DEPARTMENT OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

BSNL INDUSTRIAL TRAINING REPORT

Acknowledgement

I acknowledge my gratitude and thank to all the well knowledge persons for
giving me opportunity to avail all the best facilities available at this telecom
centre through which I have gained knowledge thinking so as too just in the
environment suitable for harmonic adjustment. I am grateful to the following
persons for various help rendered by them during the training period.

Last but not the least; I thank my friends and my family members for their
constant encouragement.

PREFACE

Since time immemorial, a man has tried hard to bring the world as close to
himself as possible. His thirst for information is hard to quench so he has
continuously tried to develop new technologies, which have helped to reach the
objective.
The world we see today is a result of the continuous research in the field of
communication, which started with the invention of telephone by Graham Bell to
the current avatar as we see in the form INTERNET and mobile phones. All these
technologies have come to existence because man continued its endeavor towards
the objective.
This project report of mine, STUDY OF TRENDS TECHNOLOGIES IN
COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING has been a small effort in
reviewing the trends technologies prevailing. For this purpose, no organization
other than BAHRAT SANCHAR NIGAM LIMITED could have been a better
choice.

ABOUT BSNL

On October 1, 2000 the Department of Telecom Operations, Government

of India became a corporation and was christened Bharat Sanchar Nigam
Limited (BSNL). Today, BSNL is the largest Public Sector Undertaking of
India and its responsibilities include improvement of the already
impeccable quality of telecom services, expansion of telecom network
introduction of new telecom services in all villages and instilling confidence
among its customers. At present the BSNL is the World's Seventh Largest
and India's First Telecommunication Company. Responsibilities that BSNL
has managed to shoulder remarkably, definitely. BSNL is the largest
telecom operator in India and is known to everybody for Basic Telephony
Services for over 100 years. Presently the plain old, countrywide
telephone service is being provided through 32,000 electronic exchanges,
326 Digital Trunk Automatic Exchanges(TAX), Digitalized Public Switched
Telephone Network (PSTN) all interlinked by over 2.4 lakhs km of Optical
Fiber Cable, with a host of Phone Plus value additions to our valued
Customers. BSNL's telephony network expands throughout the vast
expanses of the country reaching to the remotest part of the country.
Driven by the very best of telecom technology from chosen global leaders,
it connects each inch of the nation to the infinite corners of the globe, to
enable you to step into tomorrow. Along with its vast customer base,
BSNL's financial and asset bases too are vast and strong. The telephone
infrastructure along is worth about Rs. 1,00,000 crore (US $ 21.2 billion)
Turnover of Rs. 22,000 crore (US $ 4.6 billion) Now from latest news
BSNL records a net profit of Rs. 6,312 crore on revenues of Rs.24,300
crore for the financial year 2001-02. BSNL is working round the clock to
take India into the future by providing world class telecom services for the
people of India.

Services Provided by BSNL

BSNL provides almost every telecom service in India. Following are the main
telecom services provided by BSNL:
Universal Telecom Services : Fixed wireline services and
landline in local loop (WLL) using CDMA Technology called
bfone and Tarang respectively. As of June 30, 2010, BSNL
had 75% marketshare of fixed lines.

BSNL Mobile

Prepaid Mobile
Cellular Mobile Telephone Services: BSNL is major
provider of Cellular Mobile Telephone services using GSM
platform under the brand name Cellone & Excel (BSNL
Mobile). As of June 30, 2010 BSNL has 13.50% share of
mobile telephony in the country.[7]
WLL-CDMA Telephone Services: BSNL's WLL (Wireless in
Local Loop)service is a service giving both fixed line
telephony & Mobile telephony.

BSNL Broadband
Internet: BSNL provides Internet access services through
dial-up connection (as Sancharnet through 2009[8]) as
Prepaid, (NetOne) as Postpaid and ADSL broadband (BSNL
Broadband). BSNL held 55.76% of the market share with
reported subscriber base of 9.19 million Internet subscribers
with 7.79% of growth at the end of March 2010.[citation needed]
Top 12 Dial-up Service providers, based on the subscriber
base, It Also Provides OnlineGames via Its Games on
Demand (GOD)

 Intelligent Network (IN): BSNL offers value-added

services, such as Free Phone Service (FPH), India Telephone
Card (Prepaid card), Account Card Calling (ACC), Virtual
Private Network (VPN), Tele-voting, Premium Rae Service
(PRM), Universal Access Number (UAN).
3G:BSNL offers the '3G' or the'3rd Generation' services
which includes facilities like video calling,mobile broadband,
live TV, 3G Video portal, streaming services like online full
length movies and video on demand etc.
IPTV:BSNL also offers the 'Internet Protocol Television'
facility which enables watch television through internet.
FTTH:Fibre To The Home facility that offers a higher
bandwidth for data transfer. This idea was proposed on
post-December 2009.
Helpdesk: BSNL's Helpdesk (Helpdesk) provide help desk
support to their customers for their services.
VVoIP: BSNL, along with Sai Infosystem - an Information
and Communication Technologies (ICTs) provider - has
launched Voice and Video Over Internet Protocol (VVoIP).
This will allow to make audio as well as video calls to any
landline, mobile, or IP phone anywhere in the world,
provided that the requisite video phone equipment is
available at both ends.[9]
WiMax: BSNL has introduced India's first 4th Generation
High-Speed Wireless Broadband Access Technology with the
minimum speed of 256kbps. The focus of this service is
mainly rural customer where the wired broadband facility is
not available

OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION

HISTORY:
The use of visible optical carrier waves or light for communication has
been common for many years. Simple systems such as signal fires,
reflecting mirrors and, more recently signaling lamps have provided
successful, if limited, information transfer. Moreover as early as 1880
Alexander Graham Bell reported the transmission of speech using a light
beam. The photo phone proposed by Bell just for years after the invention
of the telephone modulated sunlight with a diaphragm giving speech
transmission over a distance of 200m. However, although some
investigation of the optical communication continued in the early part of
the 20th century its use was limited to mobile, low capacity communication
links. This was due to both the lack of suitable light sources and the
problem that light transmission in the atmosphere is restricted to line of
sight and severely affected by disturbances such as rain, snow, fog dust
and atmospheric turbulence. A renewed interest in optical communication
was stimulated in the early 1960s with the invention of the laser. This
device provided a coherent light source, together with the possibility of the
modulation at high frequency. The proposals for optical communication via
optical fibers fabricated from glass to avoid degradation of the optical
signal by the atmosphere were made almost simultaneously in 1966 by
Kao and Hock ham and Werts. Such systems were viewed as a
replacement for coaxial cable system, initially the optical fibers exhibited
very high attenuation and were therefore not comparable with the coaxial
cable they were to replace. There were also problems involved in jointing
the fiber cables in a satisfactory manner to achieve low loss and to enable
the process to be performed relatively easily and repeatedly in the field.
In microwave system if we double the distance the loss will be
increased by 6db. For the shorter distance the loss is higher. In ofc system
Optical wire is small size, light weight, high strength and flexibility. Its
transmission benefits includes wide band width, low loss and low cost.
They are suitable for both analog and digital transmission. It is not
suffered by digging, electrical interference etc. problems.

