)thesuddenappearanceofsexualgenerosityandaltruismonthepartof
womanexchanginggroupsofdominantmales.
Thesexstrikeinhibitedthesexualadvancesofstayathome,nonhuntingmalesof
allsuchmales,regardlessofstatusoraffiliation.Therecouldbenosexexceptwith
maleswhobroughtmeat.Byremainingfaithfultothisprincipleevenwithregardto
theirownimmaturemaleoffspring,thefemalesinvolvedweresimplifyinglife,not
complicatingit.Theinhibitionofyoungmalesincestuousadvanceswastheresult.
Inotherwords,theincestruleisexplainedasthesexstrikewhenexperienced
fromwithinbymaleoffspringwhoparticipateinthesolidarityofthestrike.
Womensimpositionofthisruleisnotaseparatething:itistheirrefusalor
inabilitytothreatenthestrikeorotherwisecomplicatemattersbymakingan
exceptionofstayathomesons.
Letusreviewthepicturewhichthemodeloutlines.Thefemalesareonsexstrike.
Theyareinsistingthatadulthuntermalesseparatethemselvesoffandgooutto
hunt.Thesemaleswillnotgounlesstheyaresecureintheknowledgethatthestrike
appliestoallthoseoftheirgenderwithoutfavourordiscriminationandin
particularthatthefemaleswillremainduringtheirabsenceincontrolofthe
situationbackathome.Theyneedtoknowthatnoyoungmalesleftbehind,for
example,willbeallowedtogaintheupperhandinsecuringsexualrelationswith
anyfemale.Aspartoftheirsexstrike,then,thefemalesmustinhibittheirsonsand
showthatyieldingsexuallytothemwouldbeunthinkable.

Totheextentthatsexualfreedominrelationswiththeirmothers/sistersis
impossible,theyoungmalesineachgroupbecomeconditionedagainstperceiving
theirownwomenaspotentialsexualpartners.Theythereforelookelsewherefor
partnersastheymature.Theycannotjointhehuntingbandoftheirfathers,forthat
wouldinvolvedifficultieswiththeirownconditioning.Itwouldmeansharingin
theirfatherssolidarityandthereforethinkingtheunthinkableseeingtheir
mothers/sistersaswomentowhomgiftsofmeatarebroughtinexpectationof
sexualrewards.Sotheymusteitherjoinanotherhuntingband,orifnoneexists
formoneoftheirown.Theremustbe,then,atleasttwohuntingbandswhose
identitiesandsolidaritiesarecounterposed.Mencanjoinoneortheother,butnot
both.Thecleavagebetweenfathersandsonsexistsalready;wehaveonlyto
assumeitspermanenceforthenecessarydualorganisationtherequisitedivision
ofthemalecommunityintotwocounterposedcamps,eachwithitsowninternal
solidaritytocomeintoview.
Therecentlymaturedhuntersseeksexualrelationsoutsidethecommunityoftheir
ownwomen.Butwhichotherwomenexistwithinthesystemforthemtoturnto?
Thereisananswer.Theirfathersmusthavebeennurturedinafemalegroupof
mothersandsisterswithwhomsexualfreedomwas(forthesefathers)
unthinkable.Inseekingsexualrelations,thesonsmustturn,therefore(sincethere
arenootherwomeninthesystem)tothisfemalegroup.Assumingthattheyseek
partnersoftheirowngeneration,thesonswillinfactrelatetothedaughtersofthis
groupfatherssistersdaughters,whowouldalsobemothersbrothers
daughters.Inotherwords,themodelhasgeneratedthestandardanthropological
formofamatrilinealexogamousmoietysystem,inwhichmarriageiswith
classificatorycrosscousins.
Theroleofbrothers
Theexogamyrulewouldinturnhavebuttressedthesexstrikepowerofwomen.On
conditionthatwomenretainedinternalascendancywithineachsexstrikingunit,it
wouldnowhavebeenpossibletodrawonmaleoffspring,asthesegrewup,asan
importantresource.Apotentialrapistwouldhaveencounteredagroupofmothers,
sisters,daughtersandtheirmalekinactingtogetherinmaintainingtheinviolability
ofeachstrike.Totheextentthatoffspringcouldnotconstitutesexualthreats
themselves,everywomanwouldhavebeenabletocallonasonorbrothertoassist
herinfightingoffasexualthreat.Thiswouldhavemeantthatwhilstasserting
themselvesasonstrike,womenwouldhavegainedrepossessionoftheirmalekin
attheverymomentofmaximumdisjunctionfrommenasmaritalpartnersina
sensereplacingonekindofpartnerwithanother.Forthemoment,kinshiprelations
wouldhaveoverriddenrelationsofsex.Consequently,asthemenwentofftohunt,
womenwouldnothaveneededtoremainatthehomebaseentirelywithoutmale
protection.Theycouldalwayshavearrangedforsomemensonsandbrothersto
staybehind,childrenwouldhavehadastheirguardiansnotonlytheirmothersbut
alsotheirmothersbrothers.Suchcollaborationbetweenmaleandfemalesiblings,

asiswellknown,isacharacteristicfeatureofhuntergathererandothertraditional
cultures.
Classificatorykinship
Themodelspecificallygeneratesclassificatorykinshipthekindofkinshiplogic
characteristicofmosthuntergathererandothertraditionalcultures.
Theessenceofthisisthatsiblingsoccupysimilarpositionsinthetotalsocial
structure.Ifawomanhasarelationship,anyofhersistersmayintheoryjoinherin
exercisingtherightsorfulfillingtheobligationswhichthatrelationshipentails.As
farasformalstructuringisconcerned(actualbehaviourbeingignoredhereforthe
sakeofargument),shemaystandinforhersister(justasanyofhersistersmay
standinforher)inanykinshipcapacity,whetheritbeitasmothertoher(the
sisters)child,asmotherinlawtohersistersdaughtershusbandoreven,
theoretically,aswifetoasistershusband.Moreover,sincesistersareeachothers
equivalents,itfollowsthattheoretically,nomothershoulddiscriminateinfavour
ofherownbiologicalchildrenasopposedtothoseofhersister.Alloftheirjoint
childrenareaddressedasdaughterorsonIndiscriminately,andallareintheory
collectivelysistersandbrotherstoeachotherwhichisanexampleofwhat
anthropologistsmeanwhentheysaythatpeoplewhouseaclassificatorysystem,
suchastheAustralianAborigines,donotrecognizephysiologicalbutonlysocial
relationships.Overthegenerations,theclassofpeoplewhocanbeconsidered
theoreticallyonessisters(orbrothers)mayexpandindefinitely.
ClassificatorykinshipseemspuzzlingtoEuropeansbecausetheegoorIisnotits
pointofdeparture.Neitheristhetwoparentfamily.Althoughsuchkinshipdoes
noteliminateintimacyorindividuality,itoperatesonanotherlevelalevelatwhich
grouptogrouprelationshipshaveprimacyoverpersonalinterestsorbonds.Onthis
level,thereisaprofoundlymeaningfulsenseinwhichitreallydoesnotmatterwho
theindividualis.Whatmattersiseveryonesparticipationinthecollectiveidentity
ofaclassofpeopleinsimilarpositions,eachcategoryorclassdefiningitselfthrough
itsrelationshipswithotherclasses.This,itwillberemembered,isafundamental
featureofoursexstrikemodel,inwhichthewomenasawholesayyesornoin
relatingcollectivelytotheirsexualpartnerstakenasawhole.
TheMoon
Itisamysteriousbutundeniablefactthatallovertheworld,huntingtraditionslink
successinthechasewiththemoon.Whereasagriculturalpeoplesascribecentrality
toseasonalchangesandtothesunintheirsymbolicsystems,huntersusuallyview
themoonashavingthegreaterstatusandpower.ThroughoutAboriginalAustralia,
forexample,themoonisconsiderablymoreimportantmythologicallythanthesun;
thesameappliestomostoftheBushmanculturesofsouthernAfrica.Huntingmagic
isveryfrequentlylinkedwiththemoon,aswhenhunterspraytothemoonforgood
luck;itisvirtuallyunknownforthesuntoplaysucharole.Atfirstsight,allofthis

