Photogrammetry2 Ghadi Zakarneh

Palestine Polytechnic University
College of Engineering & Technology

Civil and Architectural Engineering Department
Surveying & Geomatics Engineering
PHOTOGRAMMETRY - II
Text Book:
Elements of Photogrammetry
Paul R. Wolf
Bon A. Dewitt
Lecturer:
Eng. Ghadi Zakarneh

Hebron-Palestine
2007
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter 1:
Tilted Photographs
Chapter 2:
Analytical Photogrammetry
Chapter 3:
Stereoplotters
Chapter 4:
Close Range Photogrammetry
Chapter 5:
Ground Control
Chapter 6:
Aerotriangulation
Chapter 7:
Project Planning
Appendix:
Accuracy Standards
Units Conversions
Photogrammetry II
Ch01: Tilted Photographs
By: Eng.Ghadi Zakarneh
Ch01
Tilted Photographs
1 -1
Palestine Polytechnic University(PPU)

Photogrammetry II
TILTED PHOTOGRAPHS
1- Introduction
1. In practice it is impossible to maintain the optical axis of the camera truly vertical.
2. Unavoidable aircraft tilts cause photographs to be exposed with the camera axis
tilted slightly from vertical, and the resulting pictures are called tilted
photographs.
3. Optical axis deviates from vertical is usually less than 1 and it rarely exceeds 3.
Six independent parameters called the elements of exterior orientation express the
spatial position and angular orientation of a tilted photograph.
1. The spatial position: XL, yL,and ZL
The three-dimensional coordinates of the exposure station in a ground
coordinate system.
2. Angular orientation:
The amount and direction of tilt in the photo. Three angles are sufficient
to define angular orientation,
1. the tilt-swing-azimuth (t-s-) system
2. The omega-phi-kappa (, , ) system.
2- Angular Orientation In Tilt, Swing, and Azimuth

In the following figure:
exposure station L
principle point o
camera axis Lo
the vertical line Ln
The photographic nadir point n
The ground nadir point N g
The datum nadir point N d

Principal plane (vertical plane Lno)
Principal line no
Tilt t : is the angle t, or nLo between the optical axis and vertical line Ln.
Swing s: is defined as clockwise angle measured in the plane of the photograph
from the positive y-axis to downward or nadir end of the principal line.
Azimuth :is the clockwise angle measured from the ground Y axis (usually
North) to the datum principal line.
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Photogrammetry II
3- Coordinates systems for tilted photographs

In the following figure the x y coordinates system is an auxiliary coordinates system
used in tilted photographs.
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Photogrammetry II
its origin at the photographic nadir point n

y axis coincides with the principle line (positive in the direction from n to o).
Positive x is 90 clockwise from positive y
Conversion from the xy fiducial system to x y coordinates system:

-Rotation
-a translation of origin from o to n.
The coordinates of image point a after rotation are x and y , depending on the
measured fiducial coordinates of point a ( x a , y a ):
Auxiliary coordinates x - y is obtained by adding the translation distance on

to y ,
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Photogrammetry II
4- Angular Orientation In Omega-phi-kappa

As previously stated, besides the tilt-swing-azimuth system, angular orientation of a
tilted photograph can be expressed in terms of three rotation angles:
1. Omega
2. Phi
3. Kappa
(a) Rotation about the x axis through angle omega.

(b) Rotation about the y axis through angle phi.
(c) Rotation about the z2 axis through angle kappa.
5- Scale of tilted photographs

Vertical Photo: Variations in object distances were caused only by topographic
relief.
Tilted Photo: Relief variations also cause changes in scale, but scale in various parts
of the photo is further affected by the magnitude and angular orientation of the tile.
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Photogrammetry II
Scale on a tilted photograph for any point:
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Photogrammetry II
6- Ground coordinates from Tilted photographs

Using the above figure we have for X:
And for X:
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Photogrammetry II
7- Relief Displacement on A Tilted Photograph

1. Tilted Photo: Image displacements on tilted photographs caused by topographic
relief occur much the same as they do on vertical photos, except that relief
displacements on tilted photographs occur along radial lines from the nadir point.
2. Vertical Photo: Relief displacements on a truly vertical photograph are also
radial from the nadir point, but in that special case the nadir point coincides with
the principal point.
3. Relief displacement is zero for images at the nadir point and increases with
increased radial distances from the nadir.
Magnitude of relief displacement depends upon
flying height,
height of object,
amount of tilt, and
Location of the image in the photograph.
8- Determining the elements of the exterior orientation

The most common method is called space resection, using the collinearity equations, the
condition of collinearity is that the the exposure station of a photograph, object point, and
its photo image all lie in a straight line.
Where the collinearity equations are:

m ( X X L ) + m12 (Y A YL ) + m13 ( Z A Z L )
x a = xo f 11 A
m31 ( X A X L ) + m32 (Y A YL ) + m33 ( Z A Z L )
y a = yo f
m21 ( X A X L ) + m22 (YA YL ) + m23 ( Z A Z L )

1 -8

Photogrammetry II
Where ms in term of Omega ,Phi , and kappa . and Tilt, Swing , and Azimuth are :
The collinearity equations development:
The image coordinates x-y in the tilted photo with respect their corresponding
coordinates in the rotated image(vertical image):
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Photogrammetry II
If z a = f , divide D-2 and D-3 by D-4 , then
is cancelled, and we
add corrections of the principle point ( x0 , y 0 ). We get:
x a = xo f

y a = yo f

Or can be written as:
The values of Omega , Phi , kappa, tilt , swing and azimuth can be calculated as
follows:
1 -10

Photogrammetry II
9- Rectification of Tilted Photographs
Rectification is the process of making equivalent vertical photographs

from tilted photo negatives.
The resulting equivalent vertical photos are called rectified

photographs.
Rectified photos theoretically are truly vertical photos, and as such

they are free from displacements of images due to tilt.
Orthophoto rectification & Differential rectification

These relief displacements and scale variations can also be removed in
a process called differential rectification or orthorectification. the
resulting products are then called orthophotos. Orthophotos are often
preferred over rectified photos because of their superior geometric
quality.
10- Rectification Methods

1. Geometry of Rectification
This methods in never used
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Photogrammetry II
2. Analytic rectification
There are several methods available for performing analytical rectification each of
the analytical methods performs rectification point by point, and each requires that
sufficient ground control appear in the tilted photo. One method is the 2D projective
coordinates transformations that remove the effects of the small tilts.
XY: ground coordinates

_xy: photo coordinates
3. Optical-Mechanical Rectification
In practice, the optical-mechanical method is widely used, although digital methods are
rapidly surpassing this approach. The optical-mechanical method relies on instruments
called Rectifiers.
4. Digital rectification
Rectified photos can be produced by digital techniques that incorporate a
photogrammetric scanner and computer processing. This procedure is a special case of
the more general concept of georeferencing.
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Photogrammetry II
11- Correction of Relief for Ground Control Points used in Rectification

This procedure requires that the coordinates X L , YL , Z L which can be computed from
space resection, the X, Y, and Z (or h) coordinates for each ground control point be
known:
Coordinates of the displaced (image) point are computed by:
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Photogrammetry II
12- Atmospheric Correction in Tilted Photographs
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Photogrammetry II
1 -15

Photogrammetry II
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Photogrammetry II
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Photogrammetry II
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Photogrammetry II
Ch02: Analytical Photogrammetry
Ch02
Analytical
Photogrammetry
2 -1

