0004

An Introduction to Seismic Interpretation
Chapter 4: Data Display
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4.1 Overview
In the past, i.e. before computer-based interpretation systems became the norm, the final task of the
seismic processor was to print out paper copies of the (2-D) seismic data that would be used for the
interpretation. The vertical and lateral scales were defined at that time, as well as the display type
(black and white wiggle displays, see below, were the norm) and other aspects of the display. The
interpreter could not subsequently change those parameters. Commonly, only one copy of each
seismic line was available, and extreme care needed to be taken not to damage it in any way (e.g.,
coffee spills, torn paper).
Nowadays, seismic interpreters (at least in the petroleum industry) usually work with digital data
that has been loaded into a computer-based seismic interpretation system. The interpreter is free to
interactively change the display in order to bring out features of interest. However this flexibility
raises an important concern: how best to view the data?
This chapter explores ways to view and interpret seismic data. It contrasts 2-D seismic data with
3-D seismic data, and explores some of the ways that software companies have made it possible to
slice and dice through 3-D seismic volumes. The terms defined in this chapter (e.g., arbitrary line,
horizon slice, volume rendering) will be employed in later chapters.
4.2 Data Display

Before proceeding to a discussion, and comparison, of 2-D and 3-D data certain basic options for
displaying seismic data need to be discussed. The workstation-based interpreter has much flexibility
for viewing and interpreting the data, and at least some concepts and techniques can be applied to
both digital 2-D and 3-D data.
Digital Data Format

Seismic data loading is a topic that needs some discussion. As it is received from the seismic
processors, the digital seismic data is likely to be in SEG-Y format, a standard that was established
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An Introduction to Seismic Interpretation Chapter Four Data Display

by the Society of Exploration Geophysicists (Norris and
Faichney, 2002). A SEG-Y file consists of several parts
(FIGURE 4.1), the first being the EBCDIC1 header. There
is one EBCDIC header per SEG-Y file. The EBCDIC
header commonly, but not always, contains general text
information about the seismic data such as acquisition and
processing parameters, geographic coordinate information,
etc. The coordinates of the four corners of a 3-D seismic
survey may be stored here. The EBCDIC header should be
printed out or otherwise stored (i.e. digitally) somewhere
where it can be accessed throughout the interpretation.
Some seismic interpretation packages allow the information
from the EBCDIC header to be stored for later access.
Sometimes the EBCDIC header is referred to as the ASCII
header, if the text is stored in ASCII format. The binary
header (one per SEG-Y file) follows the EBDIC header
and contains information about the sample interval (e.g., 2
ms), the number of samples per seismic trace and the data
format (e.g., integer or floating point).
The seismic data is stored following the binary header on
a trace-by-trace basis. The data for each trace consists of
two parts, the trace header (one header per trace, which
generally includes the inline and crossline numbers for 3-D
surveys, the CMP number for 2-D surveys, the coordinates
of the seismic trace and other information) and the trace
data itself, the seismic amplitudes for the trace stored in
binary format. Although nominally a tape standard, SEG-Y
has been adopted as a disc file format and a degree of
variability in the byte positions of some data in the trace
headers has evolved between different companies. These
differences can make data loading problematic.
Back to Chapter
Figure 4.1: Schematic representation of a SEG-Y file
The EBCDIC header commonly contains information about the data

acquisition and processing parameters and other information. The
Binary header contains information about the way the data is stored
on tape. Subsequently, each trace in the seismic data is stored in
two parts, a trace header (potentially containing trace numbering,
geographic coordinates for the trace location, etc.) and the seismic
data (a time-series of amplitude measurements) for each trace.
FIGURE 4.1:
Schematic representation of a
SEG-Y file
Back to Chapter
Figure 4.2: Different ways of representing seismic data
At left, the column of numbers

shows how seismic amplitude
values might be stored in the
computer (albeit usually in
binary format) for part of a
seismic trace. The same seismic
data is shown as a variable-area
wiggle display in the middle. The
amplitude values are shown as a
continuous curve (the wiggle).
Positive values (peaks) are filled
in black (variable area) whereas
negative values are left open. At
right, the seismic data is shown
as a variable density display.
Positive amplitude values are
shown in blue (the stronger the
amplitude, the darker the blue),
zero amplitude is shown in white
and negative amplitude values
are shown in red (the stronger the
amplitude, the darker the red).
FIGURE 4.2:
Different ways of
representing seismic data
Multiple versions of the seismic data, perhaps consisting of

different migration methods (CHAPTER 3), different AVO
angle stacks (CHAPTER 8), seismic attributes
(SECTION 4.6) or other variations, might be loaded.
Some software packages allow post-stack data to be
linked to pre-stack data so that an interpreter can click on
a trace in a 2-D or 3-D transect and the CMP gather will
become visible for inspection (for example, perhaps the
NMO correction was poorly done, resulting in amplitude
anomalies in the post-stack data).
__________________________________________________________________
1
EBCDIC - Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code, an 8-bit character encoding format for mainframe
computers that is a relict from computer punch cards.
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Wiggles and Color Displays

One of the first choices an interpreter will have to make is how to view the data. The two most
common options are the variable area wiggle display (VAW) and the variable density (VD) display.
Remember that the seismic data is stored in digital format on the computer, with a sampling rate
that is typically 2 or 4 ms (left side, FIGURE 4.2). The variable area wiggle display shows the
data as a continuous curve (the wiggle part) with the peaks filled in as black (the variable area
part; middle, FIGURE 4.2). This is the way in which most seismic data were plotted prior to the
advent of computer graphics systems. However, a problem with this type of display is that the eye
tends to see the variation in the peaks (because they are black) whereas variability in the troughs
(white) is harder to detect, especially when looking at a large portion of seismic data. In principle,
there is no reason why peaks should be more important than troughs. For example, and as discussed
in CHAPTER 2, the top of a sandstone bed might be a peak or a trough depending on the state of
compaction (SECTION 2.4). As such, Backus and Chen (1975) and Galbraith and Brown (1982)
used a dual polarity display in which troughs were colored red and peaks in black, but both peaks
and troughs were shown on the same (right) side of the seismic trace. The dual polarity display is no
longer used by most seismic interpreters. Balch (1971) presented an early attempt at color display,
with the wiggle trace representing the the amplitude and a color variable-area display that showed
the frequency spectrum of the wavelets.
The advent of computer displays led to two enhancements for interpretation. First, the traces were
displayed in variable density format (right side, FIGURE 4.2) that could be blended laterally to give
the appearance of data continuity (instead of viewing separate wiggles). Second, although a dual
polarity display could be used to approximately give peaks and troughs equal weighting visually, the
subtle color changes visible in the variable density display convey changes in amplitude better it
has better dynamic range. The red-white-blue color scheme shown on the right in FIGURE 4.2
was devised, wherein blue colors represent peaks, red colors troughs and zeros are white and the
intensity of the blue (or red) depends on the amplitude of the signal. The red-white-blue color bar
is an example of a diverging color scheme in which the colors representing the quantitative values
(amplitudes in the seismic world) progress outward from a light-colored midpoint (zero amplitude;
Brewer, 2007). This is an appropriate choice for seismic data in which positive and negative
amplitude values can both be meaningful.
FIGURE 4.3 (A, B, C. D. E) shows different types of display for a larger portion of seismic data.
The variable area wiggle display (FIGURE 4.3A) shows the traditional view of the data. Individual
wiggles represent the stacked traces at the CMP locations. The variable density display in FIGURE
4.3B has a blue-white-red color bar, as described above. Because the interpretation software blends
adjacent traces in the variable density display, the individual traces comprising the data are not
recognizable and the seismic image appears to show a laterally continuous transect. Although this
color bar is useful for displaying changes in amplitude, users soon sought to design other color bars
in order to highlight other aspects of the seismic data. For example, the black-white (also known
as a grayscale) color bar used in FIGURE 4.3C shows the strongest peaks in black, the strongest
troughs in white, and intermediate amplitudes as a continuous grayscale between the two extremes.
Grayscale color bars are an example of a sequential color scheme (Brewer, 2007) that is usually
employed to represent differences between low and high values (e.g., elevation). Although this
does not truly represent the nature of seismic data, experience has shown that the greyscale color bar
is useful for highlighting faults, and it is therefore a good choice for structural interpretation. On
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the other hand, the grayscale color bar does not adequately
emphasize subtle changes in amplitude. The rainbow (also
known as a spectrum) color bar shown in FIGURE 4.3D
emphasizes subtle changes in amplitude, however the
abundant changes in color make it unsuitable for detecting
faults. Other color bars are available, and interpreters
can learn how to create their own color bars to highlight
features of interest. Other discussions of color-related
issues, some directly related to seismic display and others
that are best thought of as relevant to seismic display, are
presented by Russell (1992), Brown (2005), Welland et al.
(2006) and Zhang and Montag (2006). Chopra and Marfurt
(2007) discussed color displays, and how color can be used
when an interpreter wishes to view more than one seismic
attribute at a time.
FIGURE 4.4 compares the effects of two different color
bars on a vertical transect through some 3-D seismic data
from the Gulf of Mexico. The blue-white-red color bar
clearly shows some high-amplitude areas, but the grayscale
color bar makes the faults much more apparent. Structural
features of interest in this image will be examined in
CHAPTER 6.
Back to Chapter
Figure 4.3 A: Different display types for seismic data
A) The variable-area wiggle display. Peaks are

shown in black and troughs are left unfilled, as
per FIGURE 4.2. Although the human eye can
detect changes in the peaks (because they are
filled in black), changes in the troughs are more
difficult to detect visually.
FIGURE 4.3 A:
Different display types for
seismic data
Back to Chapter
Figure 4.3 B: Different display types for seismic data
B) This variable density display represents positive

amplitudes in blue, zeros white and negative amplitudes in red, as per
FIGURE 4.2 and the color bar at lower right. This type of display gives
approximately equal weight to peaks and troughs, and conveys subtle
changes in amplitude better than the variable-area wiggle display.
FIGURE 4.3 B:
seismic data
Back to Chapter
Although variable density displays are useful, and