THE GENERAL SYSTEM

An optical fiber communication system is similar in basic concept to any

type of communication system. A block diagram of a general
communication system in fig.a. The function of which is to convey the
signal from the information source over the transmission medium to the
destination. In electrical communication, the information source provides
an electrical signal, usually derived from a message signal which is not
electrical, to a transmitter comprising electrical and electronic components
which converts the signal into a suitable form for propagation over the
transmission medium. The transmission medium can consists of a pair of
wires, a coaxial cable or a radio link through free space down which the
signal is transmitted to the receiver where it is transformed into original
electrical information signal before being passed to the destination.
Information Source, transmitter(modulator), Transmission medium,
Receiver (demodulator), Destination, Communication system, Information
Source, electrical transmit, optical source, optical fiber cable, optical
Detector, electrical receive Destination

Optical fiber communication system

For optical fiber communication system shown in fig b. information source
provides an electrical signal to a transmitter comprising an electrical stage
which drives an optical source to give modulation of the light wave carrier.
The optical source which provides the electrical, optical conversion may
be either a semiconductor laser or light emitting diode (LED). The
transmission medium consist of an optical fiber and the receiver consist of
an optical detector which drives a further electrical stage hence provide
demodulation of optical carrier. Photodiodes and in some instances,
photransistor and photoconductors are utilized for the detection of the
optical signal and the opticalelectrical conversion. The optical carrier may
be modulated either an analog or digital information signal. In the system
shown in fig b. analog modulation involves the variation of the light emitted

from the optical source in a continuous manner. With digital modulation,

however, discrete changes in the light intensity are obtained (on/off
pulses). Although often simpler to implement, analog modulation with an
optical fiber communication system is less efficient, requiring a far higher
s/n ratio at than digital modulation. Also, the linearity needed for analog
modulation is not always provided by semiconductor optical sources,
especially at high modulation frequencies. For this reasons, analog optical
fiber communication links are generally limited to shorter distances and
lower bandwidths than digital links.

GENERAL IDEA OF OFC

The idea of fiber optics is use to light, instead of current or voltage, as the
energy which carries the signal, with the light as a carrier that is turned on
and off, with binary amplitude modulation. The problem is to direct the light
from the transmitter to the receiver. The solution is to use a hair-thin fiber
of glass as a light pipe. If a light source is put at one end, any light that
enters the fiber stay in that fiber end travels through the fiber to the other
end. The light does not pass out of the walls of fiber as it travels. This is
because of a property called total internal reflection. If a light wave is
traveling through a material with a high refractive index compared to an
adjacent material, and it hits the interface between them at certain low
angles, the light does not cross the boundary but completely reflects back
(Fig.1).
At the receiving end of fiber, a light detector senses the light. Thus, the
communication medium is the fiber, and the energy used is light energy.

FEATURES:

The fiber optics has become a preferred medium due to its some
important features like: The bandwidth of the fiber and light beam is
extremely wide. It is possible to handle signals which turn on and off at
gigabit per second rates (1 gigabit, gbit =1000 Mbitts). The fiber itself is
very thin and not expensive. The thinness means that it is easy to handle,
and many fibers can be put in the trenches or narrow conduits. The light
signal is absolutely immune to electrical noise from any sources. Even if
there are sources of electrical noise directly touching the cable, the
electric fields of the noise source cannot affect the light beam in the fiber.
The signal in the cable is secure from unauthorized listeners. It is relatively
hard to tap into the cable without being noticed, and the entire light signal
is confined within the fiber. No light escapes to the outside where
someone else could see it. Since there is no electricity or electrical energy

in the fiber, it can be run in hazardous atmospheres where the danger of

explosion from spark may exist. Also, the fiber itself is immune to many
types of poisonous gases, chemicals, and water.

ESSENTIAL FEATURES OF AN OPTICAL FIBER

1. Optical fibers may be produced with good stable transmission

characteristics in long lengths at a minimum cost and with
maximum reproducibility.
2. A range of optical fiber types with regard to size, refractive
indices and index profiles, operating wavelengths, materials
etc. be available in order to fulfill many different system
applications.

3. The fibers may be converted into practical cables which can be

handled in a similar manner to conventional electrical
transmission cables without problems associated with the
degradation of their characteristics or damage.
4. The fibers and fiber cables may be terminated and connected
together without excessive [practical difficulties and in ways
which limit the effect of this process on the fiber transmission
characteristics to keep them within acceptable operating
levels. It is important that these jointing techniques may be
applied with ease in the field location where cable connection
takes place.

JOINT OF FIBER
Optical fiber links, in common with any line communication system, have a
requirement for both jointing and termination of the transmission medium.
The number of intermediate fiber connections or joints is dependent upon
the link length, the continuous length of the fiber cable that may be
produced by the preparation methods and the length of the fiber cable that
may be practically installed as a continuous section on the link. It is
therefore apparent that fiber to fiber connection with low loss and
minimum distortion (i.e. modal noise) remains an important aspect of
optical fiber communication system. Before optical fibers splicing and
joining are done certain preparations are made with fiber or fiber cables as
case may be to achieve best results at the end surface. First of all the
protective plastic that covers the glass cladding is stripped from each fiber
end, which is then cleaved with a special tool, producing a smooth and flat
end. 1. Fiber splices: these are semipermanent or permanent joints which
find major use in most optical fiber telecommunication system (analogous
to electrical soldered joints). 2. Demountable fiber connectors or simple
connectors: these are removable joints which allow easy, fast, manual
coupling and uncoupling of fibers (analogous to electrical plugs and
sockets). The above fiber to fiber joints are designed ideally to couple all
the light propagating in one fiber into the adjoining fiber. By contrast fiber
couplers are branching devices that split all the light from main fiber into
two or more fibers or, alternatively, couple a proportion of the light
propagating in the main fiber into main fiber.
FIBER SPLICES A permanent joint formed between two individual optical
fibers in the field or factory is known as a fiber splice. Fiber splicing is
frequently used to establish long haul optical fiber links where smaller fiber
lengths need to be joined, and there is no requirement for repeated
connection and disconnection. Splices may be divided into two broad
categories depending upon the splicing technique utilized. These are
fusion splicing or welding and mechanical splicing. Fusion splicing is
accomplished by applying localized heating(e.g. by a flame or an electric
are ) at the interface between two butted, prealigned fiber ends causing
them to soften and fuse. Mechanical splicing, in which the fibers are held
in alignment by some mechanical means, may be achieved by various
methods including the use of tubes around the fiber ends (groove splices).