appearspuzzling:inreallife,humanstendtohuntinbroaddaylight,sothat
moonlightseemsinmaterialtermsirrelevant.
Butthereisanexplanation.Humanshavepoornocturnalvision.Logically,this
oughttobeadisadvantagetoanyhuntinganimal.Stealthisnevereasiestin
daylight;thetechniquesofdeceptionintrinsictothehuntaremosteffectivein
darknessorinthetwilighthours.Wolves,foxes,catsandmostothercarnivorous
animalshuntbynight.Acarnivorerigidlyrestrictedtodaylighthourswouldbe
unusualinnatureandwouldnotmakeacompetitivehunter.Manymodelsofearly
humanhuntingenvisagetrailingafterpreyanimalsperhapsslightlywoundedfor
hoursorevendaysuntiltheyarefinallyexhausted.Itwouldbeahandicapifthe
chasealwayshadtobeabandonedatdusk,sometimesallowingthevictimtoescape.
Inshort:althoughearlyhumanswouldhavepreferredtohuntindaylight,flexibility
wouldhavepaiddividends.Thosehunterswhocouldonoccasiontravelovernight
orextendthehuntintothetwilighthourswouldhavefaredbetterthanthosewho
couldnot.
Whenthemoonisfull,thefearsofthedarkwhichmosthumansdisplayare
minimisedandnocturnaltravelbecomespossible.Themoonmaythereforehave
beenimportanttoourancestorsnotbecausehuntinginourcasewasever
exclusivelynocturnal,butbecauseforseveraldaysoncepermonth,itslight
extendedouroptions,enablingustochoosebetweenorcombinediurnaland
nocturnalhunting.ArchaeologicaldiscoveriesofUpperPalaeolithiclunarcalendars
mayberelevantinthiscontext.Thereiscertainlynoshortageofcontemporary
ethnographicevidenceshowingthatwheretraditionalpeoplestravelorhuntby
nightastheyoftenmustthemoonslightismuchvalued.
Forsolidmaterialreasons,inanyevent,itwouldhavebeenconvenientifhunting
expeditionsweretobeorganisedonceperhumanbiological(menstrual)month
forthisrhythmtocoincide,normatively,withtheperiodicityofthemoon.Besides
otheradvantages,thevisiblemoonwouldhaveprovidedanobviousclock,visible
toeveryone,byreferencetowhichtosynchronisehuntingscheduleswiththe
menstrualcycle.Inthiscontext,wecouldpredictthatthehumanfemalemenstrual
cycle,unlikethatofchimpanzees,baboonsandmostotherprimates,shouldhavean
averageperiodicityof29.5daysexactlymatchingthatofthemoon.This,ofcourse,
isthecase.
Thediscoveryoffire
Amongthetechnologicalpreconditionsrequiredbythenovelsystem,twostandout
inprominence.Atthestartofthehumanrevolutioncamethemasteryofartificial
toolsthebasket,diggingstick,woodenclub,thrownstoneorpointedstick.
Towardsthecloseoftherevolutionasperhapstheculminatingtechnologicalevent
ofthehominisationprocesscamethemasteryoffire.Primitivemythologiesthe
worldoverrepeatedlyemphasisethathumansdifferfromanimalcarnivoresin
eatingtheirmeatproperlycooked.

Intheearlieststages,protohumanmalesmightoftenhavediscoveredfire.They
maysometimeshavetastedmeatwhichhadbeenaccidentallycookedasaprey
animalwasoccasionallytrappedinanaturallycausedblaze.Mosttheoretical
speculationsonthediscoveryoffireindeedassumesuchanevent,andthengoonto
inferthatman,becauseofhislargebrain,wouldhaverealisedtheadvantagesto
begainedfromcookingrawmeat,whereuponthedomesticationoffirewouldhave
beenanobviouslogicalstep.
Inreality,accidentaldiscoveriesoffireorofcookingwouldnotnecessarilyhave
beenrelevant.Preservingandreproducingfirenotjustfindingitwasthecrucial
challenge,andthisdemandedcertainsocialandsexualpreconditions,notjust
intellectualones.Firetendingcouldnotsuccessfullyhavebeenlefttomales,whose
prioritywasandhadtobethehunt,andforwhomfreedomofmovementhadto
remaintheparamountconsideration.Whereveramanwasthetemporarysole
custodianofafortunatelydiscoveredfire,wecanimaginehimalltoooftenchasing
afterananimalonlytodropthebrandortoreturnhourslatertofindtheembers
extinguishedbyashower.Theonlysafewaytopreserveaflamewhichhadbeen
foundwouldhavebeentostaywithitatallcosts,perhapstakingturnstosleepand
certainlywatchingit,feedingitanddefendingitagainstalldangersatalltimes,
nightandday.
Onanyinterpretationofearlyhumanityssexualdivisionoflabour,itisimpossible
tosquaresuchresponsibilitieswiththerolestraditionallyallocatedtomen.
Essentially,fireasapreserved,controlledresourcepresupposedtheinstitutionof
thefixedhomebase.Notuntilthecampwaspermanentlyoccupiedcouldtherebe
anyhopeofkeepingalightwhateverfirebrandsweretemporarilyseized.Wecan
safelyinferthatonlythefemalesex,oncefreedfromthenecessitytoroam
perpetuallywiththemales,couldhavebeenpositionedtomeetthisscaleof
challenge.
Millenniawouldelapsebetweenthefirstculturallypreservedtraditionoffire
tendingontheonehand,andthediscoveryofhowtomakefireontheother.Inthe
meantime,thehomebaseandfirewouldhavebeenvirtuallysynonymous,neither
beingabletoexistwithouttheother.Anyonewantingfirewouldhavebeen
compelledtoreturnhometogetit.Thelikelihoodofbeingablesimplytolightupa
firewhileoutinthebushwouldhavebeenremote.Andfromthis,animportant
consequencewouldhaveflowed:nohuntercouldhavegothismeatcookedwithout
firsttakingthekillhome.
Therawandthecooked
Thisbringsustooneofthetheorysmostintriguingimplications,whichwill
generatefinegrainpredictionsastotherangeofvariabilityofmythicoritual
structurestheworldover.Therawandthecookedisoneofasmallnumberof
logicalstructureswhichhavebeenshownbyClaudeLviStrausstounderliethe
mythologicalsystemsofbothNorthandSouthAmerica.Amaterialistexplanation
forsuchstructuraluniformitieswillnowbesuggested.