somewhat more aesthetically pleasing than variable area
wiggle displays, there are times when an interpreter will
want to look at the shapes of the wiggles. In this case,
the interpreter may wish to overlay wiggle traces on the
variable density display (FIGURE 4.3E). In later chapters,
we will see examples of displays in which wiggle traces are
overlain on color displays of attributes, inversion results,
velocities or other derivatives of the seismic data. Backus
and Chen (1975) were among the first to display seismic
data this way.
Figure 4.3 C: Different display types for seismic data
C) Another variable density display with the

strongest peaks in black, the strongest troughs in
white, and a gradational gray scale between the
two, as per the color bar at lower right. This type
of color bar is particularly useful for detecting
faults, although changes in amplitude are more
difficult to detect.
FIGURE 4.3 C:
seismic data
Back to Chapter
Sometimes interpreters get into the bad habit of using one

color bar for all interpretation purposes. Clearly, different
color bars are better for certain purposes than others, and
the interpreter should choose the type of display that best
emphasizes the features being interpreted. It should also
be noted that a significant proportion (approximately 7%
of the population, and generally males) of the population
has some form of color blindness, which generally
translates as an inability to distinguish red from green, or
to perceive those two colors differently from the majority
Page 4
Figure 4.3 D: Different display types for seismic data
D) The rainbow (spectrum) color bar shown

in this display (and shown at lower right) has
the strongest peaks in yellow/red, the strongest
troughs in purple and a spectrum of colors
between. Subtle changes in amplitude are well
defined using this color bar, although it is clearly
inferior to the grayscale color bar for detecting
faults.
FIGURE 4.3 D:
seismic data
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of the population. As such, a grayscale color bar is a
safe choice when the interpreters intent is only to show
structural or stratigraphic geometries.
Back to Chapter
Figure 4.3 E: Different display types for seismic data
Data Scaling and Polarity

The amplitude values we see as interpreters are generally
arbitrary units that are not scaled to the possible range of
values represented by reflection coefficients (theoretically
-1 to 1). The range of amplitudes depends on the format
in which the data have been stored on the computer. There
are three commonly used formats: 8-bit data, 16-bit data
and 32-bit data. The first of these, 8-bit data, has 28 (256)
possible values of amplitude and so amplitudes vary
between -128 and 127 (0 is counted as a value). In 16-bit
data, the data can have 216 (65,536) possible amplitude
values (-32,768 to 32,767) and 32-bit data can have 232
(4,294,967,296) possible amplitude values (-2,147,483,648
to 2,147,483,547). Obviously, the 16-bit and 32-bit data
formats will have greater dynamic range than the 8-bit
data, meaning that subtle changes in amplitude will be
better preserved. However, those data will also require
proportionately more disk space for data storage.
Whatever the format our data may be loaded as, computer
monitors are typically restricted to showing 256 possible
color values. Visually, therefore, the data are being scaled
to 8-bit format, and there is no interpretive advantage to
having the data stored in 16- or 32-bit format. In fact,
storing the data in one of those formats may slow down
the softwares performance (e.g., scrolling through 3-D
cubes), at least for large 3-D seismic volumes, because the
data are typically stored in memory while being visualized.
If the only use of the seismic data will be for mapping of
structural or stratigraphic geometries, then 8-bit format is
acceptable. The principal advantage of working with 16- or
32-bit data comes when quantitative analyses (e.g., attribute
studies, inversion, amplitude-variation-with offset) are to
be undertaken.
Scaling of the data during data loading can be an
important consideration. Histograms of amplitude values
in a seismic dataset typically show a nearly normal
distribution, consisting mostly of near-zero amplitudes
and progressively fewer high-amplitude peaks or troughs
(FIGURE 4.5). Commonly there are some outliers,
a few extreme values that might be related to noise, or
Page 5
E) This variable density display (with grayscale

color bar) has a wiggle overlay so that an
interpreter can examine changes in trace shape.
FIGURE 4.3 E:
seismic data
Back to Chapter
Figure 4.4: Comparison of a blue-white-red (above) and

grayscale (below) color bars for structural imaging
The only difference

is the color bar. The
faults are much easier
to see in the lower
image.
From Hart (2007).
FIGURE 4.4:
Comparison of a blue-whitered and grayscale color bars
for structural imaging
Back to Chapter
Figure 4.5: Histogram of amplitudes from a seismic dataset
Most of the data consists of relatively low amplitude values, with a mode near zero.
There are very few of the strongest (positive or negative) amplitude values. The
yellow and red areas represent data that might be clipped during data loading.
FIGURE 4.5:
Histogram of amplitudes
from a seismic dataset
Back to Chapter
Figure 4.6: Variable-area wiggle display showing data that have been clipped
Note the truncated appearance to the highlighted troughs. Clipping also affects some of the peaks,
although this clipping is difficult to see when the peaks are filled in black as in this figure.
FIGURE 4.6:
Variable-area wiggle display
showing data that have been
clipped
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potentially useful things like hydrocarbons. As the data are loaded, the ranges of values are scaled
to the ranges associated with 8-, 16- or 32-bit data. If the outliers are retained during data loading,
most of the amplitude values will be constrained to a narrow range of values, represented by a
narrow range of colors, and the data will have a washed-out appearance. In this case it will
be better to not include, or clip off, those extreme values during data loading. After clipping,
all amplitude values above a user-defined value are arbitrarily assigned the maximum amplitude
value (e.g., -128 or 127 for 8-bit data). Excessive clipping can lead to saturated variable density
displays (lots of intense colors). Even worse, there will be problems during advanced analyses (e.g.,
inversion, attribute studies) if amplitudes are to be used to predict rock properties.
Although it may be difficult to detect data clipping by looking at variable density displays, variable
area wiggle displays can be helpful (FIGURE 4.6). Bacon et al. (2007) illustrated the use of a color
scale designed to help the interpreter identify data clipping in variable density displays. Badachhape
(2001, 2002) discussed scaling and other data-loading issues. Some software packages require the
user to scale (and therefore potentially to clip) the data during data loading, whereas others allow the
user to load the full data range and interactively adjust the range of amplitude values being observed.
A key decision, usually made during processing, is to define the polarity of the seismic data. In its
simplest terms, this means deciding whether a positive reflection coefficient should be represented
by a peak (positive amplitudes) or a trough (negative amplitudes) in the seismic data. The
Society of Exploration Geophysicists polarity standard is that a positive reflection coefficient
should be represented by a peak in zero-phase data (Sheriff, 2002; FIGURE 4.7A). For most
seismic interpreters in North America, this convention is considered to be normal polarity and is
henceforth referred to as North American polarity in this text. In many places elsewhere in the
world, the convention is the opposite and representing a positive reflection coefficient by a trough
(FIGURE 4.7B; henceforth referred to as International polarity) is considered to be normal
polarity.
The difference between these two polarity conventions is important when interpreting seismic data.
An interpreter needs to understand, for example, whether the top of sandstone beds (or some other
lithology) should be picked as a peak or a trough. Maps of amplitudes or other attributes that are
derived from picking the wrong horizon will be meaningless. Understanding the polarity of seismic
data is important when looking for hydrocarbons (CHAPTER 8). If the polarity of a seismic dataset
is unknown, then an interpreter should look for prominent reflections that should correspond to
known types of reflection coefficients. Some examples:
The seafloor in a marine survey will always correspond to a positive reflection

coefficient. Unfortunately the seafloor reflection is sometimes cropped off during
processing, preventing the interpreter from applying this approach. Strong sidelobes
can also sometimes be mistaken for the seafloor reflection.
Knowledge of the local stratigraphy can be useful. For example, if unconsolidated

sediments overlie consolidated rocks (basement), the contact should correspond to
a positive reflection coefficient. Perhaps it is known that a limestone bed underlies a
shale. In such a case the top of the limestone should nearly always correspond to a
positive reflection coefficient.
A flat spot, the reflection from a hydrocarbon-water contact in a reservoir
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(CHAPTER 8) should always correspond to
a positive reflection coefficient.
In all of these cases, the interpreter identifies the known
reflection coefficient and determines whether it corresponds
to a peak or a trough, thereby establishing the polarity of
the data. Generating synthetic seismograms
(CHAPTER 5) can be a more rigorous, but unfortunately
still sometimes ambiguous, way of establishing the polarity
of a seismic dataset.
Adjusting Vertical and Horizontal Scales (Vertical

Exaggeration)
An interpreter working with a computer-based
interpretation software package has the freedom to
interactively adjust the vertical and lateral scales. He/she
can fill up the computer screen with as much, or as little,
of the seismic data as desired. During the initial stages of
an interpretation it might be useful to see the big picture,
to zoom out and look at the broad-scale stratigraphic
and structural context. Later, perhaps during the horizon
interpretation stage, the interpreter may wish to zoom in
and focus on a particular stratigraphic level because that
will help to ensure that the horizon picking is accurately
done.
A note of caution is warranted here. By changing the
lateral and vertical scales we are effectively changing the
vertical exaggeration of the display. If we take a long
2-D or 3-D seismic transect and squeeze it horizontally so
that it fits on a computer monitor, we may be significantly
distorting the appearance of structural and/or stratigraphic
features. For example, faults that really dip at relatively
low angles can appear to be vertical in the seismic display.
Likewise, gently dipping stratigraphic surfaces can
appear to be quite steep (a bad thing), although reflection
terminations (onlap, downlap, etc.) might be highlighted
by increasing the vertical exaggeration (a good thing).
As discussed in a later chapter, structural analyses (i.e.
what do the faults mean in terms of structural history?)
should be undertaken on images that have as little vertical
exaggeration as possible, even though horizon picking
might more reasonably be done using sections displayed
with a greater vertical exaggeration. FIGURE 4.8 shows
the effect of changing the vertical exaggeration on some
Page 7
Back to Chapter
Figure 4.7: Polarity standards for seismic data display
A) Most interpreters in North America prefer to view seismic

data such that an increase in acoustic impedance (positive
reflection coefficient) corresponds to a peak (here colored
blue) in seismic data. This is the SEG-Y standard.
B) Elsewhere in the world, interpreters prefer to view

data such that an increase in acoustic impedance
(positive reflection coefficient) corresponds to a
trough (here colored red) in seismic data.
FIGURE 4.7:
Polarity standards for seismic
data display
Back to Chapter
Figure 4.8: Example of changing the vertical scale on the appearance of

a Permian carbonate shelf margin, from Pranter et al. (2004)
A) Seismic transect
with ~ 4 X vertical
exaggeration.
B) Seismic transect with

approximately no vertical
exaggeration. The view in
part A would be easier to
interpret horizons on, but
erroneous interpretations
of depositional processes
might ensue.
FIGURE 4.8:
Example of changing
the vertical scale on the
appearance of a Permian
carbonate shelf margin
Back to Chapter
Figure 4.9: Example of changing the vertical scale on

the appearance of structural features
These images, from Sagan

and Hart (2006) show the
same upward-branching
flower structure affecting
Lower Paleozoic strata of
the Appalachian Basin.
With high (5:1) vertical
exaggeration the faults
appear to be vertical,
whereas they are obviously
less steeply dipping with
approximately no vertical
exaggeration (upper
image). The lower image is
a variable-density display
with a wiggle overlay
(c.f. FIG. 4.3E).
FIGURE 4.9:
Example of changing
the vertical scale on the
appearance of structural
features
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stratigraphic features, while FIGURE 4.9 shows the effects
of changing vertical exaggeration on some faults.
Structural Dip: Flattening Seismic Displays and

