.

SPE

sQck3tuurPebakturllmxnem3

SF% 22357
Defining Data Requirements for a Simulation Study
A,K. Dandana, F!.E3.
Alston,and FtW. Braun,Texaco Inc.
SPE Members

Copyright 1992, Soclery of Pts!roleum2n@neers, Inc.

This paper was prepared for presmtahon a! the SPE international Meeting on petroleum En9meerin9 held in

g~lima
china,
?~-zp
MarCh
1982.

This paper was aelectod Ior presentationby an SPE Program Committee followingrovlew of informationcontained in an absfracl eubmittad by the author(a).C4nlents o! the paper,
aa presented, have not been revmwed by Ihe Society of Palroleum Engmaere.and are subject to correctionby the author(a).The ma!erial, as presented, does not necessarily raflect
any positionof lhe Socialy of PatrolaumEngineers, Ita officers,or members. Papera presented at SPE mealings are subjectto publicationredw~by EditorialCommiltaes of the -society
ofPetroleumEngineerk.Permsaion tocoPyia rastnctadtoan abstractof notmorethan 200 worde.Ilh.mlra!iona
may notbe copied.The abslractalmuldcontainconepicuouaacknowledgment
of where and by whom the papar is presented. Write Librarian, SPE, P.0. Box 83S8SS, Rlchardaon, TX 75083-2SS5 U.S.A. Telax, 730S89 SPEDAL.

!BSTRAC~

(3)

This paper addresses the importanceof timely data

collection for proper reservoir management using
simulationas a tool. Data requirementsfor blackoil, compositional and steam simulation have been
documented. The interplay between various geosciences and the proper translationof data ensure
the success of such an effort.
INTRODUCTION
Reservoirsimulationis being used increasinglyas a
reservoir management tool, In real life a given
reservoircan only be producedonce. A model with a
proper geologicaldescriptionfollowedby a history
match validation can provide the opportunity to
hypothesize production under different scenarios.
Sensitivity studies can lead to productio~ of the
reservoir in the most optimum way. Coats defines
simulation as the use of calculations to predict
reservoirperformance,forecastrecovery,or co;~e;l~
econom+cs of alternative recovery methods.
describes simulation as a basic extension of we?lknown rzservoir engineering theor~es and concepts,
such as Buckley Leverett,or material-balanceequations that tveredevelopedprior to 1960. Simulation
is a powerful tool for the followingreasons:
(1)

It provides the ability to simultaneously

incorporate the effects of a number of
variables such as gravity, mobility, rock
heterogeneity,relativepermeability,capillary
pressure, and fluid properties,

(2)

The process itself forces an engineer to

closely examine all pieces of a reservoirand
all geologicalinformation. Insight is gained
regardingregionalperformancevariationsthat
can be incorporatedinto simulation, This in
turn provides momentum for better reservoir
management.

After the mstdelis calIhted by proper transIationof reservoirgeologicdata and historic

production performance data, sensitivity
studies can be initiatedto optimizerecovery
and economics, Moreover, operational consideration$, such as the timing for water
handling facilities or gas compression
requirements,can be forecast.

Th$s paper addresses the type of data that is

required for black-oil, compositionaland enhanced
oil recovery (EOR) simulations.
IMPORTANCEOF GOOD RESERVOIRDATA
There is a saying: If you think knowledge is
expensive,just imagine how expensive ignorancecan
bee
The temptation will always be to short-cut data
acquisitionto reduce costs. It must be remembered
that certain types of data, such as core derived
information, initial fluid properties, fluid
contacts, and initial reservoirpressures,can only
be obtained at an early developmentstage, The data
obtained plays a vital role in evaluating the
developmentoptions of a given reservoir.
An equallyvital componentof reservoirsimulationIs
translationof this data in the proper form. Some of
the examples of this type of knowledgeare translation of two-phase (gas-oil and oil-water)relative
permeabilitydata to simulatethree-phaseflow.conditions. An additional need is understanding the
differencebetweenflash (separator)and differential
liberation.
(reservoir)and the proper representation
of this data into the simulator. Translation of
geological models into reservoir flow units or
boundarieswith proper size andnumbgr of grid cells
will have an impacton simulationgeneratedresults.
Two of the most interesting paper$ on model
misapplicationhave been writtenby Coats and Staggs
et al.

Referencr?s
and illustrationsat end of paper.
255

DEFININGDATA REQUIREMENTSFOR A SIMULATIONSTUDY

lYPFsCIFsMJ~

IN WiEUL

geologic and reservoirengineeringdata is shown as

Figure 1 from Harris.

1NDUSTR%

The reservoirs most f;quently simulated contain

black-oil. The term d
Iack-ofl means that oil is
treated as a single component with no interaction
with the gas or water phase. These models are
capable of simulatingperformanceunder depletion,
gas or water injection, water influx and oil
displacement by movement of gas/oil or oil/water
contacts,

Reservoirs can be broadly classif~ed as clastic

(sandstone)or carbonate. It is relatively
simpleto
descr~be a sandstone reservotr since modern day
analogs provide essentialmodels to do so. Figure 2
from Harris and Hewitt7 presents the types of
depositional sftes a sand reservoir can provide.
They further classify these reservoirs into three
types of geometries. Figure 3 descr~bes these
layoutsgraphically.