*****
Withinthespecificationsofthemodel,menstaskwastokillgame;womenswasto
actasguardiansofthefiresneededforcookingthemeat.Theconnectionwith
menstrualbloodsymbolismcannowbeclarified.Thecontrastbetweenmensroles
andwomenscanbedefinedinrelationtoblood:whilemeningeneralmonopolised
theweaponsnecessaryforthesheddingofanimalblood,womenmonopolisedthe
firenecessarytoremovevisiblebloodfrommeat.
Inthiscontextwecandiscerntheoutlinesofanextraordinarilycoherentsymbolic
system.Womensmonthlyperiodicsexstrike,ithasbeenhavesuggested,was
normativelysynchronisedwiththeonsetofmenstruation.Menstrualbleeding,in
otherwords,signalledtomenasexualNo.IwillnowoutlinewhatIbelievemust
havebeenthesymboliccorrelatesofthis.
Somehow,itbecameestablishedthatbloodwassimplyblood.Thatis,itmadeno
differencewherethebloodcamefrom:itwasconceptuallyallthesame.Theblood
ofmurder,thebloodofthehunt,thebloodofmenstruationorofchildbirth:itwas
allinthefinalanalysisjustblood.Wecanspeculateastotheintellectualprocesses
involvedinmakingthisidentification.Wecandescribeitasmetaphor,perhaps,or
asanalogy.Whatisimportantisthatoncetheconfusionormerginghadbeen
accomplishedanextraordinaryresultwouldhavebeenachieved.Ifthepreceding
argumentsinconnectionwithmenstruationareaccepted,thennosubstancecould
havebeenequatedwithmenstrualbloodwithoutthemostpotentofconsequences
inevokingrespectorinconveyingpower.
Oncethebloodofthehunthadbeenlikenedtomenstrualblood,asymbolic
breakthroughwouldhavebeenmade.Atastroke,womenwouldhaveachieveda
radicalsimplificationofsomeoflifesmostpressingproblems.Nomorecouldmen
feelateaseabouteatingananimalraw,outinthebushevenifnoonewere
looking.Eachtimeagroupofmenkilledananimal,itsfleshwouldhaveseemedto
themtomenstruate.Themenwouldhavehadtotakeithomeinordertogetthe
fleshcooked,thevisiblebloodremoved,andthemeattherebyrenderedsafetoeat.
Inotherwords,thesamebloodsymbolthroughwhichwomentemporarily
separatedthemselvesfrommenwouldhavefunctionedonaneconomiclevelas
well,temporarilyseparatinggameanimalsfromtheirpotentialconsumers.The
equationofbloodwithbloodwouldhaveextendedwomensbloodsymbolisedsex
striketotheworldofconsumptiongenerally,sothatwhilstbloodofanykindwas
flowing,abstinencehadtobeobservednotonlywithregardtosexbutwithregard
tomeateating,too
Oncemensmeathadbeenbroughthomeforcooking,itwouldhaveenteredthe
femininesphere.Wecanimagine,perhaps,largeearthovensfilledwithhotstones
intowhichthegamewasput.Totheextentthatthebloodinthemeatwaslike
menstrualblood,theovensmayhavebeenperceivedaslikeimmensewombsin
whichatransformativeprocesswastakingplace.Inthecaseofalargeanimalsuch
asamammoththecookingmayhavelastedmanyhours.Thetestofwhetherthe

meatwasfinallyreadyornotwouldhavebeenasimpleone:Wasthebloodinitstill
visible?Ifitwas,theovenhadyetmoreworktodo.Ifnobloodcouldbeseen,the
cookingprocesshadbeencompletedwhereuponeatingcouldsafelybegin.
Specificationsofthelunarmodel
Itisexcitingtodiscoverthatmythsandfairytalesfamiliartousbothinourown
cultureandfromethnographicaccountscanbeunderstoodasexpressionsofthis
logic.Beforeitispossibletoexplainthis,however,itwillbenecessarytodescribein
greaterdetailtheculturalnormswhichthesexstrikestrategywouldhave
generated.Someofthedetailedspecificationsoftheresultingmodeldetailssuch
asthepreciserelationshipbetweencookingtimeandwomensmenstrualonsets
mayatfirstsightseempuzzling;theirbearingonthestudyofritualandmythwill
becomeclearasweproceed.
*****
Justas,earlier,itwasdeducedthatanyperiodicsexstrikemusthavesynchronised
withthemenstrualflow,sonowwemustassumethattheperiodicitiesofthemoon
andofthecookingprocessthealternationofthemoonbetweendarkandlight,
andofediblefleshbetweenrawandcookedphaseswererhythmscapableof
beingincorporatedintothesamesystem.Inthiscontext,itwillbefoundthataswe
attempttofitthevariousbipolarpiecesintothepicture,thereisawrongwayanda
rightwayroundforeachelementonlyonewayofproducingaresultwhichmakes
sense.
Theargumentispurelylogical.Ifweask,forexample,whetherthecookingprocess
tookplacewhenwomenweremenstruatingorwhentheywerefertile,therecanbe
nodoubtastotheanswer.Cookingwouldhavebeenpointlessiftherewerenomeat
tocook.Thecookingprocesshadtobegin,then,noearlierthanattheconclusionof
thesexstrike,whenthehunterswouldhavebeenexpectedtoreturnhomewith
theirkills.Bythistime,thewomensmenstrualperiodswouldhavebeenoverand
thefertileperiodwouldhavebeenbeginningorabouttobegin.Wehavealready
determinedthatthiswouldhavebeenthenormativetimeformaritalsex.Thisgives
usapreliminaryresult:meateatingandsexwouldhavebeenconcurrentactivities.
Followingeachsexstrike,wecanpictureaperiodofcelebrationinwhich,dayafter
day,womenandmenfeastedoncookedmeat,formedintocouplesandenjoyedone
anothersbodies.
Thesamekindofreasoningwillfillintheremainingessentialdetailsofthemodel
(Figs.1,2).Ifhuntingtakesplacewhilethemooniswaxingandsexistotakeplace
immediatelyfollowingthehunt,thephaseoffeasting/celebrationmustbeginatthe
fullmoon.Logically,themomentoffullmoonwouldhavetobeaparadoxorpointof
transition,marking(a)theclimaxofthehunt(thehuntsconsummationbringingit
toanend)and(b)thepointatwhichcooking,sexandfeastingallbegin.Ifovulation
occursaroundthistime(whichitmustdoifsexistobefertile),thenmenstruation,
bycontrast,mustoccurattheoppositepointinthelunarmonthcoincidingwith

themoonsabsencefromthesky.Darkmoon,then,mustmarktheonsetofthesex
strike.Ifthefullmoonwiththesuccessofthehuntbringsthisstriketoa
conclusion,weareleftwithtwoweeksinwhichtobeonstrike(whilethemenare
preparingforandengaginginthehunt)andtwoweeksinwhichtorelaxandenjoy
theresults.Fullmoonmarksthetransitionfromsexstriketotheconsumption
phase.Darkmoonmarksthereversetransitionbackintothesexstrikephase.

Figure1.Themodel:lunarscheduledalternationbetweenhuntingandfeasting,
menstruationandsex.