Isochron Maps
Geologists correlating wireline logs commonly generate
stratigraphic cross sections in order to remove the effects
of structural deformation (FIGURE 4.10). A stratigraphic
datum is chosen, perhaps a maximum flooding surface or
some other horizon that was originally close to being both
planar and horizontal, and all wells on the cross section
are shifted up or down so that the log pick forms a datum
on the cross section. By removing the effects of structure,
the interpreter seeks to be able to more clearly focus on
stratigraphic features. Bend (2007) discussed the difference
between structural and stratigraphic cross sections.
Digital seismic data, both 2-D and 3-D, can be flattened in
the same way, once a reference horizon has been picked.
All traces on the seismic line being displayed are shifted up
or down so that the reference horizon is horizontal. As with
wireline log cross sections, the usual intent is to remove
the effects of structural deformation in order to focus on
stratigraphic features. FIGURE 4.11 shows two versions
of a seismic transect that corresponds to the log cross
section shown in FIGURE 4.10. The upper image (part A)
shows the current structure and the lower image (part B)
shows the seismic transect flattened on the same datum as
used in FIGURE 4.10B.
FIGURE 4.12 shows another seismic transect that has
been flattened. In this case, an unconformity separates the
Lower Cretaceous Dakota and Burro Canyon formations
from the underlying Jurassic Morrison Formation. Folding
subsequently deformed the succession. To better examine
the relief on the unconformity, the data were flattened on a
seismic reflection which corresponds to a flooding surface
at the top of the Dakota. The flattened image better depicts
the original relief on the unconformity at the top of the
Morrison Formation.
It is important that the horizon used to flatten the data
corresponds to a stratigraphic surface that was originally
(at least nearly) planar and horizontal. A marine flooding
surface, like that chosen to flatten the data in Figures 4.11
Page 8
Back to Chapter
Figure 4.10: Two versions of a log cross section in Cretaceous clastic strata
from Wyoming
A) Structural wireline log

cross-section showing
log correlations in
Cretaceous clastic
strata from Wyoming.
Correlations show
current structure.
B) The same well data
as shown in part A,
but displayed as a
stratigraphic cross
section. One of the
log picks has been
used as a stratigraphic
datum, and the wells
have been shifted up
or down to make this
datum horizontal.
FIGURE 4.10:
Two versions of a log cross
section in Cretaceous clastic
strata from Wyoming
Back to Chapter
Figure 4.11: Two versions of a seismic transect that correspond

to the log cross section shown in Figure 4.10
A) Seismic transect corresponding

to the cross section shown
in FIGURE 8A. The red line
is a seismic reflection that
corresponds to the flooding
surface used as a stratigraphic
datum in 8A.
B) The same seismic line flattened
on the reflection corresponding
to the stratigraphic datum in
FIGURE 4.8B. The software
shifts the traces up and down so
that the seismic horizon is flat.
Vertical black lines in both A and
B correspond to the four wells
shown in FIGURE 4.8. Note
that the section is imperfectly
flattened when the horizon
pick does not exactly follow
the seismic reflection, such as
at far left. have been shifted up
or down to make this datum
horizontal.
FIGURE 4.11:
Two versions of a seismic
transect that correspond to
the log cross section shown in
Figure 4.10
Back to Chapter
Figure 4.12: Seismic transects showing the Lower Cretaceous

Dakota Formation at Ute Dome in New Mexico
A) Seismic transect showing the

Lower Cretaceous Dakota
Formation at Ute Dome in New
Mexico. The top of the Dakota
is a marine flooding surface,
which was originally relatively
planar and horizontal over the
small area shown in the figure.
It has now been folded. The
Morrison horizon corresponds
to an unconformity at the base
of the Dakota.
B) Once the seismic transect has
been flattened on the Dakota,
the original relief on the
unconformity becomes easier
to evaluate. Note that noise
in the original Dakota seismic
pick causes the flattened
section to be slightly distorted.
From Hart et al. (2001).
FIGURE 4.12:
Seismic transects showing
the Lower Cretaceous Dakota
Formation at Ute Dome in
New Mexico
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and 4.12, might represent a good choice for some areas.
On the other hand, flattening the seismic data on an
unconformity (which can commonly be associated with
significant erosion) or the top of a carbonate buildup (which
would originally have had some relief) would be an unwise
choice. Unfortunately in some settings, such as continental
slopes, there might never have been stratigraphic surfaces
that were close to being horizontal.
One final consideration is of importance when working
in folded or steeply dipping areas. In the presence of
structural dip, maps and stratigraphic cross sections made
from well and/or seismic data can have different types of
artifacts. Three types of maps are:
Isopach maps show the true stratigraphic

thickness of an interval, (i.e. the thickness of
a unit measured perpendicular to bedding;
FIGURE 4.13A)
Isochore maps show the true vertical

thickness of an interval (e.g., the thickness
that would be seen by a vertical well;
FIGURE 4.13A).
Isochron maps show the separation in time

between two horizons in a seismic dataset,
and are typically closer to isochore maps
than isopach maps because the mapping
calculations typically do not unfold the
stratigraphy. Instead, they map the vertical
separation between two horizons along each
trace. This can lead to apparent thickening
on the flanks of folds, as illustrated in
FIGURE 4.13.B,C.
In Praise of Paper
Much, and usually most or all, of a seismic interpretation
(3-D or 2-D) will be undertaken on a computer workstation
in the petroleum industry. However, it is important to
recognize the benefits of, at least occasionally, printing out
seismic data on paper. This can be an important exercise
when working with long (regional) seismic transects.
For example, an interpreter working with a 20 km-long
seismic transect on a workstation can either squeeze the
data laterally so that it all fits on the monitor, or he/she can
choose to view only portions of the data at a time. In the
Page 9
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Figure 4.13: Possible geometric pitfall associated with flattening folded strata
A) The geologic image at left shows the flank

of a fold. The yellow layer has the same
stratigraphic thickness on the crest and
flank of the fold. However the layer
would appear thicker to a vertical well
penetrating the flank of the fold (true
vertical thickness) because it is dipping.
B) Conceptual seismic image of the

same structure shown in part A.
C) The seismic image has been

flattened on the top of the bed.
Note that the bed appears thicker
where the flank of the fold would
be because the software does
not unfold the bed (to show true
stratigraphic thickness), it simply
shifts the traces up.
FIGURE 4.13:
Possible geometric pitfall
associated with flattening
folded strata
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first case, the vertical exaggeration will be extremely distorted and the true geometries of structural
or stratigraphic features will not be visible. In the second case, the vertical exaggeration is reduced,
but the interpreter will only be able to view a small portion of the long line at a time. As such, the
big picture (i.e. the larger stratigraphic and/or structural context) may be missed. Plotting the line
out on a long piece of paper can help the interpreter to see the line all at once, and at a scale that
does not unduly distort the image. Experience has shown that posting and repeatedly viewing such
images on a wall (perhaps in a work room, or an office) can help the interpreter to recognize subtle
features that might otherwise be missed. Paper copies of seismic data are also used for certain types
of structural analyses, such as making jump correlations and for structural reconstructions (see
CHAPTER 6).
4.3 Characteristics and Limitations of 2-D Seismic Data

Although most seismic data collected nowadays in the petroleum industry are 3-D, and outside
of that industry there is an increased desire to use 3-D methods, there is still a need to collect and
interpret 2-D lines. Some cases where 2-D data may be collected and used include:
Frontier areas or other settings where the objective is to cover large areas and define
the big picture from a stratigraphic and/or structural perspective. In the petroleum
industry, this might be the case when no working petroleum system has yet been
defined in an area (i.e. it is not clear that hydrocarbons were ever generated or trapped
in quantities sufficiently large to make them commercially exploitable), or perhaps
when a company wishes to understand the relationships between two widely spaced
3-D surveys.
Old pools, or other areas where 2-D data were collected prior to application of 3-D
methods. In this case the 2-D data are available and need to be incorporated into an
interpretation, provided that the quality of those older data is sufficiently good.
Difficult terrain or other areas where logistical difficulties make collection of 3-D
datasets unfeasible. For example, laying out a grid of shotpoints and receiver lines
might not be possible in mountainous or hilly terrain with dense vegetation.
Testing new seismic acquisition methods or systems.
Tie lines that cross two or more well locations, and are used to tie those wells to the
seismic data via synthetic seismograms or other methods (CHAPTER 5).
Inadequate budgets for 3-D acquisition, processing, and/or interpretation. Although