Photogrammetry II
ANALYTICAL PHOTOGRAMMETRY
1- Introduction
1. Analytical photogrammetry is a term used to describe the rigorous mathematical
calculation of coordinates of points in object space based upon camera
parameters, measured photo coordinates and ground control.
2. Unlike the elementary methods presented in earlier chapters, this process
rigorously accounts for any tilts that exist in the photos. Analytical
photogrammetry generally involves the solution of large, complex systems of
redundant equations by the method of least squares.
3. Analytical photogrammetry forms the basis of many modem hardware and
software systems, including: stereoplotters (analytical and softcopy), digital
terrain model generation, orthophoto production, digital photo rectification, and
aerotriangulation.
4. This chapter presents an introduction to some fundamental topics and elementary
applications in analytical photogrammetry.
5. The coverage here is limited to computations involving single photos and
stereopairs
2- Image Measurements
1. A fundamental type of measurement used in analytical photogrammetry is an x
and y photo coordinate pair.
2. Since mathematical relationships in analytical photogrammetry are based on
assumptions such as "light rays travel in straight lines" and "the focal plane of a
frame camera is flat," various coordinate refinements may be required to correct
measured photo coordinates for distortion effects that otherwise cause these
assumptions to be violated.
3. A number of instruments and techniques are available for making photo
coordinate measurements.
3- Control Points
Object space coordinates of ground control points, which may be either imageidentifiable features, are generally determined via some type of field survey technique
such as GPS.
It is important that the object space coordinates be based on a three-dimensional
Cartesian system which has straight, mutually perpendicular axes.
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Photogrammetry II
4- Collinearity Condition
Perhaps the most fundamental and useful relationship in analytical photogrammetry is
the collinearity condition. Collinearity is the condition that the exposure station, any
object point, and its photo image all lie along a straight line in three-dimensional space.
xa = x0 f

y a = y0 f

Or written as:
F = 0 = qx a + rf
G = 0 = qy a + sf
Where:
q = m31 ( X A X L ) + m32 (Y A YL ) + m33 ( Z A Z L )
r = m11 ( X A X L ) + m12 (Y A YL ) + m13 ( Z A Z L )
s = m21 ( X A X L ) + m22 (Y A YL ) + m23 ( Z A Z L )
Using Taylor theorem the previous equations are linearized according to the
following form:
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Photogrammetry II
F
F
F
F
dxa +
d +
0 = ( F )0 +
d +

0
0
xa 0
d + F dX L
X
L 0
0
F
F
F
F
F
dYL +
dZ L +
dX A +
dYA +
dZ A
+
YL 0
Z L 0
X A 0
dYA 0
dZ A 0
G
G
G
G
d + G dX L
dxa +
d +
0 = (G ) 0 +
d +
0
0
X L 0
ya 0
0
G
G
G
G
G
dYL +
dZ L +
dX A +
dYA +
dZ A
+
YL 0
Z L 0
X A 0
dYA 0
dZ A 0
To simplify the solution, the following arrangements are applied to the equations
above:
1- dxa and dya are corrections for xa and ya measurements, so that they are treated
as residuals.
2- (F)o and (G)o are the evaluations of F and G using initial estimates for relative
orientation parameters.
This enables us to write equations (4-12-a) and (4-13-a) in the following form:
v xa = b11d + b12 d + b13 d b14 dX L b15 dYL

b16 dZ L + b14 dX A + b15 dYA + b16 dZ A + J
v ya = b21d + b22 d + b23 d b24 dX L b25 dYL
b26 dZ L + b24 dX A + b25 dYA + b26 dZ A + K
Where,
b11 =
x
( m33 Y + m32 Z ) + f ( m13 Y + m12 Z )
q
q
x
[X cos + Y (sin sin ) + Z ( sin cos )] + f [ X ( sin cos ) +
q
q
Y (sin cos cos ) + Z ( cos cos cos ) ]
b12 =
b13 =
f
(m21X + m22Y + m23Z )
q
b14 =
x
f
(m31 ) + (m11 )
q
q
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Photogrammetry II
b15 =
x
f
(m32 ) + (m12 )
q
q
b16 =
x
f
(m33 ) + (m13 )
q
q
J=
( F )0 (qx + rf )
=
q
q
y
( m33 Y + m32 Z ) + f ( m23 Y + m22 Z )
q
q
b21 =
y
[X cos + Y (sin sin ) + Z ( cos sin )] + f [ X (sin sin )
q
q
+ Y ( sin cos cos ) + Z (cos cos sin ) ]
f
b23 = ( m11 X m12 Y + m13 Z )
q
b22 =
b24 =
y
f
(m31 ) + (m21 )
q
q
b25 =
y
f
(m32 ) + (m22 )
q
q
b26 =
y
f
(m33 ) + (m23 )
q
q
K=
(G )0 (qy + sf )
=
q
q
Where,
X = X A X L
Y = YA YL
Z = Z A Z L
2 -5

Photogrammetry II
5- Coplanarity Condition
Coplanarity is the condition that the two exposure stations of a stereopair, any object
point, and its corresponding image points on the two photos all lie in a common plane. In
the figure below, points L1, L2, a1, a2 and A all lie in the same plane.
Epipolar plane: any plane containing the two exposure stations and an object point, in
this instance plane L1AL2

Epopolar line: the intersection of the epipolar plane with the left and right photoplanes.
Given the left photo location of image a1, its corresponding point a2 on the right photo is
known to lie along the right epipolar line. The coplanarity condition equation is:
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Photogrammetry II
6- Space Resection By Collinearity
Space resection is a method of determining the six elements of exterior
orientation (, , , XL, YL, and ZL) of a photograph.
This method requires a minimum of three control points, with known

XYZ object space coordinates, to be imaged in the photograph.
If the ground control coordinates are assumed to be known and fixed, then the linearized
forms of the space resection collinearity equations for a point A are :
b11d + b12 d + b13 d b14 dX L b15 dYL b16 dZ L = J + v xa
b21d + b22 d + b23 d b24 dX L b25 dYL b26 dZ L = J + v ya
Since the collinearity equations are nonlinear, and have been linearized using
Taylor's theorem, initial approximations are required for the unknown orientation
parameters.
For the typical case of near-vertical photography, zero values can be used as
initial approximations for and .
= = = 0
X L1 = X mean
YL1 = Ymean
Z L1 = H
For the photograph, we have 6 unknowns, and each control point has 2-observations
(x,y), so 3 control points give us exact solution, 4 control points or more we can apply
least squares solution. The matrix form for the solution, if we have four control points A,
B, C, and D, is:
2 -7

Photogrammetry II
A=
X =
L=
V=
Use Z L 0 = 650 ?
2 -8

Photogrammetry II
7- Space Intersection By Collinearity

If space resection is used to determine the elements of exterior orientation for both photos
of a stereopair, then object point coordinates for points that lie in the stereo overlap area
can be calculated.
The procedure is known as space intersection, so called because corresponding rays to

the same object point from the two photos must intersect at the point. So common point
with unknown ground coordinates (pass points) can be used in addition to the ground
control points that are still required for scaling and rotation of the model:
v xa = b11d + b12 d + b13 d b14 dX L b15 dYL
b16 dZ L + b14 dX A + b15 dYA + b16 dZ A + J
v ya = b21d + b22 d + b23 d b24 dX L b25 dYL
b26 dZ L + b24 dX A + b25 dYA + b26 dZ A + K
Each control point has 2-observations (x,y) in each photograph, this means in two
photographs we have 4-observations for each control or pass point. For each
photograph we have 6 unknowns, this means we have 12 unknowns for both
photographs, in addition for each pass point we have 3unknowns (X,Y,Z).
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Photogrammetry II
8- Analytical Stereomodel
1. Aerial photographs for most applications are taken so that adjacent photos overlap
by more than 55 percent. Two adjacent photographs that overlap in this manner
form a stereopair; and object points that appear in the overlap area constitute a
stereomodel.
2. The mathematical calculation of three-dimensional ground coordinates of points

in the stereomodel by analytical photogrammetric techniques forms an analytical
stereomodel
The process of forming an analytical stereomodel involves three primary steps:

1. Interior orientation,
2. Relative orientation, and
3. Absolute orientation.
After these three steps are achieved, points in the analytical stereomodel will have object
coordinates in the ground coordinate system.
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Photogrammetry II
9- Analytical Interior Orientation

Interior orientation for analytical photogrammetry is the step which mathematically
recreates the geometry that existed in the camera when a particular photograph was
exposed.
This requires camera calibration information as well as quantification of the effects of

atmospheric refraction. These procedures, commonly called photo coordinate
refinement.
The process are
1. With coordinates of fiducials and image points which have been measured by a
comparator or related device.
2. A 2D coordinate transformation is used to relate the comparator coordinates to the
fiducial coordinate system as well as to correct for film distortion.
3. The lens distortion and principal-point information from camera calibration are
then used to refine the coordinates so that they are correctly related to the
principal point and free from lens distortion.
4. Atmospheric refraction corrections can be applied to the photo coordinates to
complete the refinement,
5. Finish the interior orientation.
The observation equations for this mathematical model are:
ax + by + c = X + V x
dx + ey + f = Y + V y
where,
x and y are the machine coordinates.
X and Y are the fiducial coordinates.
V X and VY are the residuals in the observed values.
a through f are the transformation parameters.
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Photogrammetry II
The following matrix form represents the mathematical model of the two
dimensional affine coordinate transformation, when 4 fiducial points are used:
AX=L+V
Where,
x1
0
x2
0
A=
x3
0
x
4
0
y1
0
y2
0
y3
0
y4
0
0
x1
0
y1
0
0 x2
1 0
0 x3
0
y2
1 0
0 x4
0
y4
0
y3
0
v x1
X1
v
Y
1
a
y1
1
b
v x 2
X 2
0

v y2
c
Y2
1
, X = , L=
, V =
v x3
X3
0
d

e
1
v y 3
Y3
v
X
0
f
x4
4
1
v y 4
Y4
The least squares solution for the above parameters in matrix X is given by:
X= (ATA)-1ATL
10- Analytical Relative Orientation