Weareleft,then,withapictureoftwosocialworldscorrespondingtotwokindsof
timethatofthewaxingmoonontheonehand,waningmoonontheother.Inone
temporalsector,bloodrelationsdominate,maritalrelationsareexcluded,meatis
rawandmeathungerprevails;intheother,cookingfiresarelit,maritalrelations
predominateandthereisfeastingoncookedmeat.Inthefirstphase,menare
essentiallymaternaluncles,sonsandbrotherstotheirkin,whilewomenare
mothers,sistersanddaughters;withthetransitiontothesecondphase,
everyoneexchangespartnersandrolestobecomespousesorloverstopolar
oppositekindsofrelatives.

Ritual
Thisgivesusthepointofdeparturefortheworldsmostrecurrentritualand
mythologicaltraditions.Infolkloretheworldover,themomentsformagical
transformationare,aboveall,thoseofdarkandfullmoon.Itisatsuchtimesthat
menrevealthemselvesaswerewolves,witchescasttheirterriblespellsortoads
turnintoprinces.
*****
Themenstrualsexstrikewhichformsthemodelspointofdepartureisritual
powerinitsinitial,simpleform.Admittedly,goingonstrikeinthecircumstances
definedbythemodelmaynotnecessarilyappeartobeaceremony,northecasting
ofamagicalspell,northeperformanceofareligiousact.Butalreadyitdisplays
thedefiningcharacteristicsofritualactioninhumanculture.
Theprocessislinkedwiththemoon.Wemayimaginetheparticipantsengagingin
dancing,singingorothercollectiveactivitiesatfullanddarkmoon,emotional
harmonyassistingintheachievementofphysiologicalharmonyandhence
menstrualsynchrony.Ingoingonlunarscheduledmenstrualsexstrike,each
womanbringsherbodyintotunewithaninternalclockwhichmayseemtoderive
fromtheskyitself,andwhichisinanyeventbeyondarbitrarymanipulationor
consciousdirectionbyindividuals.Thebloodflowhasitsownperiodicity,
independentofhumanwill,anditisthisseeminglytranscendentalforcewhich
regularlybindstheparticipantstoeachother,settingthemapartinadistinct
sphere.
Thestrikeiscoercive.Itsnecessarytendencyistonegatethesexualpolitical
dominanceofmen.Totheextentthatitslogicprevails,womenpresentacommon
front,liningupasonebody.Eachmanrespectstheboundarytheypresent;none
willsexuallyinvadethefemininesphere.Yetthepowerofthestriketranscendsthe
needforviolence.Itssanctionisthethreatofexclusion.Theuncooperativemale
risksexcommunicationnotonlyfromfemalecompanybutfromthehuman
communityassuch.Thisisaforcefulsanction,withultimatedeathverymuch
implied.Yetthethreatworksautonomously.Amanwhohasviolatedawoman
becomesstainedwithherblood;hisactionthereforepubliclymarkshimout.Ashe
anticipatestheconsequences,fearworksitsownperhapslethaleffects.Toits
wouldbeviolators,therefore,menstrualbloodseemspoisonousinaquiteliteral
way.
*****

Ritualpoweramonghuntergatherersandothersintheethnographicrecordhasthe
followinggeneralcharacteristics:

1.Itsustainsitsmomentumprimarilythroughparticipatory.rhythmic,
synchronisedactivitiessuchasdancingandsinging;
2.Itinvolvesthesynchronisationoftheactivitiesofhumanswiththoseofthe
heavenlybodies;
3.Itappealstoformsofauthoritywhichtranscendthepowersofhuman
individuals;
4.Itfrequentlydemandstheobservanceofsexualanddietarytaboos,insistingon
theinviolabilityofpersonsorthingssetapart;
5.Wheresanctionsareconcerned,theseareprimarilynonviolentandoperate
directlythroughtheemotions.Peoplerespectritualpowerforfearofoffendingthe
spiritsandtherebyincurringillnessorbadluck.
Totheextentthatwomenintraditionalculturesaresaidtopossessritualpower,
menusuallydepictthisnegatively.Virtuallythroughouttheworld,thestrongestand
mostnegativeformoffeminineritualpoweristhepotencyofmenstrualblood,male
contactwithwhichisthoughttoproduceillnessorbadluck.Thereareoften
comparableorassociatedattitudestowardsbloodinmeat.
Despitethesenegativeattitudes,inculturesinwhichmenclaimamonopolyover
ritualpower,theyfrequentlyassertsuchpowerbybleeding.Undersuch
circumstances,thebloodisthoughtofaslifegivingandpositive.Synchronisedmale
childbirthandmenstruationareinfactrecurrentfeaturesofsecretmale
initiationrites(seebelow),whoseassociatedmythsinsistthatmenspoweronce
hadtobestolenfromwomen.
Ifritualpowertheworldoverstemmedfromatraditioninwhichwomenwent
periodicallyonlunarscheduledmenstrualsexstrike,thesearepreciselythefeatures
wewouldexpecttofind.
Conceptsofdivinity
Thestriketranscendstheidentityofphysicalindividuals.Itsparticipantsmaynot
yetbepriestesses,buteachiscertainlytherepresentativeofanoverridingsocial
power.Ifthesexstrikecanextendindefinitelyifinprincipleitisasomnipresentas
ismenstrualsynchronyorthemoonslighttheninembodyingthispower,each
womanstandsforsomethingtranscendental.Shestandsforhersisters,whomaybe
potentiallylimitlessinnumber.Andifmenrespectthispower,thenalthoughthey
needacknowledgenodivinity,thereispresenthereatleastsomethingoftheformal
structureofreligiousdeferencetohigherbeings.
Letusreexaminethecharacteristicsofthesewomen.Whatpowersdotheyreally
possess?Andinwhatrespectsdothesepowersresembleordifferfromthosewhich,
inmoredeveloped,complexsocialsystems,willbecomethoughtofasthoseofthe
gods?