this is commonly the case with academic groups2, even some oil companies (large
and small) still collect 2-D data rather 3-D data because of economic constraints.
This exercise in fiscal restraint can be counter-productive. For example, budgetminded companies sometimes decide to collect a few 2-D seismic lines each year
in an area of interest instead of spending more to collect a 3-D volume in that area.
Each year they collect more 2-D lines (while maintaining a stable seismic acquisition
budget) with the hope that the addition of new lines will improve their ability to map
stratigraphic and structural features in the study area. However, because of imaging
and mapping problems discussed in CHAPTER 3 and below, they may never be
able to adequately map those features using the 2-D data. The grid of 2-D data
they come to acquire may end up costing more than the 3-D seismic data, but it will
__________________________________________________________________
Understanding how to properly acquire and process 3-D volumes, and getting access to expensive 3-D seismic
interpretation packages, can also be issues for many Academic research groups
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never be as useful. Competitors who had
invested in 3-D data from the outset would
probably have had a competitive advantage
by making better drilling decisions (fewer
dry holes, better well placement). Unlike
the profit-driven petroleum industry where
companies will spend large amounts of
money on seismic technology if the potential
rewards are perceived to be great enough,
the environmental geoscience industry
(hydrogeology, geotechnique, etc.) tends to
be cost-driven. This means attempting
to deliver reports to clients at the minimum
cost. As such, and despite the advantages of
3-D seismic methods, 2-D data tends to be
the norm because it is cheaper to collect and
process3.
Back to Chapter
Figure 4.14: Comparison of a high-resolution 2-D seismic line (top) with an equivalent
portion of data from a petroleum industry 3-D seismic volume
3-D data were acquired using

lower frequency source that
would give better penetration
(to see the deeper exploration
targets). As such, there is
considerable stratigraphic detail
in the high-resolution 2-D data
that is not seen in the 3-D data.
Reproduced with permission from
Austin (2004). Try to estimate
the dominant frequency of each
dataset by counting peaks, as
presented in CHAPTER 2.
FIGURE 4.14:
Comparison of a highresolution 2-D seismic line
with an equivalent portion
of data from a petroleum
industry 3-D seismic volume
Sometimes combinations of factors influence the decision

to collect 2-D seismic data. For example, Austin (2004)
presented an example that demonstrated the utility of
high-resolution 2-D seismic data for looking at the shallow
part of the section (i.e., above conventional petroleum
industry drilling targets) in areas where conventional
3-D seismic data volumes do not have adequate vertical
resolution because of their relatively lower frequency
content (FIGURE 4.14). Rather than collecting highresolution 3-D seismic data in the marine areas illustrated
in that paper, he illustrated the benefits of acquiring and
analyzing targeted, high-resolution (i.e., higher frequencies
than typical industry 3-D surveys) 2-D data proved useful
for identifying drilling hazards and other features of interest
in the shallow part of the stratigraphic section. In principle,
high-resolution 3-D survey can be collected or generated
from existing 3-D data using specialized processing flows,
but the cost-benefit ratio may make this option impractical.
Typically, an interpreter will work with a grid of
2-D seismic lines, including perhaps several grids of
different vintages. The grids are designed in response
to considerations such as: 1) Ideas about the orientation
of structural and/or stratigraphic features to be studied.
Typically this means collecting strike- and dip-oriented
2-D profiles. 2) The size of the area being covered. 3) The
__________________________________________________________________
3
Lack of familiarity with 3-D seismic technology is undoubtedly another contributing factor.
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amount of time/money available to acquire the data. 4) The
need to complement existing 2-D coverage (e.g. infilling
grids or different line orientations).
At times, individual lines of 2-D seismic data may be
acquired. This might be the case when the purpose of
the data acquisition is to tie the seismic data to some type
of ground truth, such as an outcrop exposure or core.
Rarely can a series of parallel 2-D seismic lines (without
any tie lines) be adequate for mapping, because it may
not always be clear how reflections observed on one line
correlate to those on a non-intersecting line.
Modern seismic interpretation software typically allows the
interpreter to assemble composite transects (also known as
multi-panel displays) that show portions of different 2-D
seismic lines. This can be a useful exercise, for example,
when no single 2-D line is long enough, or has the proper
orientation, to show all features of interest. FIGURE 4.15
shows an example of a composite 2-D display. The seismic
transect in that figure is composed of data from three
different seismic lines, the lines being chosen to show
a nearly continuous transect that intersects four ocean
drilling sites. Some software packages allow interpreters
to construct fence diagrams that consist of an interlocking
grid of 2-D profiles (FIGURE 4.16). These views can be
rotated and viewed from a variety of angles to examine
structural and stratigraphic relationships.
Back to Chapter
Figure 4.15: Example of a composite 2-D display
A) Time structure map showing 2-D seismic

grid and two-way travel time to the top
of acoustic basement in the vicinity of
ODP Leg 194 (near the Great Barrier Reef,
Australia). Contour interval is 20 ms.
Numbered drill sites were picked based
on seismically defined targets.
B) The seismic display at right shows

a composite seismic transect
created by showing portions of
the 2-D grid that are highlighted
in blue at left. Reproduced with
modifications and permission
from Isern et al. (2002).
FIGURE 4.15:
Example of a composite 2-D
display
Back to Chapter
Figure 4.16: Fence diagram consisting of a grid of intersecting 2-D seismic profiles
Inset map shows the location and orientation of profiles

included in the fence diagram.
Reproduced with permission from Slingerland et al. (2006).
FIGURE 4.16:
Fence diagram consisting
of a grid of intersecting 2-D
seismic profiles
4.4 2-D Versus 3-D

Ideally, and very simplistically, 2-D seismic lines represent
geologic cross sections through the earth4. However, as
noted in CHAPTER 3, 2-D seismic data have a problem
with sideswipe, i.e. imaging features that are not in a plane
directly below the line formed by the receivers and source.
As such, an interpreter can never be certain that features
seen in a 2-D seismic image are truly where they appear to
be.
Another significant problem encountered when working
with 2-D seismic data is that the way to correlate
structural or stratigraphic features between lines may not
be apparent. For example, look at the simple correlation
problem presented in FIGURE 4.17, which shows a grid
__________________________________________________________________
4
Ignoring time distortions such as those described in Chapters 2 and 3.
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of four 2-D seismic lines. A series of faults, each with a
component of normal displacement, is observed on those
lines. As can be seen, there are many ways to correlate
the faults. Clearly, knowledge of the tectonic setting can
be helpful for constraining the interpretation options.
However, the proper way to correlate faults between lines
will always be ambiguous, with the ambiguity increasing as
the distance between the 2-D seismic lines increases. Hart
et al. (2001), Brown (2004) and others showed that 3-D
seismic-based mapping of an area commonly indicates the
existence of more faults, and more complex fault patterns,
than can be mapped using 2-D seismic and/or well control.
Hart et al. (1996) showed that this can be the case even for
3-D seismic surveys of 1 square mile (~2.6 km2) or less.
In contrast to the 2-D seismic correlation problem, 3-D
seismic data provide continuous data throughout the survey
area. Look at the image presented in FIGURE 4.18.
It shows a one-square mile (~2.6 km2) area known as
a section (a legal surveying area in many parts of
North America). There are 16 wells (large dots) in this
hypothetical section (corresponding to 40-acre well
spacing, a dense development drilling case), which could
be considered excellent well data control for mapping
structural or stratigraphic features. Now imagine that
the section is covered by 3-D seismic data having a 110
x 110 (~ 30 m x 30 m) bin size (the small dots illustrate
the bin centers)5. There will be 2,304 traces within the
section. In other words, the seismic survey has 144 times
more data control points with which to map structural
and stratigraphic features. Unless the stratigraphic or
structural features cannot be detected by the seismic data,
it will always be possible to map them more accurately
with the 3-D seismic data than with the well control. The
reader should however keep in mind the limits on lateral
resolution noted in CHAPTER 3.
It is also important to note that the well control has better
vertical resolution (meter-, or sub-meter scale) than the
seismic data (few meters to tens of meters). As such, the
idea should not be to choose between well or seismic data,
but to find a way of merging the relatively good vertical
resolution of the well data with the much better lateral
resolution of the 3-D data. This type of integration is
Back to Chapter
Figure 4.17: Ambiguity associated with correlating faults on grids

of 2-D seismic data
Image in upper left shows

a hypothetical grid of four
2-D seismic lines (dashed).
The locations of faults
with a component of
normal displacement are
indicated. An interpreter
has a problem: how to
correlate faults between
lines. Several possible
interpretation options
(red) are presented. Similar
types of ambiguity can be
present when correlating
stratigraphic features (reef
margins, channels, etc.)
between 2-D seismic lines.
Based on an idea presented
by Badley (1985).
FIGURE 4.17:
Ambiguity associated with
correlating faults on grids of
2-D seismic data
Back to Chapter
Figure 4.18: Comparison of the subsurface sampling density for

a 3-D seismic grid with 110 x 110 spacing and the
sampling density of wells with 40-acre spacing
Grid has 110 x 110 spacing

(~30 m x 30 m; a relatively
(~3
coa
coarse grid common for
many 3-D surveys in the
man
United States) and wells
Uni
have 40-acre spacing (dense
hav
development drilling in the
dev
United States).
Uni
The
There will be 2,304 seismic
trac
traces in a square mile
versus 16 well control points
vers
in that
th same area. In other
words, 144 times more
wor
samples with which to map
sam
stratigraphic or structural
stra
features. Redrawn and used
feat
with permission from Ray
(1995).
(199
FIGURE 4.18:
Comparison of the subsurface
sampling density for a 3-D
seismic grid with 110 x 110
spacing and the sampling
density of wells with 40-acre
spacing
Back to Chapter
Figure 4.19: Illustration of digital seismic data and 3-D

seismic cube consisting of voxel traces
A) Digital seismic data can be displayed as seismic traces

(variable area wiggle or variable density displays, as
illustrated here (left) and in FIGURE 4.2. With 3-D seismic
data, the trace represents an area with fixed dimensions in x
and y that is also sampled at regular time (z) increments. As
such, the seismic trace in a 3-D survey corresponds to a series
of voxels, each of which stores a seismic amplitude value.
B) A 3-D seismic cube consists of a series of

voxel traces, whose coordinates consist
of an inline number, a crossline number
and a two-way traveltime (TWT).
FIGURE 4.19:
Illustration of digital seismic
data and 3-D seismic cube
consisting of voxel traces
__________________________________________________________________
5
This is a relatively coarse, but common, bin size at least for older land 3-D seismic data in the United States. A smaller
bin size (e.g., at least 55 x 55, ~ 15 m x 15 m) is preferred but not always economically possible.
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discussed in later chapters.
Back to Chapter
Figure 4.20: Common ways of viewing 3-D seismic data
4.5 Viewing 3-D Seismic Data