Analytical relative orientation is the process of determining the relative angular attitude
and positional displacement between the photographs that existed when the photos were
taken. This involves defining certain elements of exterior orientation and calculating the
remaining ones. The resulting exterior orientation parameters will not be the actual values
that existed when the photographs were exposed; however, they will be correct in a
"relative sense" between the photos.
1. In analytical relative orientation, it is common practice to fix the exterior

orientation elements , , , XL, and YL of the left photo of the stereopair to zero
values.
2. Also for convenience, ZL of the left photo (ZL1) is set equal f of, and XL of the
right photo (XL2) is set equal to the photo base b.
3. This leaves five elements of the right photo that must be determined
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Photogrammetry II
Using collinearity equations and, with the input data of the coordinates of image
point in each photo, each point gives two equations in the left photo and two equations in
the right photo. Each point has three unknown model coordinates X, Y, and Z, in addition
to the five relative orientation unknown parameters ( 2 , 2 , k2, YL2, and ZL2). To solve
this system of equations the least number of pass points needed is n. The n is calculated
as follows:
4n=3n+5
Then
n=5
(minimum number of pass points)
The following matrix form is used:

AX=L+V
The least squares solution for parameter is solved using the following equation:
X= (ATA)-1ATL
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Photogrammetry II
If six pass points were used (A through F) for the solution, then matrix A is formed as
shown in the next page. X and L are as follows:
d 2
d 2
d
2
dY
L2
dZ L 2
dX A
dY
dZ A
A
dX B
dY B
dZ B
X = dX C
dY C
dZ C
dX D
dY
dZ D
D
dX
E
dY E
dZ E
dX
F
dY
F
dZ F 23 1
( J a )1
( K a )1
( J )
b 1
(
K
b )1
( J c )1
( K )
c 1
(
J
d )1
( K d )1
( J e )1
( K )
e 1
(
)1
J
( K f )
1
L=
(
)
J
a 2
( K a )2
( J b )2
( K )
b 2
(
)2
J
( K c )2
( J d )
( K )2
d 2
(
J
e )2
( K e )2
( J )
f 2
( K f )2
2 -14
241
(vxa )1
(v ya )
1
(
)
v
xb 1
(v yb )1
(v )
xc 1
(v yc )1
(vxd )1
(v yd )
1
(
)
v
xe 1
(v ye )1
(v )
xf 1
(v yf )1
V =
(vxa )2
(v )
ya 2
(vxb )2
(v yb )
(v )2
xc 2
(v yc )2
(vxd )2
(v )
yd 2
(v xe )2
(v ye )
2
( vxf )2
(v yf )2
241

Photogrammetry II
Where,
1, denotes the left photo.
2, denotes the right photo.
Showing the zero elements we have
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Photogrammetry II
2 -16

Photogrammetry II
11- Calculating model coordinates

After the solution of relative orientation parameters for the stereopair, the model
coordinates of any point can be calculated by using the collinearity equations. Since the
collinearity equations are non-linear equations, they have to be linearized to their model
coordinates, as described below:
m ( X X L ) + m12 (Y A YL ) + m13 ( Z A Z L )
xa = f 11 A
m ( X X L ) + m22 (YA YL ) + m23 (Z A Z L )

ya = f 21 A
m31 ( X A X L ) + m32 (YA YL ) + m33 (Z A Z L )

The above Equations are rearranged in following form:
F = xa + Vxa = f
r
q
G = ya + Vya = f
s
q
Where,
q = m31 ( X A X L ) + m32 (Y A YL ) + m33 ( Z A Z L )
r = m11 ( X A X L ) + m12 (Y A YL ) + m13 ( Z A Z L )
s = m21 ( X A X L ) + m22 (Y A YL ) + m23 ( Z A Z L )
Those equations can be solved for X, Y, and Z using least squares solution, since
there are four equations for x and y for any point in the two photos. The solution by using
least squares can be solved as follows:
AX=L+V
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Photogrammetry II
Where,
F1
X
G
1
A = X
F2
X
G
2
X
F1
Y
G1
Y
F2
Y
G2
Y
F1
Z
F1 F10
V x1
G1
dX
Z , X = dY , L = G1 G10 , V = V y1

F2
F2 F20
Vx 2
dZ 31
Z
V y 2 41
G2 G20 41
G2
Z 43
Where,
(q m11 r m31 )
F
= f
X
q2
(q m12 r m32 )
F
= f
Y
q2
(q m13 r m33 )
F
= f
Z
q2
(q m21 s m31 )
G
=f
X
q2
(q m22 s m32 )
G
=f
Y
q2
(q m23 s m33 )
G
=f
Z
q2
As discussed above the collinearity equations are non-linear equations, and can be
solved iteratively. The initial coordinates of the model points are calculated from the first
photo(with assumption of verticallity)as follows:
H
X mi = x
f
H
Ymi = y
f
Z mi = Z ave
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Photogrammetry II
12- Analytical Absolute Orientation

1. For a stereomodel computed from one stereopair, analytical absolute orientation
can be performed using a 3D conformal coordinate transformation.
2. This requires at least two horizontal and three vertical control points, but
additional control points provide redundancy, which enables a least squares
solution.
3. In the process of absolute orientation, stereomodel coordinates of control points
are related to their 3D coordinates in a ground based system. It is important for
the ground system to be a true Cartesian coordinate system, such as local vertical,
since the 3D conformal coordinate transformation is based on straight, orthogonal
axes.
In the three dimensional conformal coordinates transformation there are three

rotations , , and k about the three axes x, y, and z respectively(This is shown in the
figure below). Also, there are three translations Tx, Ty, and Tz, and a scale factor, thus
giving seven parameters. The transformation equations are developed as the follows:
Omega
Phi
Kappa
X P = s (m11 x p + m21 y p + m31 z p ) + Tx

YP = s (m12 x p + m22 y p + m32 z p ) + T y
Z P = s (m13 x p + m23 y p + m33 z p ) + Tz
Where,
s is the scale factor. Tx,Ty, and Tz are the translations in x, y, and z directions.
m's are functions of rotation angles , , and k. Their values are computed from the
following equations:
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Photogrammetry II
m11 = cos cos

m12 = sin sin cos + cos sin
m13 = cos sin cos + sin sin

m21 = cos sin
m22 = sin sin sin + cos cos
m23 = cos sin sin + sin cos

m31 = sin
m32 = sin cos
m33 = cos cos
If three full control points were used, the matrices form solution is:
AX=L+V
a11
a
21
a31
a 41
A = a51
a 61
a
71
a81
a
91
a12
a 22
a13
a 23
a14
a 24
a15
a 25
a16
a 26
a32
a33
a34
a35
a 36
a 42
a 43
a 44
a 45
a 46
a52
a53
a54
a55
a 56
a 62
a 63
a 64
a 65
a 66
a 72
a 73
a 74
a 75
a 76
a82
a92
a83
a93
a84
a94
a85
a95
a86
a 96
XP
YP
ds
d
ZP

d
XQ

X = d , L = YQ
dTx
ZQ
dT
XR
y
YR
dTz 71
Z
R
a17
a 27
a37
a 47
a57
a 67
a 77
a87
a97
( X P )0
VXp
V
(YP ) 0
Yp
( Z P )0
VZp
( X Q )0
VXQ
(YQ )0 , V = VYQ

( ZQ )0
VZQ
( X R )0
VXR
V
(YR ) 0
YR
( Z R )0 91
VZR 91
The least squares solution for the above system is:
2 -20

Photogrammetry II
X= (ATA)-1ATL
where,
a11 =
X
= m11 ( x p ) + m21 ( y p ) + m31 ( z p )
s
a12 =
X
=0
a13 =
X
= ( sin cos )( x p ) + sin sin ( y p ) + cos ( z p ) s
a15 =
X
=1
Tx
a16 =
X
=0
T y
a17 =
X
=0
Tz
a 21 =
Y
= m12 ( x p ) + m22 ( y p ) + m32 ( z p )
s
a 22 =
Y
= m13 ( x p ) m23 ( y p ) m33 ( z p ) s
a 23 =
Y
= ( sin cos cos )( x p ) + ( sin cos sin ( y p ) + (sin sin )( z p ) s
Y
= m22 ( x p ) m12 ( y p ) s
a 24 =
a 25 =
Y
=0
Tx
a 26 =
Y
=1
T y
a 27 =
Y
=0
Tz
a31 =
Z
= m13 ( x p ) + m23 ( y p ) + m33 ( z p )
s
a32 =
Z
= m12 ( x p ) + m22 ( y p ) + m32 ( z p ) s
2 -21