Compositionalmodels accountfor interactionbetween

various hydrocarbonphases. Such is the case for a
rich gas condensateor a volatileoil reservotr, EOR
processescan redescribed as:

Carbonate res~afi;~e8ar& g~erally difficult to

describe.
in their paper
!Distribution
and Continuityof~arbonate Reservoirs
document such an effovt. Their experience is that
these rocks are heterogeneous both in terms of
porosityand permeability. The depositionalprocess
itself is complex. Dlagenetic changes are very
random and can modify rock texture considerably.
Generally dolomitizationhas a positive effect on
modificationof porosity. Figure 4 from Jardine8et
al. shows how porosity in carbonates is altered by
various processes.

o Miscible - CO and hydrocarbonInjectIon

e Chemical - po!ymer and surfactantinjection
Q Thermal - steam, hot water and insitu combustion
Miscible simulationsusually requireuseofcompositional simulation,whereaschemicalprocessessuch as
polymerand surfactantcan,besimulatedbya modified
black-oil simulator. Thermal simulatorsare quite
complex since in additionto fluid flow,they contain
heat flow equations. This paper will describe the
data requirementsfor steam injectiononly.
DATA RWEMENTS

FOR~L

During the exploration stage examination of core

cuttingsand analysisof core rock samplesare key to
formulatinga depositionalmodel.

CONSTRUCTION

Reservoirdescription is a continuousprocess. i%
the field is developedthe models should be reviewed
and modified as necessary. As reservoirperformance
data becomes available, the knowledge of reservoir
discontinuitiessuch as faults,barriers,boundaries
-andstratificationbecomesmore refined.

The information required to determine initial

distributionof rock propertiesand fluid quantities
is common to all types of simulations. Types of data
required are describedunder followingcategories:
1)
2)
3)
4)

Reservoirdata
Fluid properties
Field performancedata
Enhancedoil recoveryconsiderations

Another powerful tool that has become available for

reservoir description.~s 3-D seismic data. Recent
papers by Plet A RuijtenbergQet al. describe how
using 3-D seismic data results in a more complete
description of reservoir boundaries and structure.
Figure 5 origin~~ly presented in thefr paper IS
shown. Robertson documentshow3-D seismiccan add
reserves and facilitate cost-effective reservoir
management, The number and locationof development
wells can be optimizedfor maximum recovery,

RFSERVOIRDAT/)
lD.fW!RAUQ&&!dKM
The amount of data availableto describea reservoir
is dependent on the developmentstage of the reservoir. At an early stage of reservoirdevelopmentthe
informationis availablefrom only a few wells. The
following informationsources are utilized:
1)
2)
3)
4)

In many casesolder,two-dimensionalseismicdata can

be reprocessedto obtain more detailed information.
Three-dimensionalseismicdata is also being used in
monitoring saturation fronts and locating oil
previouslybypassed.

Seismic data
Core analysis
Well logs
Well test data

Tables 1 through4 illustratethe typeof information

that can be obtained from these sources.

Matrix ReauirementS
The integrationof depositionalmodel construction
along with informationlisted in Tables 1 through 4
should provide the necessaryinformationto describe
the variationin reservoirrock propertiesalong with
discontinuitiesand stratification. This variation
is preparedas contourmaps. Table 5 providesa list
of maps that can be prepared to describe the
reservoir.

The core analyses,well log and well test data are

acquiredfor individualwells, An integrationof all
the informationhas t~ b~ made in order to describe
distribution of properties in areal and vertical
dimensions.
This task ts called reservoir
description.
m

SPE 22357

voir Descrfotiom

The task is best accomplishedbyan interdisciplinary

team consisting of geologists,geophysicists,well
log analysts,productionand reservoirengineers, An
example of how this interplay can occur between

Alternate methods are available to describe water

saturationand permeabilitydistribution.These will
be describedlater on. Other reservoirrelateddata
items are:

266

A. K. DANOONA,R. B. AISTON, R. S. JOWNSON,R. W. BRAUN

SPE 2235?

relativepermeabilitiesare a i%nctionaf their

respectivesaturations. If three-phaserelativeperineabilities
are generatedfrom measured
gas-oil and oil-water data, it is best to
ensure measurements are made with proper
considerationofwettability.

1) Relative permeabi1ity
2) Capillary pressure for oil-water and gas-oil
system
3) Rock compressibility
4) Vertical permeability
5) Absolute permeabilitydistribution
6
Initialwater saturationdistribution
71 Pay thicknesscut-offs

Ensure that relative permeabilitieshonor the

direction of change of wetting,phase saturation. Drainagerefersto a decreasingwettingphase saturationwhile imbibitionrefers to an
increasingwettingphase saturation. Injection
of dry gas into an ail reservoiris an example
of drainage,while injectionof water into an
oil reservoiris imbibition.

The dependence of waterflood residual oil on

trapped gas saturation can be handled.by ,?
method suggested by Dandona and Morse.
Stonestkprobabilitymethod also accounts for
such effects.

ative Permeability
Two-phaserelativepermeabilitysuch as that of oilti
gas or oil-watercan remeasured in the laboratory.
Both steady-state and unsteady-statemethods are
available. Hassler, Hafford, and dispersed feed
methodsmeasurerelativepermeabilitiesunder steady.stateflow. Unsteady-staterelative permeability
methods take less time. The Buckley Leveretttheory
as extended by Welge can be used to compute relative
permeabilityratio from the followingrelationship:
f.=~=
1+

~;

~ ~.

k.

(1)

PV

JBT method, capillarypressureand centrifugemethods

are used t;t~;;erm;;;ho~;ativep&~-~j~ilityusing
relative
unsteady
permeabilitycan sometimesbe estimated from field
data, as follows:
&
k.

= (Rp .R*)W2?