Let us now consider ways in which a 3-D seismic
volume may be viewed. At this point it is worth noting
that although different software packages have different
capabilities, there are many types of views that are common
among the different interpretation packages. Unfortunately
the names for a single display type may be different from
one software package to the next, or between different
groups of users.
We begin by re-examining how the 3-D seismic data are
stored in the computer. Remember that the data consist
of a series of amplitude values that might be sampled at
2 or 4 ms increments, and that traditionally those data
are displayed as seismic traces (FIGURE 4.2, left side
FIGURE 4.19A). In a 3-D seismic volume, that seismic
trace represents an area known as a bin (CHAPTER 3)
which has fixed dimensions in x and y. Combining the
bin size with the sampling interval (z) allows us to define
voxels (right side of FIGURE 4.19A), each of which stores
an amplitude value. The word voxel is an abbreviation of
volume element. A voxel is the 3-D equivalent of a pixel
(picture element), a term used to describe the ground
area corresponding to a single element of a remote sensing
dataset. Many voxel traces are combined to form the
3-D seismic cube (FIGURE 4.19B). When viewing 3-D
seismic data, each voxel will be colored according to the
amplitude value stored in it (FIGURE 4.2).
Vertical Transects
The simplest way of slicing through a 3-D volume is
to look at vertical transects6 that correspond to inlines
or crosslines (also referred to as lines and traces,
respectively, by at least one commonly used interpretation
software package; FIGURE 4.20A,B; Animations 6,
7). The bins in the volume are assigned to an arbitrary
coordinate system consisting of mutually orthogonal inlines
and crosslines (FIGURE 4.19B). For marine data, the
inline direction generally corresponds to the ships sailing
direction. Onshore, the inline direction is usually the
orientation of the receiver lines.
A) In the inline direction,

B) The crossline direction,
C) Arbitrary lines (arbitrary
transects), and
D) Timeslices.
FIGURE 4.20:
Common ways of viewing
3-D seismic data
Back to Chapter
Animation 6
ANIMATION 6
Back to Chapter
Animation 7
ANIMATION 7
__________________________________________________________________
6
Interpreters should refrain from calling these transects vertical seismic profiles, because (as described in
CHAPTER 5) that term is used to describe a type of borehole seismic image.
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Another way of viewing vertical transects through the data
is to generate arbitrary lines that can have any orientation
through the data (FIGURE 4.20C). The user picks the
orientation in order to best view the features of interest.
For example, perhaps the grid of inlines and crosslines is
oriented north-south and east-west but northeast-southwest
striking faults cut through the area. Viewing the faults in
either the inline or crossline orientation will distort the true
fault geometry because these views cross the faults at an
angle. The best way to view the faults would be to look at
northwest-southeast oriented arbitrary lines that correspond
to structural dip lines. An arbitrary line may be a single
line, or it may be a composite line that zig-zags its way
through the data volume, perhaps examining stratigraphic
or structural relationships between wells. This viewing
flexibility is a major advantage of 3-D seismic data: the
viewer has complete freedom to view the data from any
orientation.
These vertical transects look essentially like 2-D seismic
profiles. The interpreter may change scales, color bars, and
other aspects of the display, as is the case when working
with digital 2-D seismic data. However, two points need
to be emphasized: 1) the viewer has complete freedom to
pick the orientation of the lines being viewed (unlike 2-D
grids), and 2) the data have had 3-D migration, and so
sideswipe has been eliminated.
Time Slices, Horizon Slices and Stratal Slices

A different way of viewing the data is to take horizontal
slices through the data (Figures 4.20D, 4.21;
ANIMATION 8). For conventional 3-D data, with the
vertical axis in two-way traveltime, these horizontal slices
are known as time slices, because they represent planes
of constant two-way traveltime. Note that this does not
necessarily mean that the display shows a constant depth,
because the wave-propagation velocity commonly varies
laterally. (As a thought exercise, re-examine
FIGURE 2.2B. Does 500 ms in the seismic data
correspond to a constant depth?) On the other hand, if
the 3-D cube has been depth converted (perhaps through
pre-stack depth migration), then horizontal slices through
the seismic cube are properly known as depth slices. Time
slices are useful for looking at, or for, the lateral variability
of structural or stratigraphic features, and examples of these
displays will be shown in Chapters 6 and 7.
Page 15
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Figure 4.21: Sample timeslice from a 3-D seismic survey
The slice, a variable

density display with a
greyscale color bar
(see FIGURE 4.3), crosses
through a 3-D seismic
data volume. Interpreters
need to be able to
recognize structural and
stratigraphic features in
this type of display. Area
shown is approximately
15 km across.
From Hart (2007).
FIGURE 4.21:
Sample timeslice from a 3-D
seismic survey
Back to Chapter
Animation 8
ANIMATION 8
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When looking at a timeslice, the viewer sees areas that
are covered by peaks and troughs, and so we need to
understand what controls the width of an event on the
display. The first control is the lateral continuity of the
stratigraphic feature generating the reflection
(FIGURE 4.22A). For example, does the reflection
represent a laterally continuous feature (e.g., a sheet sand)
or a laterally discontinuous feature (e.g., a channel)? Next
is the structural dip (FIGURE 4.22B). Flat-lying strata
will cover larger areas on a timeslice than dipping strata.
An analogy is a geologic map. Flat-lying strata cover
larger areas of the map than steeply dipping strata. Finally,
we need to consider the frequency of the reflection event
(FIGURE 4.22C). For example, if dip remains constant
a broad trough (low frequency) will cover a larger area on
a timeslice than a narrow (high-frequency) trough. This
variable is analogous to the effects of formation thickness
on a geologic map. For a constant structural dip, a thicker
formation will cover a larger area than a thinner unit.
Some software packages allow the interpreter to take
inclined slices through the data (FIGURE 4.23). These
types of slices can be a quick look approach for
cutting through the seismic cube more-or-less parallel
to the stratigraphy in the presence of some structural or
stratigraphic dip.
If two or more different versions of a seismic data cube
are available, an interpreter may wish to view those two
volumes at once. Previously we discussed the possibility of
overlying wiggle traces from one version of the data onto a
variable density display of another version. This technique
cannot be applied when viewing timeslices in most
software packages. Some interpretation software allows
the interpreter to corender two different versions of the
data. The software employed in FIGURE 4.24 corenders
the two attributes by defining one attribute (in this case
amplitude) using color and the other attribute (semblance)
using shading (as if light was shining on the data), a
technique sometimes referred to as bump mapping in
graphics programming. Note how the combination of
amplitude and semblance effectively highlights the faults.
This corendered display shows a seismic cube that has
had a portion (denoted by the yellow lines) removed so
that we can see into the middle of the cube. Hart (2008b)
illustrated examples of corendering semblance with an
Page 16
Back to Chapter
Figure 4.22: Factors affecting the width of seismic reflections on timeslices
A) The lateral extent of

the stratigraphic
features.
B) Structural dip. The
steeper the dip, the
narrower the event
will be on a timeslice.
C) The frequency of
the event. A higher
frequency event
(top) will be narrower
on a timeslice than
a broader (lower
frequency) event.
FIGURE 4.22:
Factors affecting the width
of seismic reflections on
timeslices
Back to Chapter
Figure 4.23: Comparison of a timeslice (lower) and inclined

slice (upper) through a 3-D seismic cube
A vertical transect
through the cube is
shown for reference. The
timeslice clearly cuts
across the stratigraphy.
The inclined slice is
approximately parallel
to the stratigraphy in the
part of the data volume
at left. The color bar used
for the slices is different
from that used for the
vertical transect in order
to enhance their visibility.
Seismic data courtesy SEI.
FIGURE 4.23:
Comparison of a timeslice
(lower) and inclined slice
(upper) through a 3-D seismic
cube
Back to Chapter
Figure 4.24: Corendering of a amplitude and semblance (coherency)

volumes can be helpful for fault interpretation
A) Intersecting timeslice
and vertical transect
through a 3-D seismic
volume. Some faults
are recognizable as
reflection offsets or
terminations. Seismic
amplitudes are shown
in blue-white-red color
bar,
B) The same transect
showing amplitude
corendered with
semblance. The
combination of
reflection offsets and
terminations (seen in
the amplitudes) and
lineations (seen in the
semblance) better
indicates the locations
of faults. From Kirshner
and Hart (2009).
FIGURE 4.24:
Corendering of a amplitude
and semblance (coherency)
volumes can be helpful for
fault interpretation
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attribute called sweetness in order to identify sand-filled
channels in siliciclastic successions.
There are times that we may wish to see how amplitudes
change along a horizon that we have picked in a seismic
dataset. Perhaps the amplitude changes are related to
changes in acoustic impedance that, in turn, are related
to changes in porosity, shale content, or hydrocarbon
saturation. Alternatively, perhaps the amplitude changes
are related to changes in thickness that give tuning effects
such as those discussed in SECTION 2.5. Whatever their
origin, by looking at a map-view representation of the
amplitude changes we hope to learn something about the
distribution of physical properties of interest at a particular
stratigraphic level.
The term horizon slice is used to describe displays that
show changes in amplitude along a horizon that has been
mapped in the seismic data. Alternatively, sometimes
interpreters refer to them as amplitude maps of a particular
horizon. Selected horizon slices are shown in
FIGURE 4.25. Note that, as with all seismic displays, the
color bar used to display the data can have a significant
impact on the interpretability of a horizon slice. A seismic
interpreter needs to be able to examine horizon slices and
recognize stratigraphic or structural features, hydrocarbon
effects, acquisition and processing artefacts, etc.
Faults may also be used to generate slices through a 3-D
seismic cube (fault slices). The slices can be moved
laterally into either the hanging wall or footwall. Dee et al.
(2005) showed how fault slices can be used to image fault
intersections.
Sometimes an interpreter may wish to look at a slice
through the data cube at a stratigraphic level that cannot
be mapped. This might be the case, for example, if the
objective is to look for channels at the level of a sequence
boundary. The channels may be sand filled, but otherwise
encased in fine-grained deposits above and below the
sequence boundary. In this case, we might expect to have
reflections generated at the top and base of the sands, but
no mappable reflections might be present in the heterolithic
interfluve deposits. As such, and especially if the strata
have been tectonically tilted or otherwise deformed, we
need a way of slicing through the data parallel to the
stratigraphy.
Page 17
Back to Chapter
Figure 4.25: Sample horizon slices (amplitude maps)
A) Amplitude map of a Cretaceous

sandstone at Teapot Dome in Wyoming.
The highest amplitudes (red, yellow)
form a somewhat oval-shaped area
that is elongate approximately parallel
to the crest of the NNW-SSE striking
anticline. As discussed in CHAPTER 8,
this relationship between amplitude
and structure suggests that the high
amplitudes are related in some cases to
the presence of hydrocarbons, although
that explanation is unlikely here. Data
cover an area of approximately 31 km2.
B) Amplitude map of a Cretaceous

sandstone from Alberta. McCullagh
and Hart (2010) interpreted the
amplitude trends in this image
to be related to strandplain
progradation (beach ridges),
channels, interference effects and
poor data zones below a modern
valley. Seismic data cover an area
of approximately 400 km2.
C) Amplitude map of a Cretaceous horizon from western Egypt.