A requirement with fibers intended for splicing is that they have smooth
and square end faces. In general this end preparation may be achieved
using a suitable tool which cleaves the fiber as illustrated.
FUSION SPLICES The fusion splicing of single fibers involves the
heating of the two prepared fiber ends to their fusing point with the
application of sufficient axial pressure between the two optical fibers. It is
therefore essential that the stripped (of cabling and buffer coating) fiber
ends are adequately positioned and aligned in order to achieve good
continuity of the transmission medium at the junction point. Hence the
fiber are usually positioned and clamped with the aid of an inspection
microscope. Flame heating sources such as micro plasma torches (argon
and hydrogen) and oxhydric microburners (oxygen, hydrogen and alcohol
vapour) have been utilized with some success. However, the most widely
used heating source is an electric arc. This technique offers advantages of
consistent, easily controlled heat with adaptability for use under field
conditions. A schematic diagram of the basic two fibers are welded
together. Shows a development of the basic are fusion process which
involves the rounding of the fiber ends with a low energy discharge before
pressing the fibers together and fusing with a stronger arc. This technique,
known as perfusion, removes the requirement for fiber end preparation
which has a distinct advantage in the field environment. A possible
drawback with fusion splicing is that the heat necessary to fuse the fibers
may weaken the fiber in the vicinity of the splice. It has been found that
even with careful handling; the tensile strength of the fused fiber may be
as low as 30 % of that of the uncoated fiber before fusion.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED FOR OFC JOINT
1) Optical fiber fusion splicer specification ( spicer machine ) AC input
100 to 240v,
frequency 50/60Hz DC input 12v/aA
2) Fiber cutter It converts irregular shaped fiber end into smooth & flat
end.
3) Chemicals used in OFC joint HAXENE : To remove jelly from the fiber
ACETONE : For cleaning the OFC ISO PROPENOT: For smoothness
of optical glass.
4) Sleeve: - To enclose fiber joint.
5) Tool Kit
6) Joint kit. Joint encloser Buffer Adhesive tap.
7) Generator /12V Battery 8) Cotton clothes for fiber cleaning.

OPTICAL TIME DOMAIN REFLECTOMETRY (OTDR)

A measurement technique which is far more sophisticated and which finds
wide application in both the laboratory and the field is the of optical time
domain reflectometry (OTDR). This technique is often called the
backscatter measurement method. It provides measurement of the
attenuation on an optical link down its entire length giving information on
the length dependence of the link loss. OTDR also allows splice and
connector losses to be evaluated as well as the rotation of any faults on
the link. It relies upon the measurement and analysis of the fraction of light
which is reflected back within the fibers numerical aperture due to
Rayleigh scattering. Coupler Pulsed Laser fiber
Photo detector APD
Box car Integrator
log amplifier
chart recorder
A block schematic of the backscatter measurement method. A light pulse
is launched into the fiber in the forward direction from an injection laser
using either a directional coupler or a system of external lenses with a
beam splitter (usually only in the laboratory). The backscattered light is
detected using an avalanche photodiode receiver which drives an
integrator in order to improve the received signal to noise ratio by giving
an arithmetic average over a number of measurements taken at one point
within the fiber. This provides location dependent attenuation values
which give an overall picture of the optical loss down the link.

ADVANTAGES OF OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION

Enormous Potential Bandwidth: - The optical carrier frequency in the

range 1013 to 1016 Hz (generally in the near infrared around 1014 Hz or
105 GHz) yields a far grater potential transmission bandwidth than metallic
cable systems. (i.e. coaxial cable bandwidth up to around 500 MHz) or
even millimetre wave radio systems (i.e. systems currently operating with
modulation bandwidths of 700 MHz ). At present, the bandwidth available
to fiber systems is not fully utilized but modulation at several gigahertz
over a hundred kilometers and hundreds of megahertz over three hundred
kilometers without intervening electronics (repeaters) is possible.
Therefore, the information carrying capacity of optical fiber systems has
proved far superior to the best copper cable systems. By comparison the
losses in wideband coaxial cable systems restrict the transmission
distance to only a few kilometers at bandwidths over one hundred
megahertz. Although the usable fiber bandwidth will be extended further
towards the optical carrier frequency, it is clear that this parameter is
limited by the use of a signal optical carrier signal. Hence a much
enhanced bandwidth utilization for an optical fiber can be achieved by
transmitting several optical signals, each at different centre wavelengths,
in parallel on the same fiber. This wavelength division multiplexed
operation, particularly with dense packing of the optical wavelengths ( or,
essentially, fine frequency spacing ), offers the potential for a fiber
information carrying capacity which is many orders of magnitude in excess
of that obtained using copper cables or a wideband radio system. Small
Size and Weight: - Optical fibers have very small diameters which are
often no grater than the diameter of a human hair. Hence, even when such
fibers are covered with protective coatings they are far smaller and much
lighter than corresponding copper cables. This is a tremendous boon
towards the alleviation of duct congestion in cities, as well as allowing for
an expansion of signal transmission within mobiles such as aircraft,
satellites and even ships. Electrical Isolation: - Optical fibers which are
fabricated from glass, or sometimes a plastic polymer, are electrical
insulators and therefore, unlike their metallic counterparts, they do not
exhibit earth loop and interface problems. Furthermore, this property
makes optical fiber transmission ideally suited for communication in
electrically hazardous environments as the fibers create no arching or
spark hazard at abrasions or short circuits. Immunity To Interference And