Photogrammetry II
V Xp
Z
= ( cos cos cos )( x p ) + (cos cos sin ( y p ) + ( cos sin )( z p ) s
Z
=
= m23 ( x p ) m13 ( y p ) s
a33 =
a34
a35 =
Z
=0
Tx
a 36 =
Z
=0
T y
a37 =
Z
=1
TZ
, VYp , VZp , .., and VZR are the residuals in the coordinates of the control points.
2 -22

Photogrammetry II
13- Analytical Self-Calibration

Analytical self-calibration is a computational process wherein camera calibration
parameters are included in the photogrammetric solution, generally in a combined

interior-relative-absolute orientation.
The process uses collinearity equations that have been augmented with additional terms
to account for adjustment of the calibrated focal length, principal-point offsets, and
symmetric radial and decentering lens distortion. In addition, the equations might
include corrections for atmospheric refraction as presented.
Where,
2 -23

Photogrammetry II
2 -24

Photogrammetry II
2 -25

Photogrammetry II
2 -26

Photogrammetry II
Ch03: Stereoplotters
Ch03
Stereoscopic
Plotting Instruments
3 -1

Photogrammetry II
STEREOPLOTTERS
1- Introduction
Stereoplotters (Stereoscopic plotting instruments) are instruments designed to
provide a rigorous solutions for object point positions from their corresponding image
positions on overlapping pairs of photos. In general, stereoplotters are manufactured to a
high degree of precision and accurate results may be obtained from them.
Transparencies or diapositives are prepared to exacting standards from the
negatives. Then, they are placed in two stereoplotter projectors, this process is called
interior orientation.
Through, a process called relative orientation, the two projectors are oriented so
that the diapositives bear the exact relative angular orientation to one another in the
projectors that the negatives had in the camera at the instant they were exposed. So that
light rays projected through the photos from the corresponding images on the left and
right photos intersect below. Thus, a stereo model is created.
After relative orientation is completed, absolute orientation is performed. In this
process the model is brought to the desired scale and leveled with respect to a reference
datum.
The stereoplotters combine three distinct systems:

(1) A projection system, which creates the true three-dimensional stereomodel.
(2) A viewing system, which makes it possible for an operator to see that model
(3) A measuring (or tracing) system, which enables measurements of the
stereomodel to be made and recorded.
3 -2

Photogrammetry II
2- Classifications of stereoplotters
Classifications methods of stereoplotters depend on common characteristics of
plotters, some of these methods are the following:
1-Classifications based on projections system:
A-Direct optical projection instruments: these instruments create
models using direct optical projection, and the operator can see the
model directly by his eyes.
B-Mechanical or optical-mechanical projections instruments: these
instruments create the three dimensional model using combinations of
optical and mechanical methods, and the operator can see the model
stereoscopically.
2-Clasifications based on accuracy capability: (first, second, third ), and this
classification is rarely used because accuracy is not a function of instrument only.
3-Clasifications based on analogue solution type:
A-approximate: these instruments assume a vertical photos, to create a three
dimensional model. When the photos were tilted accurate solution is not
achieved.
3 -3

Photogrammetry II
B-theoretically correct: these instruments deal with photos through the

operations of interior, relative and absolute orientation, accurate solution can
be achieved whether the photos were vertical or tilted.
4-Analytical stereoplotters: see item 3-4
5-Digital stereoplotters: see item 3-5
3- Direct Optical Projection Stereoplotters

The main parts are:
1. Main frame
2. Reference table
3. Tracing table
4. Platen
5. Guide rods
6. Projectors
7. Illumination lamps
8. Diapositives
9. Leveling screws
10. Projector bar
11. Tracing pencil
4- Projection System
Light rays projected through projector objective lenses
and intercepted below on platen
Requires operation in dark room
Lens formula must be satisfied
Intersection must occur within depth of field of

projector lens
To recreate relative angular relationships
3 -4

Photogrammetry II
Projectors must have rotational and translational movement capabilities

6 possible for each projector
5- Viewing Systems
Anaglyphic system: using color filters usually red and green, to separate the right
and the left projectors. If the green filter in the left projector and the red filter in
the right project, then if the user uses green glass in left eye and red glass in the
right eye, he will see 3D stereomodel.
-
Simple and cheap.
Using colored diapositives is precluded. And there is a Loss in model

color (model is not bright).
Stereo-image alternator (SIA): shutters are used in the left and right projectors.
These shutters run simultaneously with shutters in the corresponding eyes.
Polarized Viewing systems(PPV): similar to anaglyphic system but the use of

polarizing filters
6- Interior Orientation
Recreates geometry of the taking camera
Four steps
1. Centering diapositives on the projectors
2. Setting off the proper principal distance
3. Preparation of the diapositive
4. Compensation for image distortions
Preparation of the diapositive
Direct contact printing
Principal distance will equal focal length of taking camera
Projection printing
3 -5

Photogrammetry II
Seldom used today

Necessary for reduced-sized diapositives
Must meet the following:
Compensation for lens distortion

Use a correction plate in projection printing of diapositive, followed
by use of distortion-free lens
Vary the projector principal distance by means of a cam
Reconstructing true geometry
Use projector lens whose distortion characteristics negate cameras
distortion
7- Relative Orientation
Recreate the same relative relationship between diapositives that existed at the
time of the photography
Condition: each model point and the two projection centers form a plane in
miniature
Just like that which existed for the corresponding ground point and the
two exposure stations
Since px is a function of elevation, it can be removed by raising or lowering
platen (Z-wheel)
What remains is py removed using a rotational or translational element to a
projector on the stereoplotter
6 von Gruber points (pass points) used to clear y-parallax

5 points used to clear the model
6th point used to check the model
3 -6

Photogrammetry II
The possible movements of the projectors are:
There are two method to apply the relative orientation:

1- Independent method:
Both right and left projectors are used:
3 -7

Photogrammetry II
2- Dependent method:
8- Absolute Orientation
After relative orientation, a true 3-D model is formed, we have to Level model with
respect to datum, and the Unknown scale of model is fixed to the desired scale for
mapping
Selecting model scale:

Model scale constrained by scale of photography and limitations of stereoplotter
Model scale represented by
Recalling scale of photography, model scale can be represented as
When model scale determined, initial model air base is set off
More convenient before relative orientation
Scale closer to required model scale
Initial model base obtained by multiplying photo base by actual
enlargement ratio
Model scale changed by varying model base
If by and bz settings same for each projector, model base consists only of bx
motion
3 -8

Photogrammetry II
Scaling the model:

Minimum of 2 horizontal control points are needed
Unique solution no check
Place floating mark over point A and mark location on plotting sheet
Similarly for point B
Distance shown as AB
If AB does not equal AB, compute change to bx
-If by and bz not equal, need to move the right projector from position II
to II
Leveling the model:

Requires minimum of 3 vertical control pts.
No check
Proper gears must be placed in instrument for consistent vertical scale
Two components of tilt
3 -9

Photogrammetry II
Iterative procedures for leveling the models:

1. Set floating mare on model point A and index tracing table dial to read control
elevation of point
2. Read model elevation of control point D
3. If difference exists, X-tilt () applied
If model elevation is higher than control elevation, model is tilted up in
near
4. Repeat steps 1-3 until model is level in the direction from A to D
5. Reindex tracing table dial to read control elevation of point A with floating
mark set on model point A
6. Read model elevation of control point B
7. If model elevation does not agree with control elevation, introduce Y-tilt ( )
in similar fashion as set 3
8. Repeat steps 5-7 until model is level in that direction
9. Check point D to see if model elevation still conforms to control elevation
If line AD is not parallel to Y-axis of stereoplotter then it will be likely
not to conform
10.Check point C to see if model elevation conforms to control elevation
If elevation does not conform, may indicate an error in relative
orientation or blunder in the vertical control
3 -10

Photogrammetry II
Methods of introducing corrective tilts instrument dependent

Reference table may be tilted in X and Y directions making them
parallel to model datum
Using leveling screws to rotate projector bar
Introducing corrective tilts to each projector individually
3 -11