Gaps (black) in the surface, generally running from upper left to
lower right, represent fault-heave polygons (see CHAPTER 6)
but otherwise there is no obvious relationship between
structure and amplitude, and the relationship between
amplitudes and lithology is uncertain because of a lack of
well data control. Image covers an area of approximately 970
km2, and is modified and reproduced with permission from
Osman (2006). In these three examples and other cases, an
interpreter needs to understand how changes in physical
properties (lithology, porosity, pore-filling fluids, etc.), thickness
(CHAPTER 2), structure, acquisition, processing and other
variables might affect the distribution of amplitudes in order to
properly interpret the images.
FIGURE 4.25:
Sample horizon slices
(amplitude maps)
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Back to Chapter
One way of approximating a slice along an unmappable

depositional surface is to generate stratal slices (e.g.,
Hardage and Remmington, 1999). There may be
a mappable seismic reflection that is close to, and
stratigraphically concordant with, the stratigraphic levels
that we seek to view. In this case, the continuous horizon
is picked as a reference horizon in the seismic data and
then the interpretation software is used to generate a new
phantom horizon the stratal slice that is parallel
to, but shifted up or down from, that reference horizon
(FIGURE 4.26). Brown (2004) suggested keeping the
name horizon slice for these views, however a stratal
slice does not necessarily correspond to a mappable seismic
horizon.
A comparison of a timeslice and a stratal slice through a
relatively undeformed (i.e., mostly flat lying) portion of a
basin is presented in FIGURE 4.27. The timeslice (part
B of that figure) shows a channel feature, but the stratal
slice (part C; generated by slicing down from an overlying
reference horizon) more clearly shows the channel margins,
and tributaries to the main channel, even in this relatively
undeformed area. In more steeply dipping, folded or
faulted areas, timeslices are highly unlikely to provide
adequate displays of stratigraphic features.
Figure 4.26: Principle of stratal slicing
An interpreter may wish to slice through

the seismic cube at the level of some
stratigraphic features that cannot be
mapped.
A) This image shows some channelized
sandbodies that would not correspond
to a continuous reflection that can
be mapped seismically. A timeslice
(dashed turquoise line) crosses the
stratigraphy and would not show the
stratigraphic features.
B) To slice through the data at that level,
the interpreter maps a reflection at the
top of the underlying continuous sand
(red), and then
C) generates a phantom horizon (blue)
that is parallel to, but higher than the
underlying horizon.
FIGURE 4.26:
Principle of stratal slicing
Back to Chapter
Figure 4.27: Stratal slicing through a real 3-D seismic volume
A) Vertical transect
shows some
discontinuous
troughs (red) at
approximately 990
ms. Note reference
horizon (green)
for subsequent
stratal slicing at
approximately 945
ms.
B) Timeslice through the

data at 990 ms shows
a channel with some
poorly defined
tributaries. The
timeslice cuts across
the stratigraphy,
which is not perfectly
horizontal.
C) A stratal slice 44 ms below the green horizon in part A is concordant
with the stratigraphy at the level of the channel, and shows the
channel margins and distributaries more clearly. Data courtesy CNL.
FIGURE 4.27:
Stratal slicing through a real
3-D seismic volume
Back to Chapter
Figure 4.28: Two different ways of stratal slicing
The original approach for generating stratal slices (e.g.,

Brown et al., 1981; Hardage et al., 1994) was to start by
picking a reference horizon (FIGURE 4.28A) and then
to generate a new volume that has been flattened on that
horizon. Timeslices through that new, flattened volume
(FIGURE 4.28B) will be parallel to the reference horizon
used for the flattening, and so will be stratal slices. One
problem with this approach is data proliferation the new
flattened volume will be stored on disk along with other
any versions of the data including, perhaps, volumes that
have been flattened on other horizons in the dataset. These
volumes use up disk space and need to be regenerated
each time modifications are made to a horizon pick. To
solve this problem, some software packages allow the user
to create stratal slices by interactively scrolling up and
down through the data parallel to the reference horizon
(e.g., FIGURE 4.28C). This latter, newer, approach is
preferable.
A restriction that can be encountered when working with
Page 18
A) Seismic data showing folded stratigraphy.

Horizon shown in green will be reference
for horizon stratal slicing.
B) Approach 1. The data are first flattened on
picked horizon and the new volume is saved.
Timeslices (red) through this new volume
will be parallel to the reference horizon,
effectively making them stratal slices.
C) Approach 2. The user interactively slices up
or down through the data parallel to the
reference horizon. Approach 2 is preferred
(less data proliferation) but not all software
packages allow this flexibility.
FIGURE 4.28:
Two different ways of stratal
slicing
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stratal slicing, as described above, is that the stratigraphic
features need to be parallel to the reference horizon in
order to be properly imaged. In the case of a diverging set
of reflections, neither slicing up or down (from reference
horizons at the base or top of the succession respectively)
will be adequate because eventually the stratal slices will
begin to cut across the stratigraphy. In this case, it may be
necessary to use two reference horizons, one at the top and
the other at the base of the succession, and make stratal
slices that are proportionately spaced between those two
reference horizons (FIGURE 4.29). These types of stratal
slices are commonly known as proportional slices. Wood
(2007) used proportional slices to study fluvial systems.
Back to Chapter
Figure 4.29: Proportional slicing
Two reference horizons, A and B, are mapped. Slices through

the data (proportional slices) are then generated at constant
ratio distances between the two reference surfaces.
FIGURE 4.29:
Proportional slicing
Back to Chapter
Figure 4.30: A hypothetical example where none of the stratigraphic surfaces

could be used to slice through the data parallel to the stratigraphy
In some cases, especially when the stratigraphy or structure

is complex, identifying the best way of slicing through a
3-D data cube can be problematic. FIGURE 4.30 shows
a hypothetical example where none of the stratigraphic
surfaces could be used to slice through the data parallel to
the stratigraphy.
Volume Visualization
As noted previously, when working with a 3-D seismic data
volume, some software packages allow us to visualize the
entire cube. What we see are three, mutually perpendicular
but essentially two-dimensional, faces of the threedimensional data cube. Perhaps we want to see into the
cube to look at the 3-D form of features of interest.
It may not always be possible to slice through the data parallel to the stratigraphy,
especially in areas of complex stratigraphy. This hypothetical example shows three
stratigraphic units (each represented by a different color) and a associated stratigraphic
surfaces. Evaluate the use of timeslices, horizon slices, proportional slices or some other
type of slice for slicing through each of the three units parallel to the stratigraphy.
FIGURE 4.30:
A hypothetical example
where none of the
stratigraphic surfaces could
be used to slice through
the data parallel to the
stratigraphy
Volume rendering, also referred to as volume visualization,

is a technique that will help us to look into the cube7.
Recall that our 3-D seismic volume consists of a series
of voxels that store amplitude values (FIGURE 4.19). If
we are preferentially looking for high-amplitude troughs,
we might want to make all other amplitudes in our cube
transparent. To do so, we adjust the opacity of the data,
where opacity is the opposite of the transparency (i.e.
voxels that have low opacity become invisible). As shown
in FIGURE 4.31, some type of software interface allows us
to adjust the range of amplitude values to make transparent,
as well as the color bar used for the display. In this way
we can see into the cube to examine the 3-D distribution of
__________________________________________________________________
7
Volume rendering techniques were originally borrowed from the medical industry to view CT or MRI scans.
See: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volume_rendering.
Page 19
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features sharing common amplitude values.
ANIMATION 1 is a volume rendering of some seismic
data that shows high-amplitude igneous intrusions.
Kidd (1999) and Sheffield et al. (1999) discuss various
aspects of volume rendering, including choice of color
display and how much data to volume render at once. For
example, instead of volume rendering an entire 3-D seismic
cube, it may be preferable to examine thinner opacity
slabs through the data, and interactively move those slabs
up and down through the data volume. An example of
some stratigraphic features seen in an opacity slab is shown
in FIGURE 4.32. Moving opacity slabs through a data
volume can be a highly effective reconnaissance tool when
looking for features that can be defined using amplitudes.
Back to Chapter
Figure 4.31: Volume rendering
A) A 3-D seismic cube. The histogram at lower

right shows the range of seismic amplitudes
in the data. All of these values are opaque.
As such, we see three 2-D surfaces when
looking at the cube the top, front and
side. We cannot see into the cube.
B) A volume-rendered visualization of the same

cube. Inspection of the histogram shows that
the interpreter has adjusted the opacity so that
only the high-amplitude peaks are visible (red/
yellow in this case; see red arrow). We can now
examine the cube to look at the 3-D distribution
of high-amplitudes. Seismic data courtesy SEI.
FIGURE 4.31:
Volume rendering
Back to Chapter
Animation 1
Visualization
Once faults or horizons have been interpreted, it can be
a good idea to interactively visualize the interpretations.
Seismic transects, mapped horizons, faults, wells and
(potentially) other features might be included in the
visualization. We might spin the interpretations and data
around to look at them from different perspectives, we
might change color bars, we might turn different features
on and off. Different software packages have different
capabilities.
Interactive visualization of 3-D cubes can be very helpful
for at least three reasons.
It helps a seismic interpreter to do a better