Crosstalk :- Optical fibers form a dielectric waveguide and are therefore

free from electromagnetic interference (EMI), radiofrequency interference
(RFI), or switching transients giving electromagnetic pulses (EMP). Hence
the operation of an optical fiber communication system is unaffected by
transmission through an electrically noisy environment and the fiber cable
requires no shielding from EMI. The fiber cable is also not susceptible to
lightning strikes if used overhead rather than underground. Moreover, it is
fairly easy

to ensure that there is no optical interference between fibers and hence,

unlike communication using electrical conductors, crosstalk is negligible,
even when many fibers are cabled together. Signal Security: - The light
from optical fibers does not radiate significantly and therefore they provide
a high degree of signal security. Unlike the situation with copper cables, a
transmitted optical signal cannot be obtained from a fiber in a noninvasive
manner (i.e. without drawing optical power from the fiber). Therefore, in
theory, any attempt to acquire a message signal transmitted optically may
be detected. This feature is obviously attractive for military, banking and
general data transmission (i.e. computer network) application. Low
Transmission Loss :- The development of optical fibers over the last
twenty years has resulted in the production of optical fiber cables which
exhibit very low attenuation or transmission loss in comparison with the
best copper conductors. Fibers have been fabricated with losses as low as
0.2 dB km-1 (see Section 3.3.2) and this feature has become a major
advantage of optical fiber communications. It facilitates the implementation
of communication links with extremely wide repeater spacing ( long
transmission distances without intermediate electronics), thus reducing
both system cost and complexity. Together with the already proven
modulation bandwidth capability of fiber cable this property provides a
totally compelling case for the adoption of optical fiber communication in
the majority of long-haul telecommunication applications. Ruggedness and
Flexibility :- Although protective coatings are essential, optical fibers may
be manufactured with very high tensile strengths. Perhaps surprisingly for
a glassy substance, the fibers may also be bent to quite small radii or
twisted without damage. Furthermore cable structures have been

developed which have proved flexible, compact and extremely rugged.

Taking the size and weight advantage into account, these optical fiber
cables are generally superior in terms of storage, transportation, handling
and installation to corresponding copper cables, whilst exhibiting at least
comparable strength and durability. System Reliability And Ease Of
Maintenance :- These features primarily stem from the low loss property of
optical fiber cables which reduces the requirement for intermediate
repeaters or line amplifiers to boost the transmitted signal strength. Hence
with fewer repeaters, system furthermore, the reliability of the optical
components is no longer a problem with predicted lifetimes of 20 to 30
years now quite common. Both these factors also tend to reduce
maintenance time and costs.

Potential Low Cost :- The glass which generally provides the optical fiber
transmission medium is made from sand not a scarce resource. So, in
comparison with copper conductors, optical fibers offer the potential for
low cost line communication. Although over recent years this potential has
largely been realized in the costs of the optical fiber transmission medium
which for bulk purchases is now becoming competitive with copper wires
(i.e. twisted pairs), it has not yet been achieved in all the other component
areas associated with optical fiber communication. For example, the costs
of high performance semiconductor lasers and detector photodiodes are
still relatively high, as well as some of those concerned with the
connection technology ( demountable connectors, couplers, etc. ).
DRAWBACKS OF OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION

The use of fibers for optical communication does have some drawbacks in
practice. Hence to provide a balance picture these disadvantages must be
considered. They are The fragility of the bare fibers; The small
size of fibers and cables which creates some difficulties with splicing and
forming connectors; Some problems involved with forming low loss Tcouplers; Some doubts in relations to the long term reliability of optical

fibers in the presence of moisture; An independent electrical power feed is

required for any electronic repeaters; New equipment and field practice
are required; Testing procedures tend to be more complex.

APPLICATION OF THE OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION

TRUNK NETWORK: The trunk or toll network is used for carrying
telephone traffic between major conurbations. Hence there is generally a
requirement for the use of transmission systems which have a high
capacity in order to minimize costs per circuit. The transmission distance
for trunk systems can very enormously from under 20 km to over 300 km,
and occasionally to as much as 1000 km. Therefore transmission systems
which exhibit low attenuation and hence give a maximum distance of
unrepeatered operation are the most economically viable. In this context
optical fiber systems with their increased bandwidth and repeater spacing
offer a distinct advantage.
JUNCTION NETWORK: The junction or interoffice network usually
consists of routes within major conurbations over distances of typically 5
to 20 km. However, the distribution of distances between switching centers
(telephone exchanges ) or offices in the junction network of large urban
areas varies considerably for various countries.
MILITARY APPLICATION:
In these applications, although economics are important, there are usually
other, possibly overriding, considerations such as size, weight,
deployability, survivability (in both conventional and nuclear attack and
security. The special attributes of optical fiber communication system
therefore often lend themselves to military use. MOBILES
One of the most promising areas of milita5ry application for optical fiber
communication is within military mobiles such as aircraft, ships and tanks.
The small size and weight of optical fibers provide and attractive solution

to space problems in these mobiles which are increasingly equipped with

sophisticated electronics. Also the wideband nature of optical fiber
transmission will allow the multiplexing of a number of signals on to a
common bus. Furthermore, the immunity of optical transmission to
electromagnetic interference (EMI) in the often noisy environment of
military mobiles is a tremendous advantage. This also applies to the
immunity of optical fiber to lighting and electromagnetic pulses (EMP)
especially within avionics. The electrical isolation, and therefore safety,
aspect of optical fiber communication also proves invaluable in these
applications, allowing routing through both fuel tanks and magazines.

COMMUNICATION LINKS:
The other major area for the application of optical fiber communication in
the military sphere includes both short and long distance communication
links. Short distance optical fiber systems may be utilized to connect
closely spaced items of electronics equipment in such areas as operations
rooms and computer installations. A large number of this system have
already been installed in military installations in the united kingdom. These
operate over distances from several centimeters to a few hundred meters
at transmission rates between 50 bauds and 4.8 kbits-1. In addition a
small number of 7 MHz video links operating over distances of up to 10 m
are in operation. There is also a requirement for long distance
communication between military installations which could benefit from the
use of optical fibers. In both these advantages may be gained in terms of
bandwidth, security and immunity to electrical interference and earth loop
problems over conventional copper systems.