Thesewomencannotmagicallystrikemendeadbuttheycancertainlyexclude
themfromsex.Tothatextent,mencanberenderedimpotentatastroke.Noprayers
areofferedtothesewomen,butmendostrivetopleaseandtobeincludedwhenthe
timeforlovemakingarrives.Nooneoffersthembloodyanimalsacrificesbutmen
dohuntandbringbackgame.Nooneregardsthesewomenaslivingintheskyorin
theunderworldbut,whenmenstruating,theyarecertainlyinaworldsetapart.
Nooneconceptualisesthemashalfanimalandhalfhumanastotemicmother
figuresorasmistressesofthegameanimals.Buttheirmenstrualbloodiscertainly
identifiedwiththebloodofthehunt,bothkindsofbloodbeingsaturatedwithtaboo
orpower.Failuretorespectthisbloodleadstofailureinthehunt.Thesewomenare
notimmortaltheydonotdieandthenresurrectthemselves,norundergo
reincarnation,norflitbetweenheavenandearth,buttheirstrikeisperiodically
renewed,asistheirlifebloodwhichflowsfromgenerationtogeneration.Moreover,
inmenstruationtheydoseemtoaccompanythemoontoitsowntemporarydeath,
movingintoanotherrealmfromwhichtheylaterreturn.Admittedly,thesewomen
areordinaryhumanbeings.Theyaresubjecttogravityandtotheotherordinary
lawsofphysics.Theycannotlevitate,norflymagicallythroughthenight,norbein
twoplacesatonce,norhaveeyeswhichpryintoallcornerssimultaneously.Yet
duringeachmenstrualritualthesewomenspotencyisindeedthatoftheirstrike
which,likeanystrike,doesmakeitspresencefelteverywhereatonce,transcending
space,asifpossessedofathousandearsandeyes.
Thereismuch,then,thatisgoddesslikeaboutthemenstrualsexstrike.
Admittedly,tousesuchlanguageistoapplyalaterculturalcategorythatof
developedreligiousideologytoasituationinwhichitisnotyetapplicable.Itcan
beconcededthattobeginwith,therearenoshamans,nopriestesses,notemples.
Thesocialworldisnotdividedintomortalsandimmortals,norarehumansdivided
intolaypeopleandthosewhoaresetapart.Unlikeindevelopedreligions,there
arenospecialistsinthesacredlife:allhumansareinvolvedinthesolidarityofthe
sacredcommunityduringonephaseofthelunarcycle,andthenreleasedfromitin
thenext.Alltaketurnsinbeingsetapartandreunited,intheotherworldandin
this.Iftherearepriestsandpriestesses,everyoneissuchatleastforapartofeach
month.Iftherearegoddessesandgods,everyonecanattheappropriatetime
participateintheiridentityandpowerwhichisnomorethantheordinarycultural
strengthandsolidarityofhumanbeingsthemselves.Eachofthesepointsofcontrast
issignificant,andeachunderlineswhyitwouldbeconfusingtospeakofreligion
aspresentalreadywithinthespecificationsofthemodel.Butitwouldbeanover
simplificationtostatesimplythatmymodelhasnoroomforreligionthathumans
acknowledgenotranscendentalpower.Whatwecansayisthatmen(and,ina
differentway,women)respectnopowerotherthanthemoonlinked,blood
washed,periodicallyassertedsanctityandinviolabilityofmenstruatingwomen
linkedinsolidaritywithoneanotherandwiththeiroffspring.Thisgivesusa
springboardfromwhichtheworldsreligiousandmagicaltraditionscanbederived.

TheIceAgeandbeyond
TowardstheendofthelastIceAge,allovertheworld,agradualdeteriorationin
huntingconditionsmadeitincreasinglydifficultforthetrailblazingculturesof
humanitytosynchronisewiththemoon.
Atthehumanrevolutionshighpoint,hunterswouldhavetendedtoselectthe
largergameanimalsthoserequiringthegreatestcollectiveendeavourstohunt,
andprovidingthegreatestrewardsoncetaken.Inadditiontoreindeer,elk,bisonor
otherherdingspecieswhichmayhavebeendrivenintotrapsandslaughteredin
largenumbersatatimewecanimagineasingleslainmammothfeedingasizeable
communityforweeks.Itisnotdifficulttoreconcileinfrequent,notmorethanonce
permonthhuntingwitharelianceonlargecatchesoronsinglekillsofverylarge
animals,particularlyifthemeatcouldbefrozenorpreservedbyothermeans.But
largeanimals,besidesmakingthemostbroadandvisibletargets,wouldhavebeen
theslowesttoreproduce.Tohavekilledanadultfemalemammothmayhave
threatenedthesurvivalprospectsofawholeherd.Itisquitedifferentwithsmall,
rapidlyreproducingspeciessuchasrabbits:thesecanbeculledwithoutnoticeable
effectontherateofreproductionoflocalpopulations.
TotheextentthatlateIceAgepeoplesfocuseduponlargegame,then,itseems
probablethathumanhuntingwouldhavebecomeafactorindrivingsomeofthese
speciestowardsextinction.This,inanyevent,isawidelysupportedinterpretation
knownastheoverkillhypothesiswhichhasbeenputforwardtoexplainthe
phenomenonofPleistoceneextinctions.Thisexpressionreferstothefactthat
towardstheendofthelastIceAge,nearlysimultaneouslyinallcontinents,awave
ofextinctionstookplaceaffectinginparticularthelargestspeciesofgameanimals
andcertainanimalpredators.Woollymammoths,giantcamelsinNorthAmerica,
diprotodonsinAustraliatheseandotherhugecreatureswereeitherhuntedto
extinctionorforotherreasonsprovedunabletosurvive.Inparallelwiththis,herds
ofsmallergamebegantoshrinkwhilstinmanyregions,withthewarmerclimate,
thegreatexpansesofopentundraoverwhichhumanhuntershadpreviously
roamedbecamecoveredwithdenseforest.Thegoldenagefortheworldsgreat
huntercultureswasover.
Aslargegamebecamescarce,humanpopulationswouldhavehadtoadaptby
broadeningtheirsubsistencebase.Itwouldhavebeennecessarymoreandmoreto
supplementthedietwithbothsmallergameandvegetablefoodtorevert,inother
words(exceptinregionswhereagriculturelaterevolved),tosomethinginmany
waysclosertotheresourcebaseofomnivoroushigherprimatesandancestral
hominidforms.
Assmallgamebecamereliedupon,huntingtechnologyanditsassociatedsocial
formswouldhavehadtochange.Asinglekillwouldnolongerhavesufficedtofeed
acommunityfordays.Gamemayhavebeenmoredispersed,andfindingitmore
difficult.Ifthemostahuntingexcursioncouldnormallyproducewereoneortwo
smallanimals,itmaynolongerhaveseemedefficienttoformintolargehunting

bands.Itmayhavemadebettersenseforcommunitiestodispersethinlyoverthe
landscape,formingintosmallfamilytypegroupsorbands,eachcontinuously
gatheringandhuntingasopportunitiespresentedthemselvesmuchasmost
huntergathererpeoplesdotoday.
Ratherthanremainforaseasonatafixedhomebasewhilethemenfolkdeparted
periodicallyforthehunt,underthenewconditionsitmayoftenhavemadebetter
senseforeachwomantokeepupwithherman,movingwithafewchildrenor
otherrelatives,roamingalmostcontinuouslyasherhusbandsearchedforgame.In
time,increasinglyadvancedkindsofweaponsleadingeventuallytothemost
elaborateofbarbedspears,thebowandarrow,blowpipesandpoisoneddarts
mayhavemadeitpossibleforsinglemalehunterstomaketheirkillswithoutthe
needforlargescalecooperativeendeavours.
Suchchangeswouldhavehadprofoundsocialeffects.Buttherelevantpopulations
wouldnoteasilyhaverelinquishedtheirtraditions.Ifthereisonethingwhich
characterisestraditionalhumanculture,itissurelyitsconservatism.Evenwhen
changesofsubstancearemade,peopletendtodoallpossibletoensurethatatleast
theformsoftheoldwaysoflifearepreserved.Inthiscontext,wemayimaginethe
ancienthuntingtraditionsbeingkeptaliveinoneformoranotherwherever
possible.Shouldtherehavebeenjustoneseasonormonthduringeachyearwhena
moonscheduledcollectivehuntcouldbearranged,peoplewouldhavegathered
fromfarandwidetobeabletoparticipate.
Itseemsthattheformsofritualactionwhicharefamiliarintheethnographicrecord
emergedthroughaprocessofsomesuchkind.Wecanviewmostritualsas
functionalincontemporarycontexts,yetancientintheirlogic.Ultimately,theyare
explicableasattemptstoholdupandvalidateculturesmostelementaryandbasic
idealsevenwhendailylifecannolongerbemodelledonthem.
Anannualcollectivehunt,linkedtowomenssexualcycleandtothemoon,used
primarilyasameansofestablishingaprincipleratherthanasameansofobtaining
foodwouldbearitual.Millenniaafterithadfirstbeguntobepractised,social
anthropologistsmightdescribesucharecurrenteventasariteofsacrifice,a
fertilityriteoranincreaseritedependingonwhichparticularaspectofthere
enactedcosmicallysynchronisedhuntseemedtotheinterpretermostsignificant.In
anearthlydramaharnessedtoeventsintheskies,bloodwouldalternatewithfire,
fastingwouldbefollowedbyfeasting,sexualabstinencebyanorgiastic
celebration.Fortheparticipants,thewholepointwouldbetoensuregeneralwell
beingbypreservingconcordanceandharmony,makingsurethatthebloodflowed
atthepropercosmologicalmoments,thatsocietyspowertoenforcesexualand
dietarytabooswassafeguardedandthatthealmostforgottenlogicoftheoldlife
stylewaspreservedandhandeddownevendespiteitsnearimpracticabilityin
materialisticterms.
Eventually,atimewouldcomewhenthewholeritualwouldhavebecomeso
disembodied,sodivorcedfromobviouseconomicnecessity,andsofragmentaryin