Photogrammetry II
9- Analytical stereoplotters
Most of operation in photogrammetry have been automated because of the use of
computers, which enabled to solve most of mathematics for photogrammetry, examples
of these operations are reading data from comparators digitally, and recording the output
data digitally. By linking encoders servo systems and computers, the analytical
stereoplotter had been developed.
The basic components of the analytical stereoplotters are as follows, see fig. (3-9):
1- Precise stereocomparator.
2- Coordinatograph.
3- Computer.
4- Servomotors and encoders to enable the computer to drive the other
components of analytical stereoplotter for photogrammetric operations.
Figure: Analytical stereoplotter

Analytical stereoplotters compute mathematical models using collinearity
equations, instead of using mechanical or optical models.
The input of analytical stereoplotter to solve collinearity equation can be classified into:
1- External input: to solve collinearity equations which consists of camera
interior orientation parameters and ground coordinates of control points.
2- Internal input: using the instrument itself to enter the image coordinates.
3 -12

Photogrammetry II
Then using these data and collinearity the computer calculates model and ground
coordinates and the output data are displayed on a screen or they are printed on a hard
copy, or transmitted to the coordinatograph.
Advantages of Analytical stereoplotters:

1- No optical and mechanical limitations.
2- Capable of using vertical, tilted, oblique, and high oblique photographs.
3- More accuracy is achieved because intersections of light rays do not use optical
or mechanical projections. They can also correct for camera lens distortions and
photo shrinkage and expansion, and they can consider atmospheric and earth
curvature corrections.
Analytical stereoplotters orientations
Similar to analogue instruments analytical plotters are oriented in three steps;
interior, relative and absolute orientation. The difference in these types of instruments lies
in the fact that these steps are simulated mathematically. In the analytical stereoplotters
computers guide the user to enter the necessary data for all operations, using the
keyboard for external data and stereocomparators for internal data.
Orientation of analytical stereoplotter is shown in the following steps, and described in
figure below:
A- Interior Orientation
Interior orientation using analytical stereoplotter can be implemented in the order below :
1-
Stereopair of photos with (x,y) and ( x , y ) fiducial coordinates are placed in

stereocomparators stages (x1,y1) and (x2,y2).
2-
Principle distances and fiducial coordinates are entered to the computers.
3-
Using stereocomparator pointing mark at least three fiducials are needed,

and its preferred to use more fiducial points for least squares solutions.
3 -13

Photogrammetry II
4-
Tow dimensional coordinates transformation is applied to convert

comparator stages coordinates (x1,y1) and (x2,y2) to fiducial coordinates
systems (x,y) and ( x , y ).
5-
Corrections of shrinkage and expansion are included in the coordinates

transformation.
6-
Principle point and lens distortion correction can also be considered.
7-
The calculated parameters of coordinates transformations are stored in the

computer.
Figure: Analytical Stereoplotter concepts

B- Relative Orientation
The following steps of relative orientation are implemented:
1.
(x,y) and ( x , y ) coordinates of at least five points are entered using the
stereocomparator stages .
2.
The collinearity equations are then solved to find out the relative orientation
parameters by using least squares solution.
3.
Relative orientation parameters are stored in the computer.

3 -14

Photogrammetry II
Using the relative orientation parameters the model coordinates ( X , Y , Z ) of any point
can be calculated by entering its fiducial coordinates (x,y) and ( x , y ) by using the
stereocomparator .
C- Absolute Orientation
At least two horizontal control points and three vertical control points are needed to
transform the model coordinates into ground coordinates through what is known as the
absolute Orientation step. Absolute orientation in the analytical stereoplotters is carried
out as follows:
1. Ground coordinates of control points are input to computer manually .
2. Their corresponding images (x,y) and (x,y) coordinates are input using the
stereocomparator .
3.
The computer calculates the model coordinates of the control points.
4. Three dimensional coordinates transformations are applied to covert model

coordinates to ground coordinates.
5. Parameters of absolute orientation are stored in the computer.
After computing the orientation parameters, ground coordinates (Xg,Yg,Zg) of any point
can be calculated by entering its fiducial coordinates (x,y) and ( x , y ).
3 -15

Photogrammetry II
10- Digital stereoplotter

The digital stereoplotter is a stereoplotter with digital input and output. They use
scanned image instead of hardcopy. The fundamental features are the fully digital
environment using digital images and the production of digital output in an interactive
and automated fashion.
A digital stereoplotter is definitely something other than an Analytical Plotter. In
1981 Sarjakoski defined the digital stereoplotter as analytical stereoplotter with images
stored in digital format. The concept goes much further and the major difference is the
availability of the image information in the computer and the potential for automating the
photogrammetric measurement and interpretation tasks in the fully digital system.
Digital photogrammetric workstation is not necessarily a part of a GIS system,
although some users prefer it to be a part of the GIS system. The output of digital
stereoplotter can be used as an input to the GIS.
The fundamental components of the digital stereoplotter are:
1- Computer, databases and graphics systems.
2- Interaction and automation.
3- The peripheral input and output devices.
3 -16

Photogrammetry II
3 -17

Photogrammetry II
Ch04: Close Range Photogrammetry By: Eng.Ghadi Zakarneh
Ch04
Close Range
Photogrammetry
4 -1

Photogrammetry II
CLOSE RANGE PHOTOGRAMMETRY

1- Introduction
Terrestrial photogrammetry is an important branch of the science of photogrammetry. It
deals with photographs taken with cameras located on the surface of the earth.
The term close-range photogrammetry is generally used for terrestrial photographs
having object distances up to about 300 m.
Terrestrial photography may be:
Static: photos of stationary objects. Stereopairs can be obtained by using a single
camera and making exposures at both ends of a baseline.
Or dynamic: photos of moving objects. Two cameras located at the ends of a
baseline must make simultaneous exposures.
2- Applications of Close Range photogrammetry
Surveying
Industry(e.g. aircraft manufacture)
Archeology
Medicine
..etc
H.W: write a report about an application of close range photogrammetry?

- Group of 2 students.
- Copy past from the internet is not allowed (your own writing).
- Students have to prepare a 10 minutes presentation.
- A 10 minutes discussion will be held.
- The report has 10% of your final result.
3- Terrestrial Cameras
Two general classifications:
Metric: for photogrammetric applications. They have fiducial marks. They
are completely calibrated before use. Their calibration values for focal
length, principal- point coordinates, and lens distortions can be applied
with confidence over long periods.
Non-metric: manufactured for amateur or professional photograph) where
pictorial quality is important but geometric accuracy requirements are
generally not considered paramount.
A phototheodolite is an instrument that incorporates a metric camera with a surveyors
theodolite. With this instrument, precise establishment of the direction of the optical axis
can be made.
4 -2

Photogrammetry II
A stereometric camera system consists of two identical metric cameras which

mounted at the ends of a bar of known length. The optical axes of the cameras
oriented perpendicular to the bar and parallel with each other. The length of the
provides a known baseline length between the cameras, which is important
controlling scale.
are
are
bar
for
4- Horizantal and Oblique Terrestrial Photos

Classification of terrestrial photos depending on the orientation of the camera :
Horizontal: if the camera axis is horizontal when the exposure is made. , the plane
of the photo is vertical. So if metric camera is used the x-axis is horizontal and the
the y-axis is vertical.
Oblique: the camera axis is inclined either up or down in an angle from

horizontal. If is upward is called elevation angle. If its downward it called
depressing angle.
4 -3

Photogrammetry II
5- Camera Inclination
Determining the angle of inclination of the camera axis of a terrestrial photo relies on the
following two fundamental principles of perspective geometry(as in the figure below):
1. Horizontal parallel lines intersect at a vanishing point on the horizon v.
2. Vertical parallel lines intersect at the nadir n (or zenith).
3. The line from n through the principal point o intersects the horizon at a right
angle at point k.
4 -4

Photogrammetry II
The phot coordinates system can be established as in the following figure, where:
1. The origin is k.
2. The x-axis is positive in the right side of the origin in the horizon line.
3. The y-axis is positive perpendicularly to x-axis upwards.
4 -5

Photogrammetry II
Two ways to determine the the depression angle:

First:
yo
f

y o = ko
y o = ko is negative(as in the figure above), else it is an
= tan
is depression angle if
elevation angle.
Second:
For the depression angle:
Where, n is the nadir point.
If the angle is elevation angle:
4 -6

Photogrammetry II
6- Horizontal and Vertical Angles
Horizontal angle between the vertical planes, (Laa), containing image point a and the
vertical plane, Lko, containing the camera axis is:
is positive if it is clockwise, and negative if it is counter clockwise.