Do P.
(2)

&

so= (1 - +?) (~)

.=+

Boi

(1 Sw)

In the absence of measured data, two-phaserelative

permeabilitiescan be approximate~zfrom published
correlationssuch as those of Corey ,
The methodology to estimate two-phase relative
permeabilityiswell established. Measurf$data for
three-phase relative permeability
seldom
available. Typically simulators are programmed to
compute 3-phase relative permeabilityfrom 2-phase
gas-oil and oil-water relative permeabilities. The
end points for each of the~~,tfurves
are honored in
p~obabilisticmodel
the calculations. Stones
described as a set of equations is commonly used.
The following precautionsshould be consideredwhen
processingthree-phaserelativepermeabilitydata.
@

Examine the end oil saturationto the type of

displacementsimulated. The mathematicalmodel
will not permit oil saturationtogo below that
number. Many times relative permeabilityto
oil at low oil saturation is critical in
predictingreservoirbehaviortowardsthe later
part of the reservoirlife.
Much of the published literaty~e is based on
water-wet rock systems. Stone describeswhy
his method is applicableto both water-wetand
oil-wet systems. In a water-wetsystem,water
and gas relative permeabilityis a dependent
function of water and gas saturation only.
Similarly, in anoil-wet system, oil and gas

Properanalysisof 3-phaserelativepermeabilitydata
is quite critical. The engineershouldtake the time
to ensure that the end points of relative pwmeability data as well as the rest of the saturation
range are properlyhandledwith regardto rocl(wettability and gas entrapment.
CaDil18rvPress~
Capillary pressure is the difference in pressure
across the interfacebetweenwetting and non-wetting
fluids.
For a gas-oil-water study, capillary
pressurecurveswill be requiredfor gas-oilandoilwater systems. The data can be acquired in the
laboratory by measurements on core plugs.
The
mercury injectionmethod is rapid but destroys the
core. Other laboratory methods are displacement
through a porous diaphragmand centrifugalmethods.
Another good source of such informationis well log
data where swell has penetratedthroughgas-oil and
oil-water contacts. Water saturationvs. distance
from gas-oil or oil-water contact can be plotted.
The distance from the oil-water contact is. then
translatableto capillarypressure,
Rock Com~ressibility
For normally pressured sands, rock compressibility
can be either measured in the laboratoryor derivel$
from published correlationssuch as that of Hall.
However, for abnormal pressure sands such as those
present in U.S. Gulf Coast, good correlationsare
unavailableand it is best to carry out laboratory
measurements.
Vertical Permeabilty
i
Verticalpermeabilitycan play a significantrole in
some flow situations, such as coning, gravity
override, and cross-flow between sand layers.
Geologicaldiscontinuitiesor thin, tight beds such
as shalesthat separatevarioushydrocarbonzones are
also important to vertical flow.
Experience
indicates thatbe;~e~n are significant p~n~rmance
differences
non-permeable
1Ow
permeabilitybarriers. Avalue of zero for vertical
permeability can isolate a horizontal layer from
communication.(l ntheotherhand,a low permeability
(e.g., one red.)can permit significant cross-flow
2!57

,
4

DEFININGDATA REQUIREMENTSFOR A SIMULATIONSTUDY

the
1arge cross-sectional area
because of
perpendicularto horizontalflow.
Vertical permeabilityvalues can remeasured on core
plugs and adjusted downward to account for shale
lenses. Well test data such as interferenceand
pulse tests can also be used to estimate these
values.
fl~solutePmmeabil itv Distribution

Conventional core analysis typically measures

porosityand absoluteairpermeabflity. Permeability
is one of the most difficultparameterstopredfct In
terms of variationand distribution. Well flow test
analysisfrom build-upand fall off tests can provide
permeab$lity x thickness (kOh) for the interval
tested. The advantage of this method is that it
measures permeabilitlesand total flow capacity of
the system in-situ. It must reemphasized that kh by
this method is fn effect kh or k$h as the case may
be. A transformof severs!values of koh from test
data should be comparedwith core analystscomputed
kh. Asignificantlyhigh ratioofkh/kCO,,h
indicates
presenceofvugs and fractu+esin ?he system.
Since the number of cored wells is typicallylimited,
the areal distribution must be estimated from
porosity-permeabilitytransforms. Core porosity
sample data is plotted on a linear scale vs.
Regression
permeability data on a log scale.
analysis is performed to fit a curve through such
Since porosity for most wells is also
data.
availablefrom well logs, this transformcan then be
used to calculatepermeabilitydistribution.
Figure17 6 shows such a transform. It is our
experiencethat scatter of data is considerableand
as such it is difficult to predict values of
At times some consideration of
permeability,
depositional model, rock types and facies reduces
degree of scatter.
it is recommended that a
transform be developed for each major rock unit or
facies to reduce scatter,
i
~nital
Water SaturationOistributioq
Inittal water saturation by layer can either be
mapped by averagingwater saturationvaluesover each
interval (Table 5) or computed using the J
-function.Actual saturat~onvalues are computed From
the electric logs based on resistivityvalues. The
J function approach is essentiallya correlation
that fits initial water saturation values t
18
permeabilityand porosity values, Rose and Bruce
describe the method in detail and express the J
functionas follows:
(3)

J(SW) = ~ :;~e
Ow

[ &

Porosity and permeabilitydistribution is obtained

from the map of each layer. UOW is the interracial
tension between oil and water and d is the contact
angle betweenthe interfaceseparatingthe two fluids
and the surface of rock. The advantage of this
method is the ability to compute water saturation
distribution for each model cell or node based on
porosity and permeability.