TELEPHONE EXCHANGE
INTRODUCTION The main function of an exchange is to process call from
a calling subscriber and make the connection to the called subscriber. This
connection can be direct or via another exchange. This requires all parts
of the exchange to work as a unit to ensure the call is properly handled.
CALL PROCESSING ARCHITECTURE The main function of the
exchange is to process subscriber calls. The exchange does this by
connecting an incoming line or trunk to another line or trunk. However call
processing involves much more than simply connecting subscribers. In
order to process the calls the exchange must perform four basic switching
function. Supervision: Detects and reports service requests,
acknowledgements and requests to terminate service. Signaling:
Transmits information about lines and trunks and information about other
aspects of call handling to control switching equipment. Routing: Converts
address information to the location of the corresponding call line or to the
location of a trunk on the way to that line. Alerting. Notifies a subscriber of
incoming calls.
BASIC CALL TYPES Subscriber calls are grouped in to categories that
distinguish one call from another. These categories are referred to as call
types. The basic call types are Intra exchange calls: - these are calls
between two subscribers served by the same exchange. These calls are
normally line to line calls. Inter exchange calls: - these are calls that
involve two or more exchanges. Within a given exchange there are
different types of inter exchange calls.
An outgoing call is a call that goes out of the exchange via a trunk. If the
call originated in the same exchange, it is called an originating outgoing
call. An incoming call is a call that comes into the exchange via a trunk.
A tandem call is a call that comes into the exchange on one trunk and
leaves the exchange on another trunk. Thus a tandem call is both
incoming and out going. CALL PROCESSING STAGES An intra exchange
call which is the simplest of the call types mentioned above, progresses
through four basic stages :

DIGIT RECEPTION SEIZURE SIGNAL ADDRESS RECEIVED

IDLE
RINGING
DISCONNECT SIGNAL TALKING
ANSWER SIGNAL

Idle Digit reception and analysis Ringing talking Inter exchange calls are
more complex, and their call processing stages are somewhat different.
DIGIT RECEPTION
Establish Dialing Connection
Establish Ringing Connection
IDLE
RINGING
TAKE DOWN CONNECTION
ESTABLISH TALKING CONNECTION
TALKING
SERVICE CATEGORY Residence and business subscriber
services: - Example of this category are individual, 2-party and multiparty
lines, abbreviated dialing, call waiting, 3-way calling all diversion, call
barring and multi line hunting. Extended business services: - Examples of
these services are PBX, indirect inward dialing and toll diversion. Public
safety services: - Examples of this category are basic emergency service,
outgoing call trace, and in-progress call trace and in progress call trace.
Miscellaneous local system services: - it like loop-range services,

integrated and universal pair gain interface and line signaling. Inter
exchange services: - Various inter exchange signaling types. Call
processing services: - Generalized screening, digit interpretation timing,
routing and remote switching modules. Toll services: - Toll exchange
trunks, auxiliary service trunks, and operator trunks. Of termination: trunk
and line. The trunk termination involves selecting an idle member in the
trunk group and out pulsing the received digits. For a trunk, the particular
selected trunk group, the no. of members in the trunk group and the digits
to be out pulsed and the way the trunk group is selected, are of utmost
importance. The line termination involves checking to find whether the line
is busy and applying rin2ging to the line.

DESCRIPTION OF VARIOUS BLOCKS

DP (Distribution Panel) Distribution point box commonly know as D.P.
box is a terminal arrangement where under ground cable pairs are
connected to overhead wires or drop wires for providing connections at
subscribers premises. It is a cast iron box with a facility for termination of
distribution cable on pins fitted on an insulating plate. The distribution
cable pairs can be connected to these pins by soldering at the rear. The
overhead wires are connected by means of screwing nuts provided on the
front side of insulating plate. Types of D.Ps. There are two types of D.Ps.
suitable for external/internal use. These are called internal D.P. and
external D.Ps. and are generally available in 10 or 20 pair sizes. Location
of D.Ps. External D.Ps. are fitted on posts by means of suitable size of U
backs. Internal D.Ps. are fitted in side buildings on the wall at suitable
location. In case of multi storied buildings where the telephone demand is
very high, the distribution cables or some times even the primary cabled
are terminated on distribution frames at suitable location, from where the
distribution cables of 20 pairs or 10 pairs sizes are taken to different floors
or block and terminated on 10 or 20 pair subs D.Ps. Individual wire are
further provided from the subs D.Ps. to the location of the telephone.
Pillar Pillar is fabricated from steel or cast from casings enclosing a framework on which cable terminal boxes are mounted. The term "pillar" is used
with reference to a flexibility point where MDF's cables and DP's cables
are interconnected. MDF (Main Distribution frame) The Subscriber's lines
enter an exchange through a number of large capacity U/G cables, each
of which serves a different part of the exchange area. The numbers given

to the subscriber's lines do not bear any relationship to the geographical

location of the subscriber. Hence, the exchange numbers included in any
one cable are entirely haphazard. Moreover, as subscribers cease to have
telephones and new subscribers are connected, the exchange numbering
of the external cable pairs is constantly changing. On the other hand, all
lines within the exchange are in strict numerical order. It is, therefore,
necessary that some means must be provided for temporary connection
between the two.
Exchange Card is a basic functional unit of the exchange. Various cards
are utilized for various purposes e.g. Subscriber cards are utilized for
termination of subscriber's cables coming from MDF. PCM Various
subscriber's cables coming out from the subscriber's cards (After
processing) are terminated into the DDF (Digital Distribution Frame)
located inside PCM in between these two PCM tag block is there, which
provide connectivity between these two. Various DDF's cables combine
together and terminated into the OFC module (which is combination of
electrical to light converter (Multiplexer and Demultiplexer). PCM is
separately explained in another section.