interpretation. Rapidly scrolling through a
data cube can help an interpreter to identify
subtle structural or stratigraphic features.
Our eyes and brain are wired to detect
motion, such as prey moving through the
forest or reflections that come and go as we
scroll through a dataset. Interpreters can
also see and fully exploit the data using
stratal slices, inclined planes, arbitrary lines,
opacity slabs, etc. These views can help an
interpreter to see features that are not visible
on vertical transects or even timeslices.
Finally, visualization allows interpreters to
more effectively perform quality control on
their interpretations. For example we might
Page 20
ANIMATION 1
Volume-rendering of a
3-D seismic cube showing
igneous intrusions.
Courtesy CGG-Veritas.
(Animation first appears in
CHAPTER 1.)
Back to Chapter
Figure 4.32: Opacity slab through some seismic data
A thin window of a 3-D seismic cube has been volume

rendered to reveal some meandering channels.
Reproduced with permission from Kidd (1999).
FIGURE 4.32:
Opacity slab through some
seismic data
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see places where horizons cut across faults,
or faults intersect, in physically impossible
ways (FIGURE 4.33).
To help the interpreter to better understand

relationships between different variables.
For example, FIGURE 4.34 is an oblique
view of a 3-D survey that shows a horizon
with an amplitude extraction draped over
it, and some faults. The interpreter may
be looking for relationships between
amplitudes, structure, stratigraphic features
and hydrocarbon accumulations. It might be
possible to look at 2-D maps of amplitudes
and structure separately, but it is usually
more instructive to combine those two
pieces of information into a display that
can be interactively rotated, rescaled and
otherwise manipulated by the interpreter on
a real-time basis.
Visualization tools allow an interpreter to
quickly and effectively communicate across
subsurface disciplines, for example to
discuss drilling target choices with drillers,
reservoir engineers, management or even
other geologists and geophysicists who were
not part of the interpretation team. Although
2-D maps will undoubtedly be needed at
some point, visualization technologies
can be more effective tools than maps for
conveying complex relationships between
structure, stratigraphy, amplitude or other
variables (Figures 4.34, 4.35).
There may be times when we may want to interactively

immerse ourselves into the data and, starting in the 1990s,
some oil companies began investing in different types of
immersive environments. The interpreter wears glasses that
help him/her to see the data in 3-D. Dorn (1998) discussed
various types of immersive environments. Although this
type of technology was predicted by some to eventually
replace workstation-based interpretation methods, for a
variety of reasons immersive visualization technology
has not replaced desktop-based methods as the norm for
seismic interpretation. In fact, many companies who
had invested in visualization centers have subsequently
modified those rooms for other purposes. It appears that,
Page 21
Back to Chapter
Figure 4.33: Visualization of faults (red, orange, purple and blue), a horizon (green) and
a seismic transect (red-white-blue) that has been made semi-transparent
This view was generated interactively to perform quality control on an interpretation. Note
how the horizon crosses the red fault in the foreground, a probable data-picking error because
the horizon should be much higher up in this fault block because of the significant normal
displacement along the fault (based on micropaleontological studies). Seismic data courtesy SEI.
FIGURE 4.33:
Visualization of faults,
a horizon, and a seismic
transect that has been made
semi-transparent
Back to Chapter
Figure 4.34: Visualization of faults (red, orange and blue), a horizon with an amplitude
overlay (high amplitudes in red and green, low amplitudes in blue), and
some seismic data that have been made semi-transparent
This type of visualization can be

useful for examining relationships
between different variables,
such as amplitudes (a possible
hydrocarbon indicator), folding
and faulting.
Seismic data courtesy of SEI.
FIGURE 4.34:
Visualization of faults, a
horizon with an amplitude
overlay, and some seismic
data that have been made
semi-transparent
Back to Chapter
Figure 4.35: Comparison of a time-structure map of the top of a leveed channel complex (top) and
a 3-D surface visualization (below) showing a type of curvature (a horizon attribute;
see Chapter 7) draped over an illuminated rendered surface of the same horizon
The lower image more clearly

displays relief on the surface.
Modified from Hart and Sagan
(2006).
FIGURE 4.35:
Comparison of a time-structure
map of the top of a leveed
channel complex and a 3-D
surface visualization showing
a type of curvature draped
over an illuminated rendered
surface of the same horizon
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at least at present, the most common use for immersive visualization is for making presentations,
especially at meetings when it is important for a group of individuals (e.g., geologists, geophysicists,
engineers) to all have the same level of understanding about the nature of the drilling target.
4.6 Seismic Attributes

The discussion so far in this chapter has focused primarily on ways of viewing the original seismic
amplitude data, but there is increasing interest in the use of seismic attributes for viewing and
analyzing seismic data. Seismic attributes have been defined in a variety of ways. For example,
Brown (2004) defined seismic attributes as derivatives of a basic seismic measurement, and
suggested that the latter consist of measurements associated with time, amplitude, frequency and
attenuation. Chen and Sydney (1997) defined an attribute as a specific measurement of geometric,
kinematic, dynamic or statistical features derived from seismic data. Other definitions exist, but
essentially a seismic attribute is:
A quantitative measure. A numerical amplitude measurement is an attribute, whereas

a descriptive seismic facies (e.g., chaotic reflections; CHAPTER 7) is not.
Derived from the seismic data itself or from the interpretations. Data-derived
attributes could be derived before or after stacking. Attributes derived from
amplitude-variation-with-offset analyses (see CHAPTER 8) are an example of
pre-stack attributes, whereas complex-trace attributes (instantaneous frequency,
instantaneous phase, etc.; see below) or coherency attributes (CHAPTER 3) are
examples of post-stack attributes. Attributes derived from seismic interpretations
might include horizon dip, azimuth or curvature (CHAPTER 6).
Attributes are derived and analyzed for two primary purposes: 1) to help detect stratigraphic or
structural features (feature detection), and 2) to make quantitative predictions of rock properties
(discussed in CHAPTER 8). Applications of attribute analyses were presented by Brown (2004)
and Chopra and Marfurt (2007). Chopra and Marfurt (2005, 2006) provided a historical perspective
on the development and use of seismic attributes. Taner (2000) compiled a lengthy list of seismic
attributes and discussed their derivation and application.
Many different types of seismic attributes have been formulated and various attempts have been
made to classify them. For example, Browns (2004) classification included over 70 seismic
attributes. Different software packages, oil companies and geophysical service companies derive
other attributes that are not included in Browns compilation. The details of how these attributes are
derived, and their utility (or lack thereof) is not always discussed. As such, this section focuses on a
subset of post-stack attributes associated with seismic amplitudes and with complex trace analyses.
Amplitude
Seismic amplitude is perhaps the simplest attribute to understand. As discussed in Chapters 2 and 3,
the controls on seismic amplitude include:
Changes in acoustic impedance along an interface. These changes might be due

to changes in lithology, changes in porosity, changes in fluid content or some
combination of these factors.
Interference from closely spaced reflections. Recall from CHAPTER 2 that
Page 22
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constructive and destructive interference
effects (e.g., tuning) can affect the amplitude
of a seismic reflection.
Back to Chapter
Figure 4.36: Options for extracting seismic attributes,

in this case showing amplitude
A) Attribute is extracted along a single

horizon (e.g., the magenta horizon).
This is a horizon slice and could be
examined in map view, such as the
examples illustrated in FIGURE 4.25.
Acquisition and processing effects, such as

variations in stacking fold within a dataset,
wave propagation phenomena such as
focusing of energy in synclines, etc.
Ideally, seismic amplitude variations represent changes in

geological factors rather than acquisition and/or processing
parameters, but this is not always the case.
Attributes such as amplitude can be derived in a variety
of ways. For example, amplitude values can be extracted
along a horizon picked in the seismic data (horizon slices;
FIGURE 4.25; 4.36A). Alternatively, the amplitudes
might be extracted within a window that is defined using
one or two seismic horizons (FIGURE 4.36B,C). The
choice of how to extract, view and analyze the amplitude
data will depend on factors such as whether the intent is
to analyze changes in acoustic impedance at an interface
(e.g., changes in lithology above or below a stratigraphic
contact such as an unconformity) or within a stratigraphic
interval (e.g., looking for sands in a lowstand systems
tract). The thickness of the interval being analyzed will
also be important. Within an interval, one might derive
and examine an average amplitude value such as the rootmean-squared amplitude (which tends to emphasize strong
values), the maximum positive amplitude, the variance
in amplitude or some other measure. The choice of how
best to extract and analyze the amplitude information will
depend on the objectives of the analyses, the thickness of
the interval being analyzed, the interpreters understanding
of statistical principles and other factors. Rankey and
Mitchell (2003) illustrated how ambiguity in how to pick
horizons could affect attribute-based interpretations.
Complex-Trace Attributes
Amplitude analyses can be useful, but the application of
signal-processing techniques to seismic data has shown that
decomposing the data into its constituent components can
help to bring out important information. Taner and Sherriff
(1977) discussed how other attributes, including reflection
strength, instantaneous phase and instantaneous frequency,
could be derived via mathematical analyses of a seismic
dataset. These attributes are derived using a mathematical
Page 23
B) Attribute is extracted in a window

defined by a single horizon, in this
case the semi-transparent magenta
interval that extends above and
below the magenta horizon.
C) Attribute is extracted in a window
defined by two horizons, such as the
semi-transparent magenta interval
between the magenta and green
horizons.
Like the horizon slice illustrated in A,
the window-based attribute extractions
(B, C) could also be examined in map
view. Alternatively, the attribute values
could be exported as numerical data for
subsequent analyses.
FIGURE 4.36:
Options for extracting
seismic attributes, in this case
showing amplitude
Back to Chapter
Figure 4.37: Comparison of seismic amplitude display and complex-trace

attribute versions of a seismic transect
A) Seismic amplitude
C) The instantaneous phase attribute shows phase independent

of amplitude. It highlights reflection continuity, and values
range from +180 to -180. Some reflections that might appear
to be discontinuous because of changes in amplitude can be
seen to be continuous with this attribute.
B) Reflection strength (also known as amplitude envelope or instantaneous amplitude)