SPE 22357

.
Pav ?hi.cltwss
CULQ!Y
To determine the amount.of oil availablefor depletion, net thickness has to be determined. It iS
quite easy to rationalize that non-porous, nonpermeablerock volume such as shale mfxed with sand
should not be part of the pay. However,many times
a geologist,alsoappliescriteriawhich are based on
porosity-permeabilitycutoffs as well as on water
saturationcutoffs. The rationalebehind this type
of criteria is that rock below certain porosity or
permeability values will not contribute to the
reserves. However, it stands to reason that unless
this rock volume is in non-connectedporosity,given
enough time it should produce. In addition it also
provides additionalpressure support to the reservoir.
Gas as a fluid can produce through much
tighter rock as compared to oil. During the dep7etion phase almost all of the res+?rvoir
in continuous
pore space should contributetu the recovery, Ho,wever, dur!ng waterfloodor other recoveryprocesses,
part of the rock volume in the tight pore space may
not contributet.orecovery, In other words, cut-offs
are process dependent.
Enhanced oil recovery processes requfre additional
data.
Table 6 provides a l~st of the special
reservoir data needed for miscible, chemical and
steam simulation.
~LUID PROp~RT1~
We have provided guidelines for translation of
geological and rock data for a simulation study.
Fluid propertydata acquisitionand analyslsare also
vital componentsof adata collectionprogram. One
of thelgmostcomplete papers on this subject is by
Moses. He stressesthe importanceof accuratefluid
samples: Fluid samplesmust be taken early in the
life of the reservoirto obtain samplestruly representative of the reservoir fluid. They should be
taken only after a carefully planned well conditioning and testtng program. When the PVT data
obtained from these samplesare used, care should be
taken to adjust FVFs and gas-oil ratios (GORS)for
surface separatorcondition.
The proper understandingof the fluid behaviorsystem
as a function of pressure and temperature is
essential. Figure 7 is a pressure.temperature
diagram illustratingthatthe initial fluid system
can be broadly categorizedas:
:]
3)
4)

black-oilsor low shrinkageoils,

volatileoils or high shrinkageoils,
gas-condensatesystems,and
gas systems,both wet and dry gas.

It is noted that a given fluid system goes through

several changes as pressure on the system changes
during the deplettonphase of reservofr.
The reservoirfluid samplefor study is obtainedfrom
bottomholesamplingor from recombinationof surface
separator samples of gas and liquid. Analyses of
these separator samples are performed in the
laboratoryand the fluids are then recombinedto the
desired reservoir fluid composition,producinggasoil ratio (R., SCF/ST13). From this point both the
bottomholesample and recombinedsa~le are examined
utilizing the identicalprocedure.
The following

258

.
SPE 22357

A.

K, lMNKJONA,
R. B. ALSTO1 R, S. JO!lMON,R, W. BRAON

informationwill be obtainablezlfrom
the series of
tests on the black-oilsamples.
1) Compositionalanalysis
2)

~;nstantmass study
saturation ressure
!
b)
pressure-voume
relations
c)
oil compressibilityat variouspressures
fluid relativevolume factors
d
e1
volume percent liquid as a function ofthe pressure

The increasedinterestin EnhancedOi1 Recovery{EOR)

confrontsthe simulationistwith new problems in his
attempts to successfullypredict actual reservoir
performance. Most CO or hydrocarbon miscible
floodingoperationswou?~ requirethe followingtests
to be performed.

3) I);fferential
vaporizationstudy
solutiongas as a functionof pressure
b)
formationvolume factor as a functionof
pressure
liquid density as a functionof pressure
:]
gas gravity as a functionof pressure
4]

liquid
Equilibrium
determination

phase

The final type of reservoir system is the wetgas/dry-gas. As indicatedby the~r designation,both
of these fluids exist in the gaseous state under
reservoirconditions. PVT data would give only the
fluid density and gas compressibilityfactor (Z).
The only differencewould occur at the surfacewhere
the wet-gas system would produce some very light
liquid, usually less than 10 STB/flMSCFof produced
gas.

1) Slimtubedisplacem~h~studies
a)
determine
minimum miscibility
pressureat the reservoirtemperature
b)
estimate the average residual oil
saturationafter COZ flooding,

viscosity

5) !$parator flash optimizationstudy

producinggas-oil ratio as a functionof
separatorpressure at room temperature
b)
oil formationvolumefactorbased on room
temperatureflashed oil
c)
producedgas composition
Table 6 is the list of fluid data for a black-oil
simulation. As the reservoir fluid properties
approach those of a high shrinkageoil/volatileoil
system, it becomesmore advantageousto obtain additional laboratoryinformationin order to predictthe
fluid behavior during normal reservoir depletion/production. In addition ~~=t~~ analyses performed
for the black-oil system, the following test
should be performedfor the volatileoil samples.
1) Constant volume depletion study
a)
equilibriumvapor-phasecomposition
b)
fractionof well stream produced
equilibriumgas deviationfactors
:1
liquid-volumeshrinkagebelow saturation
pressure to abandonmentpressure.
The gas-condensatesystem25requiresdata that is very
similar to that of the volatile oil system. Unlike
the black-oil .or volatile oil systems, bottomhole
samples should not be u$%d for obtathing gascondensate.fluid samples.
Also because this
reservoirfluid is gaseous at reservoirconditions,
no liquid-phase viscosity or separator flash
optimizationtests are performed. After successful
separator fluid analyses, the following tests are
performed:

2)

Singlecontactmiscibilitystudies--pressurevolume relationsfor a series of C02-reservoir

fluid mixtures
a)
bubble point or dew point pressure
b)
single phase foriyationvolume factor
(swel1ing factor)
single phase fluid density
:;
liquid volumes as a functionof pressure

3)

Liquid phase viscosity determination -preferablyon two COz/reservoirfluid mixtures

from the bubblepointregion

4)

Vaporizationstudies
a)
determine the optimum vaporization
pressure (OVP) at
the
reservoir
temperature
b)
determine the maximum recovery from
vaporizationonly
determine
c)
hydrocarbon distribution
through C + on
stoc
% tank oil
;:
produced liquid condensate
residualliquid
3.
4.
produced vapor (including liquid
content as STB/MMSCF)

The aforementionedwish list basically summarizes

data required for various types of fluid systems.
Proper interpretationof this data fo;o~e;l~mulation
study requires additional skills.
in his
paper describes differences between flash and
differential liberation, It is comnonly believed
that a given reservoir resembles the differential
liberation process In the reservoir and a flash
separation occurs in the production lfnes and
separator. However, the reported production is
always stock tank bbls. Thus, it is essential to
combine both flash and differentialliberationsfor
FVF and GOR functions for proper re~resentationof
data in black-oil simulation. Moses describesthe
procedureto do that in his paper.