MAIN DISTRIBUTION FRAME

INTRODUCTION
To obtain flexibility in interconnecting, external line plants and the
exchange equipment and between different circuits in the exchange itself,
certain arrangements is made by the use of iron frames. These iron
frames are called main distribution frames, intermediate distributions
frames or combined main and intermediate distribution frames, depending
upon their functions.
MAIN DISTRIBUTION FRAME (M.D.F.)
The subscribers line enter an exchange through a number of large
capacity cables, each of which serves a different part of the exchange
area. The numbers given to the subscribers lines do not bear any
relationship to the geographical location of the subscriber. Hence the
exchange numbers include in any one cable are entirely haphazard.
Moreover, as subscribers cease to have telephones and new subscribers
are connected, the exchange numbering of the external cable pairs is
constantly changing. On the other hand, all lines within the exchange are
in strict numerical order. It is, therefore, necessary that some means must
be provided for temporary connection between the two. This conversion
from the geographical order of the external pairs to the numerical order
within the exchange is carried out on a main distribution frame.
FACILITIES PROVIDED BY M.D.F.
The M.D.F. provides for the following requirements: A means for
permanently terminating the external cables. For mounting the protective
devices connected to the incoming circuits. Providing the connection
between the exchange side and the line side by the jumpers. An
interception point for use in connection with fault locating tests.
EXCHANGE
LEN
CABINET

PILLAR
DP BOX
MDF VERTICAL SUBSCRIBER
CONSTRUCTION OF M.D.F.
Main distribution frame is mainly divided in two parts.
(1) Vertical Side or Line side
(2) LEN side or Exchange side
All the part from vertical side to the subscriber are generally called outdoor
section. 1 vertical has 10 tag block. Each tag block has 10 rows and each
row has 10 tags. So each tag block has 100 tags. Connection between
vertical side & subscribers are provided by jelly filled cables. These wires
are first terminated in cabinet box, then according to requirements the
group of the wires (e.g. 200 wires, 100 wires etc.) are terminated in pillar
box & from here connections are given to the subscribers via DP box.
All the parts from LEN to the exchange is called indoor section. The
connection of subscriber from exchange is terminated on this side of MDF.
In 1 tag block there are 128 tags. Each tag block is divided in 4 segments.
That is 0, 1, 2 & 3 and in each segments. There are sixteen tags. On the
vertical side there is 100 tag in one vertical tag block where as on the LEN
side there is 128 tags on each LEN block. The reason for this difference is
that there is always a reserve of spare capacity in the external cables to
cover fluctuations in the distribution of the subscribers lines as between
the different localities served by the cables.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF FAULTS

The faults are given below which are established in communication of
subscriber with exchange.

LOOP FAULT:-If two wires are joined together because of improper

connection, storming air etc. then this type of fault occur.
EARTH FAULT:-If two wires get scrape at some places and if this wire
comes in contact with tree, pillar or any metal objects then this type of fault
occurs.
CABLE FAULT:-For outdoor connections, jelly filled wires are used which
are affected by natural causes such as rain, earthquake etc. At such time
this fault occurs.
DISCONNECT FAULT:-This type of fault occurs due to the breaking of
wires between the vertical side & LEN side.
LOCATION OF FAULTS :This can be determined by putting pack up. If
pack up is put in one of the tag of LEN side and if dial tone is received
only up to the LEN side then fault is in the outdoor side and if tone is
received from the subscriber only up to the vertical side then fault is in the
indoor side. These faults are also identify by either subscriber line tester or
by using the computerized programs.
PROTECTIVE DEVICE USED ON M.D.F.
Fuses
These are the devices used to protect apparatus and wiring from
excessive currents. A fuse is a small length of thin wire which melts if there
is an excess of current and disconnect the equipment before possible
damage. The rated current of fuse is the maximum current which it can
carry without melting or fusing.
The types of fuses used for connecting line to equipment are:
(1) Glass type
(2) Gate type GAS DISCHARGE TUBE (GD TUBE)
In case of heavy lighting discharges or induction of high voltages, gas
discharge protectors are used as protective device to protect the
communication lines and equipments from damages due to high voltages.
The gas discharge protector essentially consists of two of three tungsten

electrodes sealed in a special glass envelope or ceramic envelop[e

containing a mixure of inert gases , mainly neon. In case of three pin G.D.
tube, Two of the electrodes are for connections to the lines and third is the
earth electrode and in case of two pin device, one electrode is connected
to a limb of a line and other electrode is connected to earth. If the potential
difference across the electrodes rises to a certain critical value, the gas is
ionized and becomes conducting. This condition will continue till the
potential difference across the electrodes falls to the extinction voltage
value. For voltages less than striking value, it will not conduct. For normal
operating voltages on the lines, it offers extremely high impedance and
thus does not introduce any transmission loss.
APPLICATIONS :
MDF mainly provide connection between outdoor and indoor. MDF is
basically the protection system for exchange. It uses Fuse as a protection
device which prevents to reach the high current from outside to exchange.
It uses Gas Discharge Tube (GD Tube) which provide protection against
high excessive voltage.

C-DOT EXCHANGE
INTRODUCTION
Center development of telematics was formed in year 1985 by an act of
parliament under ministry of telecommunication with prime objective to
develop indigenous state of art electronics switch suitable for Indian
network condition. Various products proposed to be developed by C-DOT
include small RAX exchange of 128 ports for rural network to big C-DOT
MAX-XL exchange for metropolitan applications. C-DOT DSS MAX is a
universal switch and can be used as local, transmit or integrated local and
transmit switch. It can have minimum capacity of 512 ports. And can grow
up to 16000 ports without concentration. It has digital switching based on
basic 64kpbs basic rate and 2mbps primary rate multiplexing structure.
The development of C-DOT DSS MAX has taken place in family concept.
It is fully integrated switch starting from smaller switches, bigger switches
and can be built in a modular fashion by configuring hardware and
software modules in variety of ways. The C-DOT DSS system can be used
in telecommunication network at the various switching nodes for different
type of services. Some of them are
C-DOT DSS as MAX:
This can be used as main automatic exchange which is expandable to
large capacity of order of 2000 lines or beyond. The MAX may be here
remote module(RM) and remote line concentrators(RLC) connected to it.
C-DOT DSS as RAX This can be used as rural automatic exchange and is
expandable upto 2000 lines capacity. Single base module configuration
comes under the RAX category. Thus it is universal switch which can be
configured as local, transit and integrated local and transit switch. It
provides both local and centralized operation and maintenance.
SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE :It can serve metropolitan, urban, rural
environments. Its architecture is such that it is possible to upgrade a
working C-DOT SBM( single base module) or MBM ( multi base module)
exchange to provide ISDN service through RSU ( remote switching unit).
RSU can provide switching facility locally even in case of failure of