itsimplementationastoneedlaboriousexplanationinordertojustifyitsbeingre
enactedatall.Whywasitnecessarytowatchtheskiesand,atthecorrectmoment,
totakeananimal,tocutitsthroatandtoofferthebloodwhichpouredouttothe
spirits?Whathadthistodowithpleasingtheancestors,withpreservingwomens
fertility,withrainmakingorwiththepreventionofdroughtorfamine?As
questionsofthiskindwereasked,explanatorystorieswouldhavebeenelaborated.
Thetribalelderswouldhaveexplainedthatthesecretslayhiddeninthedistant
past,intheinstructionshandeddownfromtheheroicdreamtimeormagical
epochwhentheworldwasstillbeingformed,whenpeoplecouldtraveltoandfro
betweenthisworldandtheworldbeyondandwhengodsandhumans
conversedoneasyterms.
Thedisharmonyofthespheres
Accordingtothehypothesis,womenssynchronisationoftheirmenstrualcycleswas
notachievablebymereactofwill.Ithadevolvedasanecessarycomponentwithina
totalsystem.Theperiodicitiesofthemoon,ofcookingfire,ofsexandoffeastingall
wereinvolvedinthesynchrony,whosetechnoeconomicbasisandultimate
preconditionwasthelunarperiodicityofthehunt.Onlywithinthisframework
couldwomenssolidarityberepeatedlyvalidatedandsustainedbytheinternal
socialforcesagainstwhichItwascounterposedsustained,aboveall,bytheneedto
harnesstheendeavoursofmenashunters.Asthegameherdsdiminished,as
femaleinspiredcollectivehuntingincreasinglyprovedunreliable,andasitbecame
moreandmoreadvisableinsteadforpeopletodisperse,womenssolidaritywould
havebeguntobreakdown.
Asmeatbecamescarce,theideaofwaitingforthecorrectlunarmomentbefore
catchingasmallanimalwouldhaveseemedinappropriate.Whengamecameclose
tothecamp,everyonewouldhavewantedtochaseit,nomatterwhatthemoonwas
doing.Butifacreaturewerecaught,thentheideathatcookinghadtobeafullmoon
ritualwouldlikewisehavebeguntoseemimpracticable.Peoplewouldhavewanted
tocookwhentherewasmeattobecookednotjustwhentheshamansdeclaredthe
momenttobecosmologicailyauspicious.
Diminishingsuppliesofgamewouldhaveledtotheneedformenintheirhunting
expeditionstobelesslimitedinthetypesofgameselected.Inlessfavouredregions,
anythingrabbits,lizards,ratsmighthavehadtobeconsidered.Whereaskillinga
mammothorslaughteringseveralreindeerwouldhaveconcentratednumbersof
huntersandconsumers,generatingintensivecooperationandsharing,thismaynot
havebeentrueforthenewkindofhunting.Theprospectsoffindingonlysmall
gamemayhavebeeninsufficienttomotivatewomenseffortsinorganising
prolongedsexstrikes,orininducingmentodepartonlengthyexpeditionsinvolving
overnightstays.Itmayhavemadebettersenseinanycaseforthewholecommunity
tobreakintosmallgroups,eachcamping,movingandforagingcontinuously
wherevertheopportunitieswerebest.Asonethingledtoanother,neitherthemoon
norwomensmenstrualcyclescouldhaveseemedsignificantinthewaytheywere
before.Theywouldnolongerhaveseemedcapableofgoverningsocietysrhythmof

workalternatingwithrest.Facedwiththechoicebetweenmoonandmeat
betweenritualidealandsurvivalpeoplewouldhavechosentosurvive.
Theruleofmen
Aswomenseconomicvalueasgatherersincreased,sotheirpowerwouldhave
declined.Thereisnothinginhistorytoindicatethatthosewhoselaboursustains
societyareautomaticallythosewhorule:onthecontrary,alltheevidenceisthatthe
rulingclassesarethosewhocancompelotherstolabourforthem.Womenwere
powerfulwhentheycouldcompelmentohuntforthem,whenthiscompulsionwas
successfuleconomically,andwhentheassociatedorganisingworkbroughtwomen
joyfullytogetherassisters.Theylostpowerasthismoonscheduledmodeof
productiongavewaytoanotherwhichrequiredwomensdispersal,turnedwomen
intoanexploitedlabourforce,andprioritisedmaritalrelationsattheexpenseof
sisterhoodorblood.
*****
Inaskingwhyandhowwomenlosttheirformermagicalpower,itshouldbe
recalledthatthemodelspecifiestwophasesbetweenwhichsocietyalternated.We
maythennotethatthesecondphasethewaningmoonphaseofconsumptionand
sexualenjoymentcontainswithinitalreadytheseedsofwhatwilllaterbecomethe
theindividualfamily.Accordingtothemodel,atfullmoonthepointineachcycle
whenthecookingfireswerelitandbloodpollutionwasdispelledwomenno
longerprioritisedtheirsolidarity.Theyceasedtobepowerfulonaccountoftheir
blood.Theybecameavailablefreetomeettheirmalesexualpartnersas
individuals.Fullmoon,then,inasensealreadysignifiedtransferenceofthebride
fromherownkintoheraffinesside.
Withthedeclineintheimportanceofmoonscheduledhuntingandthereforeof
womensmonthlysexstrike,thiswaningmoonphasethephaseduringwhichthe
powersofthebloodwereintemporarysuspensionbegantoextendthroughout
thecycleasawhole.Ortoputthisanotherway:withtheincreasingimportanceof
continuous,everydayofthemonthfoodforaging,andwithmensincreasing
relianceonthegatheredproduceoftheoppositesex,menwereincreasingly
temptedtoretaintheirsexualpartnersashelpersthroughoutthemonth,whilst
womenlackingtheirownformerstrengthinsolidarityfeltanewlevelof
dependencyonthemaritaltie.
Marriagebecamenotarenewablemonthlyhoneymoonbutapermanentbond.
Insteadofrelinquishingtheirwivesduringeachdarkmoon,menheldontothem,
menstruationorno.Despitealltradition,theycoulddothisbecauseeconomicallyit
mademoresense.Andasmenbegantoliveoffthefoodgatheringlabouroftheir
wives,huntingonlysporadicallyandprovidinganunreliablesupplyofmeat,each
manwithhiswifeorwives,togetherwithdependentrelatives,beganturninginto
themainproductiveunit.