1) Modifiedconstantmass study (visualcel1 only)

for a series of recombinedgas-oil ratios
a)
pressure-volumerelations
b)
dew point pressures
liquid volumes as a functionof pressure
~~
mixture densities
gas phase compressibilityfactors
.
f)
gas formationvolume factors

Compositional simulations for rich condensate or

volatileoil systems requirerepresentationof fluid
behavior using an equation # state such as PengRobinsonzbor Redlich-Kwong.
In order to reduce
computationaltime, hydrocarboncomponentsare lumped
into subgroups such as Cl through C3, C5 through Gb

2) ~;nstant volume depletion study

hydrocarboncomposit~onof the liberated
gas
b)
retrogradeliquid-volumemeasurements

259
-.,

.
6

DEFINING DATA ..-.

REQUIREMENTS
A STMTIT.ATTC!M
.-. .-.
---- Ff)R
.-. . -------- ------ STIMV
-----

Continuousflowmeter logs or spinnersurveyscarried

out on injection and production wells can help
determine the entry and exit point of fluids. For
open hole completions,electriclogs can help monitor
gas/oil and water/oil contacts or changes in water
saturation. For cased hole completionsTDT logs can
be useful in providingdetails of fluid movement. A
model capable of duplicatingthe measured field data
provides a high level of confidence in predicting
future behavior of the reservoir. Various future
operating strategiessuch as recompletionprograms,
timing of gas lift installations,etc., can now be
examined.

Additional data requirementsfor EOR are given in

Tables 7, 8, and 9.
f3ELD pERFORMANCE0A7A
ition and performancePredictio~
fl~auis
The simulator calculates the fluids in-place and
their distributionafter geological,rock and fluid
data are properly input into the.model.

Simulation for a fully developed reservoir is

basically an extension of the Intermediatesta e.
However,by this time reservoirdescriptionhasfu !ly
matured. Movements for various fronts such as gas
and water have also been matched. It is equally
importantto determinewhere remainingoil is present
in the reservoirand what ts ultimatelyrecoverable.
A point of caution here is to examine the relative
permeabilityto oil at low oil saturations.

For the purpose of this discussionwe can consider

the field to be in various stages of development.
These can be:
1. Early development-- under productionfor less
than a year.
2. intermediate-- producing under depletion or
pressuremaintenancefor less than five years.

~NHANCED OIL ~OVERY

4.

Fully developedreservoirunder productionfor

10+ years.

SPECIAL CONSIDERTION~
A

Simulation predictionsbecome more complex for EOR

methods, In most cases historicalperformancedata
is not available. Additionalwork has to be done to
closely.determine remaining oil saturationand its
distributionin the reservoir.

Field under EOR.

The performancedata can be categorizedas:

(1)
(2)

Sm?
--- 29?57
---~.

descrtpt~on. The early breakthrough of injected

fluids may indicate high permeabilitystreaks. If
breakthrough timing does not match, relative
permeabilityshould also be re-examined.

and CT+. For increased detail, the C,+ group is

frequently broken into two or three subgroups.
Laboratorymeasured data such as retrograde liquid
drop-out (Figure 8) is matched using component
grouping. The computationaltimes are three to five
timesmore comparedtothe black-oilsystems. Models
are generallyunstablenear the criticallocusof the
P-T diagram.

3.

~.

Mi$ctbte (C~2Hv

well completiondata
production/injection
data

carbon) Floodinq

Compositional simulation of enhanced oil recovery

processes such as C02 requires characteriza$..g~
of
fluid behavior using an equation of state.
A
step-wiseprocedureto simulationis as follows:

Well data relates to tubing and casing size,

perforation intervals, timing of any workover or
recompletion,productivityor injectivityindex of
each well.

1. Match laboratory work using an equation of

state program.
2, Use one-dimensional, sma19 grid cells to
ct;gt];;telab test data such as slimtube

The oil rate, GOR, WOR and pressurevs. time data on

a well-by-wellbasis are needed to conduct a history
match.

3. tl;l~iz; slug size using a one-dimensional

For a field in the early developmentstage, usually

it is possibleto derive the followingbenefitsfrom
simulation:

4.

(1) close match of fluids in place from geological

analysis and model description.

Condu;t simulation on a pattern or smallest

;Tm;;ical
element to optimize operating

5. Scale ;esults on field-wide basis based on

pattern results. Verify those resultsbyctinducting limited field scale model simulation.

(2) establishmentof recovery under depletion and

range of recoveries for immiscible fluid
injection.
(3) optimumtimingatwhich injectionshouldbegin.
(4} rate-time forecast to help determine present
economicsof the field.
At an intermediate stage of development the
geological, rock, and fluid descriptionas well as
initial fluids in place can be verified more
accurately. Geologicaldescriptionis a continuous
process. In thisstageif the geologicaland fluid
descriptionsdo not provide a match with performance
data, it is necessary to review and change the

The abilityto predictthe performanceof.a reservoir

under enhanced oil recovery (EOR) is more difficult
than for black-oil. EOR models are highly process
dependent. In addition to having reservoirand EOS
knowledge,one has to confronttranslationof multicontact miscibilitydata into the simulator. S1imtube data is one-dimensionalwhile the reservoircan
have 3-dimensionalflow. Part of the reservoircan
be immiscible,part partially miscible and part
completelymiscible. The possible changes in rock
nettabilityor interfatialtens~onand corresponding
changes in residual oil saturationare difficultto
preciselydefine and fine-tune.