Vertical angle a to image point a can be calculated from the following equation:
4 -7

Photogrammetry II
7- Camera axis and exposure station position

The method as explained in the figure below is called three point resection.
This needs the following steps:

1. Three known points horizontal positions (A,B,C) drawn to scale on a map plate.
2. has to be known.
3. The angles between the three points have to be calculated.
4. Graphical three-point resection procedure, using transparent template containing
the three rays and the camera axis.
5. The template is placed on the base map and adjusted in position and rotation until
the three rays simultaneously pass through their respective plotted control points.
6. the position of L is fixed according to the map coordinates system.
Other method, the position of L can be calculated resection problem numerically, as in
surveying.
The elevation of the exposure station is the height of the camera lens above the datum.
Assume that the position and elevation of point A are known. And a is calculated, then:
4 -8

Photogrammetry II
8- Location points by intersection from two photos
4 -9

Photogrammetry II
and can be determined by three points resection.

, , ,and a can be calculated as explained before.
Then the position of a point A is calculated as follows:
4 -10

Photogrammetry II
4 -11

Photogrammetry II
9- Analytical solution for close range photogrammetry

The analytical solution for close range photogrammetry can be applied using the same
methods in aerial photogrammetry, and this need the following steps:
1. Interior orientation using affine coordinates transformations, we
get xy-coordinates in the fiducial coordinates system.
2. Relative Orientation using collinearity equations, we get model
coordinates.
3. Absolute Orientation using 3D conformal coordinates
transformations. We ground coordinates X,Y, and elevations.
Important NOTE: in the relative orientation the X-axis is in the base between the
exposure stations. And the Z-axis is the line Vertical to the image plane. The Y-axis is
perpendicular to the XZ-plane, positive upwards. See figure below.
4 -12

Photogrammetry II
4 -13

Photogrammetry II
Ch05: Ground Control
Ch05
Ground Control
5-1

Photogrammetry II
GROUND CONTROL
1- Introduction
Photogrammetric control or ground control consists of any points whose positions are
known in an object- space reference coordinate system and whose images can be
positively identified in the photographs.
Photogrammetric control can be:
- Full control: X, Y, Z ground coordinates is known.
- Horizontal control: X, Y ground coordinates are only known.
- Vertical control: Z (elevations) is known.
Requirements of ground control:
- They should be sharp.
- They should be in favorable locations.
For Horizontal control, their horizontal positions on the photographs must be precisely
measured; images of horizontal control points must be very sharp and well defined.
Horizontal control are intersections of sidewalks, intersections of roads, manhole covers,
small lone bushes, isolated rocks, corners of buildings, fence corners, power poles, points
on bridges, intersections of small trails or watercourses, etc.
Images for vertical control need not be as sharp and well defined horizontally. Points
selected should be well defined vertically. Best vertical control points are small, flat or
slightly crowned areas. The small areas should have some natural features nearby, such
as trees or rocks, which help to strengthen stereoscopic depth perception. Large, open
areas such as the tops of grassy hills or open fields should be avoided.
2- Number and Location of Ground Control

Space resection problem: for determining the position and orientation of a tilted photo, a
minimum of three XYZ control points is required. The images of the control points
should ideally form a large, nearly equilateral triangle. Although three control points are
the required minimum for space resection, redundant control is recommended to increase
the accuracy of the Photogrammetric solution and to help detecting mistakes.
5-2

Photogrammetry II
In a strip it is recommended to have 2 horizontal and 3 vertical control points at each fifth
model.
In case of block adjustment, it is recommended to full control points at the beginning

and the end of each strip, horizontal and vertical control have to be well distributed
within the block.
5-3

Photogrammetry II
3- Planning the Control Survey

The control points should have accuracy much better than required accuracy of the
produced map. One method is using National map accuracy standards (NMAS):
1. Horizontal control:
- At least 90% of the palnimetric features are required to be plotted within
1
inch or (0.8mm) of their true position. If the map scale is larger than
30
1:20,000.
- At least 90% of the palnimetric features are required to be plotted within
1
inch or (0.5mm) of their true position. If the map scale is smaller

50
than 1:20,000
1
1
- The Horizantal control accuracy should not be greater than or of the
4
3
map accuracy.
Example:
If it is required to have a map plotted with scale 1:600, what is the required horizontal
control accuracy?
0.8 mm is equivalent to 0.48m
This mean the accuracy of the Horizontal control should be m 0.16 m
2. Vertical control: 90% of the points should be within 0.5 of the contour interval.
The vertical control should be better than 0.2 or 0.1 of the contour interval.
4- Field Survey methods
Traverse
5-4

Photogrammetry II
Triangulation
GPS
Differential Leveling
Trigonometric leveling
5-5

Photogrammetry II
5- Artificial Targets
In some areas such as prairies, forests, and deserts, natural points suitable for
Photogrammetric control may not exist. In these cases artificial points called panel points
may be placed on the ground prior to taking the aerial photography. Their positions are
then determined by field survey or in some cases by aerotriangulation. This procedure is
called premarking or paneling.
Advantages of artificial targets:
Excellent image quality.
Unique appearance.
Disadvantages:
Extra work and expenses
The can be moved before taking the photographs, the position is changed, this
leads to wrong solutions.
They may not appear in a favorable location in the photographs.
The targets should have a good color contrast. This can be achieved by using light colors
on dark backgrounds.
A typical shape is shown in the following figure.
The target has a central size D of 0.03 to 0.1 mm depending on the photo scale. And the
legs have the size of DX5D.
Example:
If the photo scale is 1:12000 is planned. What should be the artificial target size, if its
photo size is required to be 0.05mm?
0.05mm is equivalent 0.6m
Other known shapes of the artificial targets are shown in the figure below.
5-6

Photogrammetry II
5-7

Photogrammetry II
Ch06: Aerotriangulation
Ch06
Aerotriangulation
6 -1

Photogrammetry II
AEROTRIANGULATION
1- Introduction
Aerotriangulation is the term most frequently applied to the process of determining the
X, Y, and Z ground coordinates of individual points based on photo coordinate
measurements.
The photogrammetric procedures discussed so far were restricted to one stereo model. It
is quite unlikely that a photogrammetric project is covered by only two photographs,
however. Most mapping projects require many models; large projects may involve as
many as one thousand photographs, medium sized projects hundreds of photographs.
Advantages of Aerotriangulation
1. Minimizing the field surveying by minimizing the number of required control
points.
2. Most of work is done in laboratory.
3. Access to the property of project area is not required.
4. Field survey in steep and high slope areas is minimized.
5. Accuracy of the field surveyed control points can easily be verified by
aerotriangulation.
Classifications of Aerotriangulation processes
1. Analog: involved manual interior, relative, and absolute orientation of the
successive models of long strips of photos using stereoscopic plotting instruments
having several projectors.
2. Semianalytical aerotriangulation: involves manual interior and relative orientation
of stereomodels within a stereoplotter, followed by measurement of model
coordinates. Absolute orientation is performed numerically hence the term
semianalytical aerotriangulation.
3. Analytical methods :consist of photo coordinate measurement followed by
numerical interior, relative, and absolute orientation from which ground
coordinates are computed.
2- Pass points for aerotriangulation

The points may be images of natural, well-defined objects that appear in the required
photo areas, but if such points are not available, pass points may be artificially marked by
using a special stereoscopic point-marking device.
6 -2

Photogrammetry II
3- Semianalytical Aerotriangulation
Often referred to as independent model aerotriangulation.