Oncethisshiftinemphasishadoccurred,thebasicconquestsofwomensrevolution
wereunderthreat.Thevariouswomancentredsocialmechanismswhichhad
humanisedsocietylosttheirformereffect.Onceawomanhadbeentakenasa
permanentwife,hersexualyeswasassumedtobeinprinciplecontinuous.Aman
expectedsex,now,notbecausehebroughtmeatbutbecausehehadawife.Itwasa
matterofhisrightsasahusband.Since(givenwomensatomisationacollective
sexstrikewasnolongersomethingtoworryabout,mencouldincreasinglytake
theirwivesforgranted.Thepressuresonthemtobehaveweretherefore
correspondinglyweakened.Andwomen,bythesametoken,wereincreasingly
temptedtousesexincompetingwithoneanotherinthestruggletogainfavours
frommen.
Menstrualsynchronywasnotsustainablebecauseeachwoman,sexuallyisolatedin
apartnershipwithherhusband,couldnolongerkeepinclosephysicalcontactwith
hersisters.Totheextentthatoutofdeferencetotraditionmenstillrespected
womensmenstrualconditioninanysense,thisrespecttookachangedform.Men,
now,simplykeptoutofthewaywhentheirwivesweremenstruating.Or,astheir
powerincreased,theyforcedtheirwivestokeepoutoftheway,valuingthemonly
whentheywereavailableandatothertimesmarginalisingtheminspecialhutsor
ontheoutskirtsofthecamp.Menstrualtaboos,inotherwords,nowassumed
politicallyinverted,womanoppressingforms.
*****
Inmanyways,allthiswasareturntotheprehuman,preculturalstate.Butitwas
notasimplereturn.Anevolutionaryregressiontotheanimalstagewasnowno
longeranoptionforhumans.Culturehadmadeusdependentononeanotherin
zoologicallyunprecedentedways,andtherewasnogoingback.Withoutrulesof
sexualmorality,andwithoutlanguage,traditionandtechnology,thedefenceless
humananimalinmostenvironmentscouldnothavesurvived.Butconquestssuchas
theruleagainstincestwerestillintimatelyboundupwiththelanguageofbloodand
withtheancientsymbolicsystemofwhichthiswasapart.Theycouldnotbe
retainedwithoutretainingmuchoftheiroriginalframeworkandcontext.Andsoa
compromisesolutionhadtobearrivedatacompromisewhichstilldefinesour
conditiontoday.Weretainedasmuchoftheculturalheritageaswaspossible,
preservingtheabstractformsoftheancientlifewaysevenwhilsttheirrealcontents
werelargelylost,adjustingalwaysbetweentwooppositeconstraintstheneedto
innovateinthefoodsearchontheonehand,andtheneedtopreservetraditionon
theother.Outofthisclashofnecessities,theworldasweknowitwasborn.

Note.
ThisarticleisbasedonalecturegiventotheTraditionalCosmologySocietyand
ScottishRoyalAnthropologicalInstituteinEdinburghUniversityinFebruary1987.
Whilstretainingresponsibilityforanypossibleerrors,Ithankthosepresent
includinginparticularEmilyLyle,AlanBarnard,KennethMaddockandRoyWillis
fortheirhelpfulcommentsandcriticism.
Referencesareomitted,butthefollowingworksindicatesomethingoftherangeof
findingswhichtheargumentisdesignedtolinkandtoexplain:
LeroiGourhan,A.1968TheartofprehistoricmaninwesternEurope.London:
Thames&Hudson.
[InthesymbolismofEuropeanIceAgecaveart,penisistovaginaasspearisto
wound.Thesymbolforvulvamayequallybeusedtoindicatewoundinagame
animal.Thefocusofritualattentionisparticularlyonthefemalereproductive
organsandthecolourred].
LviStrauss,C.197081Introductiontoascienceofmythology.Vols.14.London:
Cape.
[ThemythsoftheAmericasandbyimplicationofhumanityarereducibletoa
singlesupermyth.Inthis,sexualoppressionisjustifiedonthegroundsthatwomen
areperiodiccreatures,unabletosynchronisetheirmenstrualcyclesandsoliableto
throwthemoon,sunandcosmosintochaos).
McClintockM.1971Menstrualsynchronyandsuppression.Nature:229:2445.
[Womenwhoassociatecloselywithoneanothertendtosynchronisetheir
menstrualcycles].
Marshack,A.1972Therootsofcivilization.Thecognitivebeginningsofmansfirst
art,symbolandnotation.London:Weidenfeld&Nicolson.
[TheearliestnotationsystemsofIceAgehunterswerelunarcalendars].
Testart,A.1985LecommunismeprimitifParis:EditionsdelaMaisondesSciences
delHomme.
[Themostarchaichuntergatherersymbolictraditionscentreonanideologyof
blood.Itsfunctionistopolarisesocietyintosegregatedmaleandfemalecamps.
Theideologyconsistsofaseriesofpositiveandnegativerelationshipsdrawn
betweenwomensmenstrualbloodandthebloodofgameanimals].
Turke,P.W.1984EffectsofOvulatoryConcealmentandSynchronyon
ProtohominidMatingSystemsandParentalRoles.EthologyandSociobiology,5:33
44.

[Inthecourseofhumanevolution,femaleprotohominidsforcedmalestoprovide
consistentparentingbyconcealingovulation,synchronisingtheirmenstrualcycles
andextendingsexualreceptivity].
Forafullerelaborationoftheargumentandforfurtherreferences,see:
Knight,C.1983LeviStraussandtheDragon:Mythologiquesreconsideredinthe
lightofanAustralianAboriginalMyth(Man,N.S.,18,2150).
1987MenstruationandtheOriginsofCulture,Ph.D.thesis,Universityof
London.
1988MenstruationandtheAustralianRainbowSnake,in:T.BuckleyandA.
Gottlieb(eds.),BloodMagic:TheAnthropologyofMenstruation.Berkeley:
UniversityofCaliforniaPress.
1990TheOriginsofSociety.NewHavenandLondon:YaleUniversityPress.
C.K.,August1989