280

SPE 22357

At K. IMNOONA.R. B. ALSTON. R. S. JOHNSON,R. We BRAUN

Since a significantportion of EOR simulationstudy

is for planning purposes,the results are useful in
If the
terms of relative comparison of cases.
objective Is to establish ultimate recovery, field
performancedata from similarreservoirsfloodedwith
similar fluids should be reviewed as an analog. If
field pilot test data is available,such data should
be carefullymatched before scaling the resultson a
fieldwidebasis.

WLISI

1. Data requirementsshguldreconsidered earlyin

the life of reservoir.

Polymers and surfactant chemicals are added to

Polymers are used to provide
injection water.
mobility control during displacementby increasing
water viscosity and reducing rock permeability.
Selective injection profile control in which high
permeability zones are blocked to alter injection
profile is another application, A black- oil model
can be modified to simulateperformance. Stability
of polymer at reservoir.temperatureand its interaction with formationwater should be evaluated in
the laboratory.

As is the case with miscible floocisimulations,

chemical floodingshould first be simulatedon small
one-dimensional models to duplicate laboratory
results. Pattern simulationscan then be followed
with reservoirscale studies.

=5
.,

2.

Interdisciplinaryteams shou~d be used for

reservoirdescriptionand data analysis.

3*

Sensitivityruns should be made to determine

which data parameters i~avekey influence on
results. Every effort shouldbemade to obtain
that data.

4.

If model-computedperformancedoes not match

field data, do not force fit the historymatch
but review each data parameterand its impact
on results.

5. Compositional and EOR simulation should be

first conducted with one-dimensional and
pattern models. Pattern simulationscan then
be followedwith field scale studies.
ACl(NflWLEllGEMIViT$
The authors wishto thank the management of Texaco
EPTD for providingencouragementand fundingfor the
support of this effort..
BFFERENQS
1.

Coats, K. H.: Reservoirs

emulation: Stateof
the Art, J. Pet. Tech. {Aug. 1982) 1633-1642.

2.

Odeh, A. S.: ReservoirSimulation-- What is

it?, J. Pet, Tech. (Nov. 1969) 1383-1388.

3.

Coats, K. ii.: Use and Misuse of Reservoir

SimulationModels, J. Pet. Tech. (Nov. 1969)
1391-1398.

The simulationmodel shou9d account for heat loss in

surface facilities,injectionwell bore a~~ vertical
loss to the surrounding strata. Figure , 9 isan
illustration of heat losses which occur. Model
mathematics in addition to fluid flow and heat
transfer should also account for:

4.

Staggs, H. hi.and Herbeck, E. F,: Reservoir

SimulationModels--AnEngineeringOverview,J.
Pet. Tech. (Dec. 1971) 1428-1436.

5.

Keelan, C).: Coring,world Oi1 (March 1985)

83-90.

1. Thermal expansion of oil -- this results in

reduced SQP when
reservoir temperature
approachesInitialtemperature.
2. Viscosity reduction permittingmore efficient
immiscibledisplacement.
3. Steam distillation if reservoir oil contains
distillablelight components.

6.

The Role of Geoloav in

Harris, 0. G.:
Reservoir Simulation Studies, J. Pet.~ech.
(May 197S) 625-632.

7.

Harris, il.G. and Hewitt,C. H.: Synergismin

Geologic
Reservoir Management
Perspective,J. Pet. Tec~~ (J~!~1977) 761770.

a.

Jardine, 0., Andrews, D, P., Wishart, J. W.,

and Young, J. ii.:Distributionand Continuit.v
of CarbonateReservoirs,J. Pet. Tech. (Jul~
1977) 873-885.

9.

Ruijtenberg,P. A., Buchanan, R., and Marke,

. Three-Dimensional
IlataImproveReservo\r
!;~ptngw,J. Pet. Tech. (Jan. 1990) 22-25, 5961.

Be rmal (Steam) Floodinq

-:

The advantagesof steam as a medium for moving heat

to a displacementfront are its relativelyhigh heatcarryingcapacityplus the large amountof heat which
may be transferred to a formatian as heat of
condensation.

If field production data is available, a match

between measured and computed oil, water and steam
rates is.obtained. It is importantto match steam
breakthrough times as well as API gravity and
viscosityof producedoil. Steamfloodsimulationis
complex and does require significantly more
engineeringand computertime. It is more convenient
to simulate a portion (or pattern)of the reserwoir
and then scale the kesults.

1
2$1
-.
... .

ofi~

We have described the data requirements for

conducting a simulation study for black-oil,
compositionaland enhanced oil recovery processes.
The followir,g
conclusionsare made:

ntl Floodinq
cal (PolvmerlSurfacta

Surfactants decrease re;;~;;onoil saturation by

Considerable
reducing int.erfacial
laboratory work is required tofind an effective
surfactant system and to perform core floods. A
black-oil model capable of tracking injected fluid
concentrationand its effecton relativepermeability
can provide incrementalforecastsof oil recovery.

.
R

lll?kTNTNC
--- ~..-.,-

IMTA
.... A
.- SIUULATION
-.
-..REOIITllFMF.NTE
..
-=---.
------FOR

STUDY

SPE

*
22357

10.

anagement Using
Robertson,J. D.: ReservoirM
30 Seismic Data, J. Pet. Tech. (July 1989)
663-667,

Redlich, O. and Kwong, J. N. S.:

On the
Thermodynamicsof SolutlonsV, An Equationof
State Fugacitiesof Gaseous Solutions,Chem.
Reviews (Feb. 1949) 44, 233-244.

11.

Honarpour,M,, Koedertiz,i-.anc!fHarvey,
fi.H.:
Petroleum
Permeability
Relative
Reservoirs, CRC Press Inc., Boca Raton,
Florida (1986) 1-13.