shows amplitude independent of phase and has the same range of values as the
original amplitude data, except that all values are positive. The high-reflection strength
areas correspond to high-amplitude areas in the amplitude data
D) Instantaneous frequency is the rate of change of phase, units are Hertz, and values of
the attribute are positive, except where thin beds cause distortion of the waveform
that manifest themselves as negative instantaneous frequency. Most modern software
packages allow the interpreter to convert the amplitude data to attributes on the fly,
although attribute versions of 2-D or 3-D datasets can also be generated.
FIGURE 4.37:
Comparison of seismic
amplitude display and
complex-trace attribute
versions of a seismic transect
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tool known as the complex seismic trace, which consists of a real and an imaginary part. For this
reason, they are commonly referred to as complex-trace attributes.
A seismic trace can be decomposed into two components via complex trace analysis, one related to
amplitude and one related to phase. The relationship between these three variables can be defined
using the following equation:
s(t) = A(t)cos(f(t))
[4.1]
Where: s(t) seismic trace amplitude at time sample t, A(t) is reflection strength at that time
sample, and f(t) is the instantaneous phase. The seismic trace amplitude is recorded and the two
other variables need to be derived. Different methods have been proposed for mathematically and
conceptually deriving instantaneous phase and frequency from the data (e.g., Taner and Sherriff,
1977; Barnes, 2007a). In practice, a 2-D seismic line or a 3-D seismic volume is selected for
analyses and the software calculates and displays the attribute on the fly or a new attribute version
of the seismic data is generated for viewing. Different color bars are used to display different
attributes. Barnes (2007b) emphasized that different software packages implement these calculations
in different ways, and the results may not always be the same from one software package to another.
Inspection of EQUATION 4.1 allows us to define reflection strength (also known as instantaneous
amplitude or amplitude envelope) as amplitude independent of phase (FIGURE 4.37B). In other
words, we see changes in amplitude regardless of whether they correspond to peaks, troughs or
intermediate phase locations. Reflection strength has the same range of values as the input seismic
data and should always be a positive number. Like seismic amplitudes, reflection strength will
respond to changes in acoustic impedance (whatever their origin), changes in thickness (e.g.,
Robertson and Nogami, 1987) and acquisition and processing parameters.
Instantaneous phase is the seismic phase independent of amplitude (FIGURE 4.37C). In this
case, the trace amplitude is unimportant and instead we focus on whether a point on a seismic trace
corresponds to a peak, zero crossing, trough, or somewhere in between. This attribute highlights
reflection continuity. A continuous reflection might appear to be discontinuous if the amplitude
changes along its length (perhaps because of processing artifacts), but the phase display will show
the reflection continuity. Offsets of instantaneous phase can be used to identify faults, and reflection
terminations associated with features such as unconformities, toplap, etc. (see CHAPTER 7) are
also sometimes sought using instantaneous phase versions of the data. The cosine of instantaneous
phase is sometimes used instead of, or in addition to, instantaneous phase because the cosine
operator removes abrupt breaks with a wrap-around at a phase of 180.
Another complex trace attribute defined by Taner and Sherriff (1977) is instantaneous frequency,
defined as the rate of change of phase (FIGURE 4.37D). Conceptually, instantaneous frequency
can be thought of as a measure that indicates whether a sample lies on a portion of a seismic wiggle
that is broad (low frequency) or tight (high frequency). Values of instantaneous frequency are in
Hertz, and are generally positive although tuning phenomena can locally generate negative values
(Robertson and Nogami, 1987). Instantaneous frequency is related to the frequency content of the
seismic data, which is defined by acquisition and processing parameters, and the earths response
(attenuation, layer thickness, etc.).
Page 24
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Other Attributes
Back to Chapter
Other attributes can also be derived, either from complex

trace analyses or some other procedure. Some attributes
are based on mathematical manipulations of the seismic
trace (e.g., integrated trace, first or second derivative).
Two-way traveltime can be considered an attribute. Some
attributes attempt to express information about reflection
geometries in a quantitative way (e.g., parallelism or
convergence). Hart (2008a) recognized that some
attributes are related to physical properties such as acoustic
impedance of the strata (physically significant attributes)
but that others are related to the stratigraphic arrangement
of layers (stratigraphically significant attributes).
Attributes can be combined to produce meta-attributes
(e.g., de Rooij and Tingdahl, 2002). One such attribute
(derived via a combination of reflection strength and
instantaneous frequency) is termed sweetness, and Hart
(2008b) showed how this attribute could be used to detect
sand-filled channels in shale-dominated systems (e.g.,
FIGURE 4.38).
The number of seismic attributes that can be generated is
potentially large, although software capabilities typically
restrict the number of attributes that are generated by
any single interpreter. Seismic modeling (e.g., Hart and
Chen, 2004), mathematical reasoning (i.e. how is an
attribute derived?), physical reasoning (i.e. why would an
attribute be related to a property or feature of interest?) and
experience are used to determine which, if any, attributes
are useful to detect and/or otherwise analyze specific
features of interest.
Attributes can be viewed as vertical transects, slices
through 3-D volumes, through volume rendering, as maps,
corendered images (FIGURE 4.39), etc. Innovative
color schemes may be useful for combining two or more
attributes into a single display (e.g., Chopra and Marfurt,
2007). Like amplitudes, other attributes can be extracted
along a horizon or within some window that is based
on one or more horizon picks. CHAPTER 8 discusses
how seismic attributes can be used to make quantitative
predictions of physical properties such as lithology and
porosity.
Page 25
Figure 4.38: Comparison of inclined slice through an amplitude volume (A)

and an equivalent slice showing co-rendered sweetness (colors)
and semblance (black) (B) through a deep-water clastic section
High sweetness values (orange) should represent

sands, and low sweetness values (blue) should
represent shale. Channel systems are visible in
both images, but the channels are more visible in
the attribute image. The inclined slice cuts across
stratigraphy, but has the advantage in this dataset
of showing two different channel complexes at
either side of the image. From Hart (2008b).
FIGURE 4.38:
Comparison of inclined
slice through an amplitude
volume and an equivalent
slice showing co-rendered
sweetness and semblance
through a deep-water clastic
section
Back to Chapter
Figure 4.39: Corendering of semblance (black) and instantaneous phase attribute

(color) to highlight the locations of faults in a 3-D seismic cube
Data courtesy
ourtesy Landmark Graphics Corporation.
FIGURE 4.39:
Corendering of semblance
and instantaneous phase
attribute to highlight the
locations of faults in a 3-D
seismic cube
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4.7 References
Austin, B., 2004, Integrated use of 3D seismic in field development, engineering and drilling:
examples from the shallow section, In, Davies, R.J., Cartwright, J.A., Stewart, S.A.,, Lappin, M.,
and Underhill, J.R. (eds.) 3D Seismic Technology: Application to the Exploration of Sedimentary
Basins. Geological Society, Memoir 29, p. 279-296.
Backus, M. M., and R. L. Chen, 1975, Flat spot exploration: Geophysical Prospecting, v. 23, p. 533577.
Bacon, M., R. Simm and T. Redshaw, 2007, 3-D seismic interpretation. Cambridge, 225 p.
Badachhape, A.R., 2001, A simple QC methodology for common seismic data and data loading
problems: Or are your seismic data the best they can be? Part 1: Data Formats: The Leading
Edge, v. 20, p. 1364-1368.
Badachhape, A.R., 2002, A simple QC methodology for common seismic data and data loading
problems: Or are your seismic data the best they can be? Part 2: Scaling issues: The Leading
Edge, v. 21, p. 58-107.
Badley, M.E., 1985, Practical Seismic Interpretation, International Human Resources Development
Corporation, 266 p.
Balch, A. H., 1971, Color sonograms; a new dimension in seismic data interpretation: Geophysics, v.
36, p. 1074-1098.
Barnes, A., 2007a, A tutorial on complex seismic trace analysis: Geophysics, v. 72, p. W33-W44.
Barnes, A., 2007b, Redundant and useless seismic attributes: Geophysics, v. 72, p. P33-P38.
Bend, S.L., 2007, Petroleum Geology eTextbook: AAPG, HOW TO CITE
Brewer, C., 2007, Color use guidelines for mapping and visualization, http://www.personal.psu.edu/
cab38/ColorSch/Schemes.html, accessed February 14, 2008.
Brown, A.R., 2004, Interpretation of 3-D seismic data (6th ed.). AAPG Memoir 42, 541 p.
Brown, A.R., Dahm, C.G., and Graebner, R.J., 1981, A stratigraphic case history using threedimensional seismic data in the Gulf of Thailand, Geophysical Prospecting, v. 29, p. 327-349.
Chen, Q., and S. Sidney, 1997, Seismic attribute technology for reservoir forecasting and
monitoring: The Leading Edge, v. 16, p. 445 456.
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An Introduction to Seismic Interpretation

Chapter 4: Data Display

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4.2 Data Display

Digital Data Format

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An Introduction to Seismic Interpretation Chapter Four Data Display

Figure 4.1: Schematic representation of a SEG-Y file

The EBCDIC header commonly contains information about the data

Figure 4.2: Different ways of representing seismic data

At left, the column of numbers

Multiple versions of the seismic data, perhaps consisting of

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An Introduction to Seismic Interpretation Chapter Four Data Display

Wiggles and Color Displays

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An Introduction to Seismic Interpretation Chapter Four Data Display

Figure 4.3 A: Different display types for seismic data

A) The variable-area wiggle display. Peaks are

Figure 4.3 B: Different display types for seismic data

B) This variable density display represents positive

Although variable density displays are useful, and

Figure 4.3 C: Different display types for seismic data

C) Another variable density display with the

Sometimes interpreters get into the bad habit of using one

Figure 4.3 D: Different display types for seismic data

D) The rainbow (spectrum) color bar shown

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An Introduction to Seismic Interpretation Chapter Four Data Display

Figure 4.3 E: Different display types for seismic data

Data Scaling and Polarity

E) This variable density display (with grayscale

Figure 4.4: Comparison of a blue-white-red (above) and

The only difference

Figure 4.5: Histogram of amplitudes from a seismic dataset

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An Introduction to Seismic Interpretation Chapter Four Data Display

The seafloor in a marine survey will always correspond to a positive reflection

Knowledge of the local stratigraphy can be useful. For example, if unconsolidated

A flat spot, the reflection from a hydrocarbon-water contact in a reservoir

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An Introduction to Seismic Interpretation Chapter Four Data Display

Adjusting Vertical and Horizontal Scales (Vertical

Figure 4.7: Polarity standards for seismic data display

A) Most interpreters in North America prefer to view seismic

B) Elsewhere in the world, interpreters prefer to view

Figure 4.8: Example of changing the vertical scale on the appearance of

B) Seismic transect with

Figure 4.9: Example of changing the vertical scale on

These images, from Sagan