communication path to parent exchange. In uses TST(time space

switching).
C-DOT DSS MAX exchange can be configured from the following basic
modules: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Base Module (BM) Central Module (CM)
Administrative Module (AM) Input Output Processor (IOP) Alarm Display
Panel (ADP) BASE MODULE (BM)
Depending upon the capacity of the exchange either single BM or more
BMs are used. In case of 512 ports, only one BM is used. However under
low traffic condition, the capacity of the ports can be increased up to 2048
ports by using two line modules and adopting concentration mode. In multi
module working of BMs will range from 2 to 32. Frames of BM One BM
consists of 6frames inside it. The top four frames are called terminal units
(TU). TU houses various types of cards in them e.g. Power Supply Card
(PSU), Subscriber Line Card (SLC), Trunk Cards (TWT), Announcement
Card (ANNC), Conference Card (CONF), Terminal Test Controller Card
(TTC).The fifth frame of BM is called Base Processor Unit (BPU) which is
the heart of the system. It consists controller and memory cards. The sixth
frame of the BM is called Time Switch Unit (TSU). Power Supply To
energize various cards in the BM, different DC Voltages are required. They
are 48V, +5V, +12V, -12V and 9V.for this purpose two types of power
supply cards are employed: a) PSU-1: It caters various supplies to the four
terminal units of the BM.In each TU, two PSU-1cards are there which work
in load sharing mode i.e. in case of PSU-1card goes faulty, the other is
capable of taking the full load of the terminal unit. b) PSU-2: Two cards are
used each in BPU and TSU. PSU-1differs from PSU-2 in one respect i.e.
PSU-1besides supplying various D.C. supplies, generates 75V AC ringing
current. CENTRAL MODULE (CM)
When in the system the number of BMs exceeds one ,the CM is used. The
purpose of CM is to provide setting up of calls between a subscriber of
one BM and a subscriber of the other BM. For this purpose one CM is
sufficient up to 32 BMs.
ADMINISTRATIVE MOFULE (AM)

Like CM, AM also used when the number of BMs in the system exceeds
one. The AM is housed along with CM in one cabinet called CM.AM
performs administrative and maintenance function.
INPUT OUTPUT PROCESSOR (IOP) :The IOP performs following
function: 1) Serves as a media for man machine communication. 2) Keeps
the data concerning system. 3) Does system initialization. IOP is
connected to the following peripheral units for the purpose noted against
each, Visual Display Unit: This is used for giving command to establish
communication with the system. VDU gives the display of the reports as a
result of the command execution. Printer: For the printed reports.
ALARM DISPLAY UNIT (ADP)
This is basically used for displaying the alarms raised in the system. The
alarm gives both audio and visual indication. However, the audio alarm
can be stopped by pressing acknowledge button on the ADP. The alarms
raised are of three types, Critical: indicated by red LED. Urgent:
indicated by orange LED. Non-urgent: indicated by green LED.
SYSTEM FEATURES
The C-DOT is a fully digital system with stored program control. In nonconcentration mode of working, the switch is non-blocking i.e. calling party
gets the called party if it is free. System environment a) Temperature =
17C to 27C Relative Humidity = 45% to 65% The application of C-DOT
can be either new exchange or a replacement of the existing exchange.
The C-DOT can be used as a local or transmit exchange. The system has
a modular growth i.e. for expanding the capacity of the exchange
additional modules are to be installed. The system provides for detailed
billing in case of STD and ISD calls. However billing for local calls can also
be arranged. The C-DOT employs distributed control system.

DIGITAL SWICHING
In Digital switching system signals are switched in digital form. These
signals can be speech or data. For this Time Division multiplexing and
pulse code modulation (PCM) techniques are used. Time Division
multiplexer involves sharing of same transmission medium by a number of
circuits or channels during a sequence of time periods. Thus the medium
is periodically available to each channel
The channels are connected to individual gates which are opened one by
one in fixed sequence. At the receiving end also. Similar gates are opened
in unison with the transmitting g end. Before transmitting these samples of
individual channel signals are coded in binary form and pulses
corresponding to the digits are transmitted. This is called pulse code
modulation. These pulses are decoded at receiving end and combines to
reproduce the original signal. In Digital switching the digital signals of
several speech signals are multiplexed on common media. Therefore
same path is shared by different calls for fraction of time. This process is
repeated periodically at a suitably high rate. This type of path is called
PCM highway. To connect any two subscriber, it is necessary to
interconnect the time slots of the two speech samples which may be same
or different PCM highway.
The in connection of time slots i.e. switching of digital signal is normally
achieved using a combination of two different modes of operation. These
modes are (1) Space switching (2) Time switching In space switching
mode, corresponding time slots of I/C and O/G PCM highways are
interconnected. A sample in given time slot in an incoming highway is
connected (switched) to same time slot of an outgoing highway. For e.g. in
fig.2 the time slot 5 of incoming highway 2 is switched to time slot 5 of
outgoing highway say highway 3. In this case there is no delay in
switching of the sample from one highway to another highway. Since the
sample transfer takes place in the same time slot of the PCM frame. In
Time switching different time slots on the incoming and outgoing highways
are interconnected by re-assigning the channel sequence. For e.g in fig,2
the time slot TS5 of incoming Highway2 can be connected to a different
time slot TS6 of the O/G Highway2. In other words, a time switch is
basically a time slot changer. TWO DIMENSIONAL SWITCHING Using

one type of switch for large network is uneconomical. Hence to build a

large network a number of stages are employed using small switches as
building blocks. Such a network requires changing both the time slot and
highway. Therefore the switching network usually employs both types of
switches. Viz.space and time switch. This type of network is known as two
dimensional networks. These networks can have various combinations of
the two types of switches and denoted as TS. TST. TSST etc. TST
Network As the name suggests. In a TST network there are two time
stages separated by a space stage. The function of time slot changing
where as the latter performs highway jumping. Let us consider a network
having 4 input and 4 output highways. Each of the input and output time
stages will have n time switches and the space stage will consist of an nxn
crospoint matrix. Thus it is possible to connect any time slot in incoming
PCM to any time slot in outgoing PCM. For example let us take only four
I/C and outgoing PCM highways as shown below. There will be four time
switches in each T-stages and space switch will consist of 4x4 matrix. let
us consider connecting two subscribers through this network. Let us
assume central processor assigns TS4 on Hwy0 to the calling party and
TS6 on Hwy3 to the called party. The central controller establishes the
paths in 3 steps. To introduce greater flexibility it uses an intermediate
time slot. TSX which is also known as internal timeslot.
As the message can be conveyed only in one direction through this path
another independent path to carry the message in other direction is also
established as shown in fig.3. The internal time slot for other direction is
Tsy. CONCLUSION Digital switching has become a synonym for time
division multiplex digital switching system. Digital signals are switched in
two modes. Viz. time switching and space switching. In a practical digital
switch a combination of both is employed to increase the traffic handling
capacity of the switch at minimum cost. Among the various possible
combinations TST structure is most commonly used.