Ramey, H. J., Jr.: Fundamentalsof Thermal

Oil Recoveryl,p. 165, Dallas, The Petroleum
Publisi~ing
Co., 1965,

12.

Corey, A, T.: The InterrelationBetween Gas

and Oil Relative Permeabilities,Prod. Mun.
19, 38, 1954.

13.

Estimation of Three-Phase
Stone, H. L.:
Relative Permeability,J. Pet. Tech, 2, 214,
1970.

14.

Estimation of Three-Phase
Stone, H. L.:
Relative Permeabilityand ResidualOil Data,
J. of Can. Pet. Tech. 12, 53, 1973.

15.

Dandona,A. K. and Morse, R. A.: HowFlooding

Rate and Gas Saturation Affect waterflood
Performance,Oil and Gas Journal, July 2 and
9, 1973,

16.

Effective Formation
Hall,
A.
C.:
Compressibility,Trans. AIME (1953) 198, 309.

17.

fPetroleum, Second
Levorsen,A. 1.: Geologyo
Edition, W, H. Freeman Publishing Co., San
Francisco,(1967) 128-129.

18.

Evaluationof
Rose, W. and Bruce, W. A.:
Capillary Character in Petroleum Reservoir
Rock, Trans. AIME (1949) 186, 127-142.

19.

Moses, P. L.: EngineeringApplicationsof

Phase Behavior of Crude Oil and Condensate
Systems,J, Pet. Tech. (July 1986) 715-723,

20.

Reservoir Fluids Laboratory, Inc.: Produce

Descriptionand PriceSchedule,NorthAmerica,
Houston, TX, Jan, 1991.

21.

Whitson, C. H. and Torp, S. 6,: Evaluating

Constant-VolumeDepletion Data, J. of Pet,
Tech. (March 1983) 610-620.

22, Jacoby,R. H. and Berry, W. J., Jr,: AMethod

for Predicting Oepletion Performance of a
ReservoirProducingVolatileCrudeOil, Trans.
AIME, 210, 27-33, 1957,
23.

Cook, A. B., Spencer, G. B. and Bobrowski,F.

Special Considerations in Predicting
P.
R~;ervoir Pe orrnance
of Highly Volatile Type
Oil Reservoirs,Trans.AIh?E,192,37-46, 1951.

24.

A
Reudelhuber, F. O. and Hinds, R. F.:
Compositional Material Balance Method for
Prediction of Recovery from Volatile Oil
DepletionOrive Reservoirs,Trans.AIME, 210,
19-26, 1957 (?).

25.

Coats, K, H.: Simulationof Gas-Condensate

ReservoirPerformance,SPEJ (Oct. 1985) 18701886.

26.

Peng, D. Y. and Robinson,D. 0.: A New ?woConstant Equation of State, Ind. Eng. Chem.
Fund (1976) 15, 59-64.
262

Informationfrom Seismic Rata

1.

Structure - size, shape, orientationand continuity

2,

Gross thicknessof reservoir

3,

Presenceof faults or discontinuitiessuch as unconformitytruncation

4,

Fracture intensityand orientation

5,

Type of fluid -- gas or liquid

6.

Cross-welltomography,techniques
can providedistributionof bypassedoil
-- useful for EOR

InformationFrom Core Analysis5

GEOLOGICAL

L
3,

4.
t
;:
9.
10.

11,

Formationlithology (sandstone,limestone,dolomite,etc.)
Sedimentary structures (laminations,cross-bedding, root casts, worm
burrows)
Porositytype (storagecapacity)
intergranular
vugular-moldic
intragranular
fracture
micraporosity
intercrystalline
Permeability(flow caoacitv)
Presenceor absence of oil (fluorescence)
Formationpresence and thickness (tops and bottoms)
Formationsequence
Formationage, facies and correlation(biostratigraphy)
Oppositionalenvironment
Fracturedefinition
depth and Occurrence
length
depth angle
width
Oiagenesis (chemical,physical and biologicchanges after deposition)

ENGINEERING
;:
3.
4.
;:
7.

8.

Porosity
Permeability
Permeabilityheterogeneity(Lorenzecoefficient,variance factor)
Porosityvs. permeabilityrelationships
Reservoirwater saturations(oil-basecores)
Reservoirresidualoil saturationsand distribution(pressureand sponge
core)
Data for calibrationand refinementof downhole log calculations
Grain density
Calcimetry (limestone/dolomite
ratio)
Acoustic velocity
Gamma-raycharacteristics(core gamma and core spectral)
Electricalproperties(m and n)
Mineralogyand clay type, distributionand quantity
Special core analysis
Relative permeability
Formationnettability
Capillary pressure (water-retentionproperties)
Pore volume compressibility
Rock-injectedfluid compatibility
Residualgas (trappedby water)

~G#dw

... .... .....

IwnEQ

InformationFrom Well Leas

1.

Structuraltops

2.

Gross/netpay thickness

3.

Porosity vs. depth

4+

Initialwater saturationvs. depth

5.

Presence or absence of shales

6.

Depth of gas/oil or oil/watercontacts

7,

Well to well correlations

a continuityof sand
e vertical stratificationdefinition

8.

Gas-oil and oil-watercapillarypressuredrainage curves

9.

Lithologydefinition

IAQIJu
Mel! Test Data
1.

Reservoirpressure

2.

Effectivepermeabilitythicknessproduct (kOh,k~h)

3.

Productivity,injectivityindex, completionefficiency (wellboredamage)

4.

Distance of well from the fault or discontinuity

5.

The size of reservoir (continuityof sand)

6.

Single or double porosity systems

7.

Continuityof permeabilitybetween the wells -- interferencetesting

8.

Presencecf fracturesor high permeabilitystreaks

IMLL5
Reservoir InformationRequired for a SimulationStudy

Structuremap of each reservoir

Isopach maps (net and gross thickness) with location of gas/oil and
oilwater contacts for each layer
3.