It is a partly analog and partly analytical procedure.
Manual relative orientation in a stereoplotter of each stereomodel of a strip or
block of photos.
Models are numerically adjusted to the ground system by either a sequential or a
simultaneous method.
3-1 Independent model Sequential method
In the sequential approach to semianalytical aerotriangulation, each stereopair of a

strip is relatively oriented in a stereoplotter, the coordinate system of each model
being independent of the others.
Model coordinates of all control points and pass points are read and recorded in
each individual stereomodel.
Coordinates of the perspective centers (model exposure stations) are also
measured to get good geometric solution. Each independent model and included
as common points in the transformation.
6 -3

Photogrammetry II
As in figure below of common points d, e, f, and O2 of model 2-3 are made to

coincide with their corresponding model 1-2 coordinates. Once the parameters for
this transformation have been.
Using these points the parameters of the 3D coordinates transformations are
calculated.
parameters are applied to the coordinates of points g, h, i, and O3 in the system of
model 2-3 to obtain their coordinates in the model 1-2 system. These points are
used to apply the transformation between model 2-3 and 3-4.
And repeat the process for successive models.
All models have the coordinate system of the first model.
6 -4

Photogrammetry II
Adjustment of strip model to ground coordinates

To transform from model coordinates to ground coordinates 3D conformal
coordinates transformation can applied. To find the parameters of the 3D conformal
coordinate transformation 3 full control points are needed as minimum, or at least 2
horizontal and 3 vertical control points.
Random errors will accumulate in a systematic manner in long strips. So control
points in the first model are used to orient it to the ground system. The other control
points are used as check points to represent the errors as smooth curves.
An example of polynomial representation of the errors is shown in the equation

below. These equations have 30 parameters, so we need at least 10 full control points
to find these parameters for the strip.
After calculating the parameters, for any new point, the adjusted coordinates are
calculated directly by measuring the model coordinates XYZ of the point.
6 -5

Photogrammetry II
3-2 Independent models Simultinuous Aerotriangulation

Simultaneous transformation method is applied using three dimensional coordinates
transformation:
This has 7 parameters:

- Scale factor S.
- Three rotations ( , , k ) .
- And three translations (TX , TY , TZ ) .
For the figure below we have 6 models, this means we have 6X7=42 parameters. This
needs at least 42 observation equations to solve for the unknown parameters.
6 -6

Photogrammetry II
For the figure, each control point provides 3 observation equations. As follows:
We have 6 control control point A-F, this gives us 6X3=18 equation.

Other type of observation equations is for the pass or tie points and the exposure stations
points; these points coordinates are equal for the both common models. These equations
are written as follows:
The common points are as follows:

- O2 , O3 , O6 , O7 are common points between 2 models , so we have 4X3=12
observation equations.
- Points 3,6,7,9,10,15,14,12,11,18 are common between 2 models, so we have
10X3=30 observation equations.
- Points B and E are common between 2 models, so we have 2X3=6 observation
equations.
- points 8 and 13 are common between 4models, so we can make 6 model
combimations, so we have 2X6X3=36 observation equations.
The total number of observation equations=24+12+30+6+36=108 observation
equations.
4- Analytical Aerotriangulation
analytical aerotriangulation consist of the following basic steps:
(1) Relative orientation of each stereomodel.
(2) Connection of adjacent models to form continuous strips and/or blocks.
(3) Simultaneous adjustment of the photos from the strips and/or blocks to fieldsurveyed ground control.
Advantages of Aerotriangulation:
Analytical aerotriangulation tends to be more accurate than analog or
semianalytical methods, largely because analytical techniques can more
effectively eliminate systematic errors such as film shrinkage, atmospheric
refraction distortions, and camera lens distortions.
X and Ycoordinates of pass points can be located to an accuracy of within
about 1 / 15,000 of the flying height, and Z coordinates can be located to
an accuracy of about 1/10,000 of the flying height.
6 -7

Photogrammetry II
planmetric accuracy of 1/350,000 of the flying height and vertical

accuracy of 1 / 180,000 have been achieved.
Freedom from the mechanical or optical limitations imposed by
stereoplotters.
5- Simultaneous Bundle Adjustment

Bundle adjustment is The process to adjust all photogranimetric measurements to ground
control values in a single solution.
The process is so named because of the many light rays that pass through each lens
position constituting a bundle of rays. As shown in the figure below.
The solution depends basically on the collinearity condition, where the collinearity
equations are:
The solution of the above equations give the exterior orientation parameters of all images
included in the adjustment (omega, phi, kappa, XL,YL,ZL).
For the adjustment we have:
- 2 observations(x,y) for any control or tie point in the photo.
- 6 unknowns for each photo (omega, phi, kappa, XL, YL, ZL).
- 3 unknowns for each tie point; ground coordinates(X, Y, and Z).
6 -8

Photogrammetry II
Example:
For the bundle adjustment of the following for images, what is the number of unknowns,
observations, and how will the design matrix A appear?
Number of observations:
4 x 6 x 2 = 48 observations (collinearity equations).
Number of unknowns:
4 x 6 + 3 x 4 = 36 unknowns
6 -9

Photogrammetry II
Example:
For the following model what is the number of unknowns, observations, and how will the
design matrix A appear?
6 -10

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6 -11

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6 -12

Photogrammetry II
Ch07: Project Planning
Ch07
Project Planning
7 -1

Photogrammetry II
PROJECT PLANNING
1- Introduction
When a project is planned the following should be considered:
Scales
Accuracies
The project planning has the following catogories:
Planning aerial photography
Planning ground control
Selecting instruments and procedures to achieve desired results
Estimating costs and delivery schedules
The flight planning has two part:
1. Flight map : Shows where photos are to be taken
2. Specifications : how the photos will be taken
Camera and film requirements
Scale
Flying height
End and side lap
Tilt and crab tolerances
2- Endlap and Sidelap

percent of Endlap : overlapping successive photos. Normally 60% and minimum value
50%.
Percent of Sidelap: overlapping adjacent flight strips. Normally 30%.
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Photogrammetry II
Problem in Endlap and Sidelap appear according to the following reasons:

1. Tilt
2. Flying height variations
3. Terrain variations: the endlap and sidelap should be tested at the maximum
terrain height.
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Photogrammetry II
4. crab
Example:
Air base of a stereopair is 1400 m and flying height above average ground is 2440 m.
Camera has a 152.4 mm focal length and 23-cm format. What is the percent end lap?
7 -4

Photogrammetry II
Example:
Assume spacing between adjacent flight lines is 2500 m in the previous example. What is
the percent side lap?
3- Base Height Ratio

The effect of using wide or super-wide-angle camera is represented by the base height
ratio:
Larger B/H gives greater parallactic angles between intersecting light
Rays.
Errors
Increase with increasing flying height
Decrease with increasing x parallax
For mosaics: relief displacement, tilt and Displacement & scale variation degrade
pictorial qualities:
Minimized by decreasing B/H ratio using larger flying height.
- Increase flying height reduces scale but can use longer focal length camera to
keep the scale of the photo (f / H).
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Photogrammetry II
4- Photo Scale
- depending the film and ground resolution.
Example:
Using aerial photos to study centerline markings. Actual width of painted centerline is
100 mm (4). A high-resolution (80 line pair per millimeter) film used. What is minimum
photo scale required?
- if the Stereoplottor has enlargement capabilities (zooming)

Example:
A map will be compiled at a scale of 1:6,000. What is the photo scale if a 5 times
enlargement will be used?
Example:
Assume point to be plotted correctly within 1/30in with accuracy of 2ft, a stereoplotter
with 5-enlargement capabilities?
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Photogrammetry II
5- C-Factor & Contours

Empirical measure of contouring accuracy of a stereoplotter, Defined as:
Some stereoplotters and their C-factor:
Map scale and contour interval:
Example:
A topographic map has a scale of 1=200 with a 5 contour interval is to be compiled on
a stereoplotter having a nominal 6 focal principal distance. Determine the flying height
for the photography if the maximum values for the C-factor and enlargement ration are
1500 and 5 respectively.
7 -7

Photogrammetry II
Rule of thumb: Ratio of flying height above ground to the accuracy to which spot
elevations can be reliably read is ~ 5000
Example:
If spot heights are to be accurate to m,
6- Computed Photo Scale
Example:
Area to be mapped with 2 contour interval using a 6 focal length camera having a
maximum radial distortion of 8 m , with mapping on a Kelsh plotter in average condition
with an excellent operator, using analytics developed from a polynomial adjustment
method, bridging over 3 models?
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Photogrammetry II
7- Ground Coverage
7 -9

Photogrammetry II
7 -10

Photogrammetry II
8- Flight Plan
To determine the number of strips needed to cover the area, and the number of photos per
area.
7 -11

Photogrammetry II
Solution:
Ground coverage:
12000
= 2800m
1
The distance separating strips = W (Dimension of the Neat model):
30
W = 1
2800 = 1900m
100
The distance between two successive exposure stations=B(Airbase) :
60
B = 1
2800 = 1120 1100m
100
G = 0.23
Number of Strips:
Number of Strips =
Area width 10500

=
= 5.52 6 strips
W
1900
Number of models/strip:
Number of models/strip =
Area Length 16000

=
= 14.54 15 mod el
B
1100
Number of photos/strip= (Number of model/strip+1)= 16 photo.