PULSE CODE MODULATION (PCM) PROCESS

Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) converts analog signals to a digital format
(signal). This process has four major steps.
STEP ONE:- FILTERING
Frequencies below 300Hz and above 3400Hz (Voice Frequency range) are
filtered from the analog signal.. The lower frequencies are filtered out to remove
electrical noise induced from the power lines. The upper frequencies are filtered
out because they require additional bits and add to the cost of a digital
transmission system. The actual bandwidth of the filtered signal is 3100Hz (3400300). It is often referred to as 4kHz.
STEP TWO:- SAMPLING
The analog signal is sampled 8000 times per second. The rate at which the analog
signal is sampled is related to the highest frequency present in the signal. This is
based on Nyquist Sampling Theorem. In his calculations, Nyquist used a voice
frequency range of 4000Hz (which represents the voice frequency range that
contains intelligent speech). Thus, the standard became a sampling rate of
8000Hz, or twice the bandwidth. The signal that is the result of the sampling
process contains sufficient information to accurately represent the information
contained in the original signal. The output of this sampling procedure is a Pulse

Amplitude Modulated, or, PAM signal.

STEP THREE:- QUANTIZING
In the third step of the A/D conversion process, we quantize the amplitude of the
incoming samples to one of 225 amplitudes on quantizing scale (figure 3.13).
Thus, in this step the sampled signal is matched to the segmented scale. The
purpose of step three is to measure the amplitude (or height) of the PAM signal
35
and assign a decimal value that defines the amplitude. Based on the quantizing
scale, each sampled signal is assigned a number between 0 and +127 to define its
amplitude.
STEP FOUR:- ENCODING
In the fourth step of A/D conversion process, the quantized samples are encoded
into a digital bit stream (series of electrical pulses).
A DIGITAL ENCODER
It recognizes the 255 different voltage levels of the quantized samples. Converts
each into a specific string of 8 bits (1s and 0s) that represent a particular voltage
value. Fig.3.14 is helpful for understanding the binary code used in the encoding
step. Each bit position in the 8-bit word (byte) iis given a decimal weight (2 to
some power ), except for the first bit position. Using this coding scheme, we can
code any number between +127 and 127 and zero.
For example:- If the PAM signal measures +45 on the quantizing scale, the output
of the encoding step is 10101101 (fig 3.15). This binary number (or 8 bit word) is
transmitted over the network as a series of electrical or optical pulses. This series
of pulses is called a digital bit stream. The PCM process requires a 64000bps
channel to encode a 4kHz audio input signal because 8000samples/sec.*8
bits/word=64000bps. This is known as the DS0 (Digital Signal 0) or VF (Voice
Frequency) in the digital hierarchy. It is the basic building block of the digital
network.
DIGITAL-TO-ANALOG CONVERSION
At the receive end of the transmission, the digital signal may need to be
converted back into its analog form. The digital-to-analog (D/A) conversion

consists of two steps .

Each 8-bit word (byte) that enters the decoder results in one PAM signal value.
The decoder: 36
Reads the 8-bit binary word inputs ,creates a sream of 8000 pulses per second.
These pulses have an amplitude of +127 to 127. The filtering process smoothes
out the stream of 8000 pulses per second into an analog waveform that closely
resembles the waveform that was input into the A/D converter at the originating
end. The filter stores a part of each pulses energy and slowly releases it until the
next pulse arrives. The filter thus reconstructs the analog signal at a rate of 8000
times per second.

WIRELESS IN LOCAL LOOP (WLL)

WLL is a communication system that connects customers to the Public Switch
Telephone Network (PSTN) using radio frequency signals as substitutes of
conventional wires for all part of connection between the subscribers and the
telephone exchange. It works on CDMA technique. The local loop is access part
of telecommunication network i.e. the part between PSTN switch and subscribers.
WLL network application involves uses of radio to replace of the wire link
between PSTN switch and subscriber. The radio technology is able to provide
same quality of services as that provided by the wires line. Application of wireless
loop technology has just been started in the worldwide. There is no standard for

this so far. However, a number of national and international air interface standards
for digital cellular mobile telephone system are available.
TECHNICAL ASPECTS:
WLL is based on CDMA technique and is entirely different from GSM. The
system for WLL services can be divided in to following parts:BSC (Base Switching Centre):- It provides links between BTS & BSM; it consists
of different processors, in BSNL it is of SUN Polaris of LG Company. In LG 1
BSC can have 48 BTS? In BSNL we have two types of BSC:V-5.2:- This type of BSC cannot switch by itself so it is dependent on local
exchange / PSTN for switching and keeping records of billing etc. BSNL uses this
type of BSC for rural areas.
CCS-7 / R2:- These types of BSC are totally automatic it doesnt depend on local
exchange for its functions, it is complete in itself. BSNL uses this type of BSC for
urban areas.
BTS (Base Transreceiver System):- As it is clear from its name it transmits as
well as receive signal, it works as an amplifier (router) to overcome the loss in
signal in transmission.
BSM (Base Station Management):- It controls and manages the WLL services.
It can troubleshoot the problem; add new users as well as capable to block service
given to user. It is basically a computer system, which manages the whole process
of WLL service. In BSNL BSM are two UNIX based computer system.

ADVANTAGES OF WLL:
1.Country wide induction of WLL underway of areas than are non-feasible for the
normal network.
2. Helping relieves congestion of connections in the normal cable / wire based
network in urban areas.
3. Limits the mobility without any airtime charges.
4. It has improved signal and reduces the interference.
5. Greater capacity than mobile.
6. Provides ease of operation, administration & maintenance at lower cost.
The telecommunication is the biggest factor in influencing the speed of life in the
modern age. Today we can get connection with any corner of world through the
push button of computer; with the small mobile phone we can send not only the
messages but also the secret document. As we know that there is positive view
behind any mention that it should be helpful in the development of society. But
humans have diverted mentality some of them of positive view and some of them
of negative view. Where use any invention for the welfare of society but some
uses for the satisfaction their disturbed mentality and to earn more and more
money whether it may be harmful for the society. They infringe the norms of
society and their behavior is condemned as antisocial, immoral and sinful.