ABSTRACT
Protohominidfemalesbecamewomenbyrelatingtomalesinacompletelynewway.
Asthemalesofourspeciesbeganhuntingtoobtainmeatfood,aninitialproblemfor
femaleswastoobtainanadequateshareofsuchmeat.Therewaslittleinthegenetic
makeupofmalestomakethembringbacktheirgameinsteadofeatingit
themselvesinthebush.Althoughtherewasnothingtostopfemalesfromhunting
forthemselves,responsibilitiesforoffspringtendedtoimmobilisethem,rendering
themlessfreetohuntthanweretheirsexualpartners.
Humanfemalessolvedtheproblembyrefusingsextoallmalesexceptthosewho
camehometothemwiththeirkills.Thisstrategyrequiredandgeneratedinter
femalesolidarity.Whenafemalewasrefusingsextoalazymalepartnerandwas
determinedtomakehimhunt,shehadtopreventhimfromfindingsexelsewhere.
Shehadtoorganiseotherfemalestojoinherinrefusingsex,keepinguptheboycott
ofthismaleunlessoruntilhewentoffandbroughtbacksomemeat.
Suchsolidaritybroughtfemalesintointimatecontactwithoneanothercontact
closeenoughtobringtheirmenstrualcyclesintosynchrony.Ineachfemalegroup,
inotherwords,thosewhowerenotpregnant,lactatingormenopausalwouldhave
menstruatedsimultaneously.Thesewomenimplicatedalltheotherwomeninthis,
sothatthewholegroupincludingpregnantandlactatingfemaleswereineffect
menstruatingtogether.Theimportanceofthiswasthatbleedinghadtobeusedas
thebasicmeansofsignallingNosextomales.
Duringeachcollectivemenstrualperiod,womenhadtoassertthemselvesason
strikeTheyhadtosignalNonotjustindividuallybutasagendergroup.Itwas
importantthatnowomanshouldbeallowedtoundercuthersistersbyappearingto
besexuallyavailableatsuchatime,evenifshewerenotabletomenstruateina
literalsenseherselfWomenmeasureduptothischallengebytranscendingbiology.
Ontheonehandtheydampeneddownandeventuallyeliminatedoestrussignalling;
ontheother,theyprovedabletoborrowthesymboliceffectsofoneanothers
menstrualblood,onoccasionactuallypaintingoneanotherinsharedbloodwhere
biologyfailedtoprovidewhatwasrequired.
Women,then,wentperiodicallyonstrike.Bythismeans,eachmonth,they
motivatedtheirmenfolktoorganiseanextendedlargescalehuntingexpedition.By
establishingthatmenstrualbleedingindicatedNoortaboo,moreover,the
femalesmadepossibleafurtherstep.Thegameanimalswhichmenhuntedalso
bled.Totheextentthatananalogybetweenwomensandanimalbloodcouldbe
establishedassuming,inotherwords,thatbloodassuchcouldbetreatedas
taboothismeantthatmencouldnoteatthemeat.Theywerepreventedbythe
menstrualtaboofrombeingselfishwiththegameanimalswhichtheykilled.
Womenwouldhavebeentheearliestcustodiansofcookingfire.Thetabooon
bloodymeatwouldhavecompelledmentobringtheirgamehomeforwomento
cookastheconditionofrenderingitedible.Amanwhowishedtoeathisownkill

outinthebushwouldhavehadtoviolatethebloodtaboo,eatinghismeat
menstruallypollutedi.e.raw.
Further,itwouldhavemadesenseforcollectivehuntingexpeditionstohavebeen
heldatthetimeofeachmonthwhenthelightofthemoonmadeovernighttravel
possible.Thiswouldhavefacilitatedtheemergenceofatotalsysteminwhich
hunting,menstruationandthemoonwerebroughtintosynchronyasystemin
whichthehuntasaperiodicwork/restactivitywasgovernedbyalunar/menstrual
clock.

Editorsnote,2011DevelopmentsinSexStriketheory
This1988accountofthesexstriketheoryisstillaverygoodintroductiontothe
ideas.Sincethen,therehavebeensomesignificantupdatesanddevelopments,
whichcanbesummarisedinthreemainpoints:
i)

Timingoftherevolution

KnightfocusedhereontheEuropeanIceAgeandUpperPalaeolithic,c.40,000
yearsagothetimemodernhumansarrivedinEurope.Wenowhaveagrowing
bodyofevidenceforsymboliccultureintheAfricanMiddleStoneAge,wellover
100,000yearsago,beforemodernhumansleftAfrica,andprobablydatingback
totheoriginofourspecies,nearly200,000yearsago.Thissuggeststhe
revolutioninfactcoincideswiththeemergenceofH.sapiens.Thisdoesnotaffect
thegeneralargumentaboutthehuntingoutoflargegameleadingtosocialand
economicchangebytheendofthelastIceAge,c.10,000yearsago.
SeeIanWatts(1999,2002and2009)foranalysisofAfricanMSAochrerecord
andassociatedsymbolicartefacts.
ii)

Costsofbiggerbrains

Knightsfemalecentredmodelfortheemergenceofhuntergatherereconomies
andkinshipsystemsisdrivenbythecostsofchildcareforevolvingwomen.But
whatexactlywascausingthesecoststoincrease?Inthepasthalfmillionyears,
brainsizesradicallyincreased.Bylookingatfossilcranialcapacitieswecan
quantifythedegreeofreproductivestressindifferentspeciesofhominins(H.
erectus,H.heidelbergensis,NeanderthalsandearlyHomosapiens).
SeeCamillaPowerandLeslieAiello(1997)andPower(1999)fordiscussionof
reproductivestressasthefactordrivingthesefemalestrategies.
iii)

Menstruationasvitalinformationtomales

KnightdescribesmenstruationasaNOsignalemblematicofthesexstrike.This
iscertainlytrueacrossawiderangeofculturesbutthisisaculturally
constructedtaboo.FromapurelybiologicalorDarwinianperspective,a
menstruatingfemaleisshowingthatsheisnotnowpregnantandwillbefertile
soon.Nomalecanignorethatinformation;wecanpredictthatmateguardingof
menstrualfemaleswouldbeamalestrategy.Thisiswhymenstruationasboth
biologicalandculturalsignalbecamepivotalintheevolutionofsymbolism.
SeePower(2009)onhowcosmeticmanipulationofmenstrualsignalscameto
besexuallyselectedandinfluencedmalebehaviour.
Power,Camilla1999.Beautymagic:theoriginsofart.InTheEvolutionofCulture.
Aninterdisciplinaryview.RobinDunbar,ChrisKnightandCamillaPower,eds.Pp.
92112.Edinburgh:EdinburghUniversityPress.

Power,Camilla2009.Sexualselectionmodelsfortheevolutionoflanguage:why
theyshouldbereversed.InTheCradleofLanguage.RudolfBothaandChris
Knight,eds.Pp.257280.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.
Power,Camilla,andLeslieC.Aiello1997.Femaleprotosymbolicstrategies.In
WomeninHumanEvolution.LoriD.Hager,ed.Pp.153171.NewYorkand
London:Routledge.
Watts,Ian1999.Theoriginofsymbolicculture.InTheEvolutionofCulture.An
interdisciplinaryview.RobinI.M.Dunbar,ChrisKnightandCamillaPower,eds.
Pp.113146.Edinburgh:EdinburghUniversityPress.
Watts,Ian2002.OchreintheMiddleStoneAgeofsouthernAfrica:ritualised
displayorhidepreservative?SouthAfricanArchaeologicalBulletin57:114.
Watts,Ian2009.Redochre,bodypaintingandlanguage:interpretingthe
Blombosochre.InTheCradleofLanguage.RudolfBothaandChrisKnight,eds.
Pp.6292.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.

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