1/0 porositydistributionfor each layer

4.

Rock region maps for each layer

5.

Maps of flow barriers such as faults for each layer

6.

Water saturationmaps for each layer

7.

Permeabilitydistributio~maps for each layer

-.

Note: Layer is a continuous lowunit. It may or may not communicatewith

layers above and below, Their primary function is to define stratificationin
the reservoir.

.
TA!3LE6
FluidData for Black-OilFrom LaboratoryMeasurements
1.

Oil FVF vs. reservoirpressure

2.

Gas FVF vs. reservoirpressure

3.

Water FVF vs. reservoirpressure

4.

Oil viscosityvs. pressure

5.

Gas viscosityvs. pressure

6.

Gas in solutionvs. reservoirpressure

7.

Water viscosity

8.

Oil compressibility

9.

Water compressibility

10.

Oil FVF at separatorconditions

11.

Gas in solutionat separatorconditions

IM4L..z
AdditionalReservoirRock Data for EnhancedOil Recovery*
Miscible [CQ2avdrocarbon\
o

Changes in rock nettability

Effect on relativepermeabi1ity (S.,)

Chemical (D olvmer. surfactant~

@

Polymer/surfactantabsorptionon the reservoirrock

Polymer residual resistance factor (~ffect of adsorption on rock

permeability)

Polymer inaccessiblepore volume

Rock ion exchangecapacitywith injectedfluid

Effect on relativepermeability
(SO,)for surfactant

Thermal (steam~

Temperaturedependentrelativepermeabilitycurves

Residual oil saturationto steam vapor {S.,9)

Pore volume compressibility

Rock thermal conductivity

Rock heat capacity

In some cases these data cannot be measured directly and must be

determinedby history matching laboratorycore flood recoveries.

265

..
.
.
AdditionalFluid PropertyData
for Chemical Flooding (Polymer/Surfactants)

.?QIMU$
1.

Stabilityof polymer at reservoirtemperature

2.

Polymer viscosityvs. concentrationand shear rate

3.

Core flood recoveries

Surfactant
1.

Solution stability

2.

Phase equilibrium(oil-waterdistributionof surfactant)

3.

Change in interracialtension

AdditionalFluid PropertyData
for Thermal Flooding

1,

Temperatureand pressuredependentequilibriumconstant (k-values)

2.

Viscosity as a functionof temperature

3.

Thermal expansionand heat capacityof oil

EXAIVIPL.ES(X=
INTERPLAYC)FEWORT

TYPE w
6iE0i&3iNC ACWITY

ROCK!5TUDIES
LITHOLOGY

DEPOSITIONALORIGIN

RESERVOIR ROCKTYPES

CORE
r

es. m.t-,,,fimw-c.w, ,m, Pn

rnMrnGwunn
aluwlca

1
I

STRUCTURE

CONTINUITY

L/

CNJALITYPROFILES

RESERVOIRZONATION

.-l

PORE VOLUME

TRANSMHJfj!LIW

ANALYSIS
.1

. ------

.. . . .. . .

Fig 1

Inlograllon
ofgeoloy(~
&reservoir
eflg[o~et!flg
data
&

266
=

(j) STREAMMOUTHBAR
@ DISTRIBUTARYCHANNEL

@ BARRIERISLAND
@) OFFSHORE BAR
@ BAY

@ POINTBAR
@ ALLUVIALFAN
@ BRAKIEDSTREAM

@ DUNE FIELD
@ TIDALFLAT
@ TUFN31DITE
FANAND CHANNEL

@ BEACH
~ LAGOON

Fig 2 Depostmnnlstos of siredand namirsof seinl.bodytypes ~

MAPS
BELT

CONTitWUSStlEE

DISCONTIMJOUS
SHEET

b
+
+
k

CROSS
SECTK)NS
1

VERTICALSTACKlffi
1

IJWERAI.STACKNKI

M
.

..;
.

,.,
, f,

Fig.
3 Principoltypes at sand stoneresetvoirQeomelries~

PRIMARY
DEPOSITIONAL

POROSITY

CONFIGURATION

TYPES

OHERMREEF

QRAIN

SIZE

Pcwoslw

TYPE

._o.- -SW
~

o~TRo~~E

SECONDARY

PROCESS

FAVORABLE

UNFAVORABLE
EFFECTS

EFFECTS
INCREASE
k

mAmJRINci

aC*

INCREASE
CW4NNELINQ

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flRECCIA

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BY CALCITE
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ANMvORITE
PYR081NMEN
QUARTZ

I
NEAW5HORE

~
I

1
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f9?4 -1975
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F;g.5 Comparisonof 2D and 30 atrucfurstmapsat blockW,

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Fig. 4 Poroslfy01carbonts:asII

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TEMPERATURE

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269

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cormkat,on for cures from Iho Bradford s~stono

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CORE

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LAB MEASURED DATA

EOS CHARACTERIZATION
BASED ON 3 PSEUDO
COMPONENTS (Cd . (23
C4 - (27
C7 +)

4i

PRESSURE (PSIA)
Fig. 8 Retrograde

ccndenset!on

during depletion

.-w

HEAT LOSS FROM SURFACE EQUIPMENT TO SURROUNDING

/(j/

I\}lllllltll{f/

l)/s

TH:::AL
--

.
.
.
-

-.
--

.
.
HEAT
+

L
~

SUPPLY WATER

FUEL

LOSS FROM WELLBORE TO EARTH

-
-
.-
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-.1

I I :

WERTICA~ HEAT 0SS FROM HEATED FORMATION

-111-

WERTICAV HEAT LOSS FROM HEATED FORMATION

FIg 9 Illustrationof heat Ioaseswhichoccurin a heat InjectionGyslem(afterRamay m)

270