It is recommended to have 2 photo before the strip and 2 after the strip. Then Number of
photos/strip=16+4=20.
Total Number of Photos= Number of photos/strip X Number of strips= 20X6=120.
7 -12

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7 -13

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7 -14

Photogrammetry II
Appendix: Map Testing & Standards

FGDC-STD-007.3-1998
Geospatial Positioning Accuracy Standards

Part 3: National Standard for Spatial Data Accuracy
Subcommittee for Base Cartographic Data

Federal Geographic Data Committee

Department of Agriculture Department of Commerce Department of Defense Department of Energy
Department of Housing and Urban Development Department of the Interior Department of State
Department of Transportation Environmental Protection Agency
Federal Emergency Management Agency Library of Congress
National Aeronautics and Space Administration National Archives and Records Administration
Tennessee Valley Authority
Photogrammetry II

Established by Office of Management and Budget Circular A-16, the Federal Geographic Data Committee
(FGDC) promotes the coordinated development, use, sharing, and dissemination of geographic data.
The FGDC is composed of representatives from the Departments of Agriculture, Commerce, Defense,
Energy, Housing and Urban Development, the Interior, State, and Transportation; the Environmental
Protection Agency; the Federal Emergency Management Agency; the Library of Congress; the National
Aeronautics and Space Administration; the National Archives and Records Administration; and the
Tennessee Valley Authority. Additional Federal agencies participate on FGDC subcommittees and
working groups. The Department of the Interior chairs the committee.
FGDC subcommittees work on issues related to data categories coordinated under the circular.
Subcommittees establish and implement standards for data content, quality, and transfer; encourage the
exchange of information and the transfer of data; and organize the collection of geographic data to reduce
duplication of effort. Working groups are established for issues that transcend data categories.
For more information about the committee, or to be added to the committee's newsletter mailing list,
please contact:
Federal Geographic Data Committee Secretariat
c/o U.S. Geological Survey
590 National Center
Reston, Virginia 22092
Telephone: (703) 648-5514
Facsimile: (703) 648-5755
Internet (electronic mail): gdc@usgs.gov
Anonymous FTP: ftp://fgdc.er.usgs.gov/pub/gdc/
World Wide Web: http://fgdc.er.usgs.gov/fgdc.html
3-ii
Photogrammetry II

CONTENTS

FGDC-STD-007.3-1998
Page
3.1
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.1
Objective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.2
Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.3
Applicability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.4
Related Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.5
Standards Development Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.6
Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3-1
3-1
3-1
3-1
3-1
3-2
3-3
3.2
Testing Methodology And Reporting Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.2.1
Spatial Accuracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.2
Accuracy Test Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.3
Accuracy Reporting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3-4
3-4
3-4
3-5
3.3
NSSDA and Other Map Accuracy Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-8
Appendices
Appendix 3-A. Accuracy Statistics (normative) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-9
Appendix 3-B Horizontal Accuracy Computations (informative) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-12
Appendix 3-C. Testing guidelines (informative) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-16
Appendix 3-D. Other Accuracy Standards (informative) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-19
Tables
1.
Accuracy Calculations for Crider, Kentucky USGS 1:24,000-scale Topographic Quadrangle

RMSEx = RMSEy assumed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-14
2.
Accuracy Computations for Crider, Kentucky USGS 1:24,000-scale Topographic Quadrangle

RMSEx RMSEy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-15
3.
ASPRS Accuracy Standards for Large-Scale Maps, Class 1 horizontal (x or y) limiting RMSE for
various map scales at ground scale for feet units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-23
4.
ASPRS Accuracy Standards for Large-Scale Maps, Class 1 horizontal (x or y) limiting RMSE for
various map scales at ground scale for metric units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-24
3-iii
Photogrammetry II

3.1
Introduction
3.1.1
Objective

FGDC-STD-007.3-1998
The National Standard for Spatial Data Accuracy (NSSDA) implements a statistical and testing
methodology for estimating the positional accuracy of points on maps and in digital geospatial data,
with respect to georeferenced ground positions of higher accuracy.
3.1.2
Scope
The NSSDA applies to fully georeferenced maps and digital geospatial data, in either raster, point,
or vector format, derived from sources such as aerial photographs, satellite imagery, and ground
surveys. It provides a common language for reporting accuracy to facilitate the identification of
spatial data for geographic applications.
This standard is classified as a Data Usability Standard by the Federal Geographic Data Committee
Standards Reference Model . A Data Usability Standard describes how to express the applicability
or essence of a dataset or data element and includes data quality, assessment, accuracy, and
reporting or documentation standards (FGDC, 1996, p. 8)
This standard does not define threshold accuracy values. Agencies are encouraged to establish
thresholds for their product specifications and applications and for contracting purposes. Ultimately,
users identify acceptable accuracies for their applications. Data and map producers must determine
what accuracy exists or is achievable for their data and report it according to NSSDA.
3.1.3
Applicability
Use the NSSDA to evaluate and report the positional accuracy of maps and geospatial data produced,
revised, or disseminated by or for the Federal Government. According to Executive Order 12906,
Coordinating Geographic Data Acquisition and Access: the National Spatial Data Infrastructure
(Clinton, 1994, Sec. 4. Data Standards Activities, item d), Federal agencies collecting or producing
geospatial data, either directly or indirectly (e.g. through grants, partnerships, or contracts with
other entities), shall ensure, prior to obligating funds for such activities, that data will be collected
in a manner that meets all relevant standards adopted through the FGDC process.
Accuracy of new or revised spatial data will be reported according to the NSSDA. Accuracy of
existing or legacy spatial data and maps may be reported, as specified, according to the NSSDA or
the accuracy standard by which they were evaluated.
3.1.4
Related Standards
Data producers may elect to use conformance levels or accuracy thresholds in standards such as the
National Map Accuracy Standards of 1947 (U.S. Bureau of the Budget, 1947) or Accuracy Standards
for Large-Scale Maps [American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing (ASPRS)
Specifications and Standards Committee, 1990] if they decide that these values are truly applicable
3-1
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FGDC-STD-007.3-1998
for digital geospatial data.

Positional accuracy of geodetically surveyed points is reported according to Part 2, Standards for
Geodetic Control Networks (Federal Geographic Data Committee, 1998), Geospatial Positioning
Accuracy Standards.
Ground coordinates of points collected according to Standards and
Specifications for Geodetic Control Networks (Federal Geodetic Control Committee, 1984) are used
in the National Spatial Reference System (NSRS). NSRS is a consistent national coordinate system
that defines latitude, longitude, height, scale, gravity, and orientation throughout the Nation, and
how these values change with time. Consequently, it ties spatial data to georeferenced positions.
NSRS points may be selected as an independent source of higher accuracy to test positional accuracy
of maps and geospatial data according to the NSSDA.
Part 4, Standards for A/E/C and Facility Management (Facilities Working Group, 1997), uses the
NSSDA for accuracy testing and verification. The NSSDA may be used for fully georeferenced
maps for A/E/C and Facility Management applications such as preliminary site planning and
reconnaissance mapping.
3.1.5
Standards Development Procedures

The National Standard for Spatial Data Accuracy was developed by the FGDC ad hoc working
group on spatial data accuracy, with the intent to update the United States National Map Accuracy
Standards (NMAS) (U.S. Bureau of the Budget, 1947). The ASPRS Accuracy Standards for LargeScale Maps (ASPRS Specifications and Standards Committee, 1990) formed the basis for update
of the NMAS. The NSSDA, in its former version as the draft National Cartographic Standards for
Spatial Accuracy (NCSSA), extended the ASPRS Accuracy Standards to map scales smaller than
1:20,000. The NCSSA were released for public review through the Federal Geographic Data
Committee and were substantially rewritten as a result.
The geospatial data community has diversified to include many data producers with different product
specifications and many data users with different application requirements. The NSSDA was
developed to provide a common reporting mechanism so that users can directly compare datasets for
their applications. It was realized that map-dependent measures of accuracy, such as publication
scale and contour interval, were not fully applicable when digital geospatial data can be readily
manipulated and output to any scale or data format. Principal changes included requirements to
report numeric accuracy values; a composite statistic for horizontal accuracy, instead of component
(x,y) accuracy, and alignment with emerging Federal Geographic Control Subcommittee (FGCS)
accuracy standards (FGDC, 1998). The NCSSA was renamed the National Standard for Spatial Data
Accuracy to emphasize its applicability to digital geospatial data as well as graphic maps.
3-2
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3.1.6

FGDC-STD-007.3-1998
Maintenance
The U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), National Mapping Division,
maintains the National Standard for Spatial Data Accuracy (NSSDA) for the Federal Geographic
Data Committee. Address questions concerning the NSSDA to: Chief, National Mapping Division,
USGS, 516 National Center, Reston, VA 20192.
3-3
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3.2
Testing Methodology And Reporting Requirements
3.2.1
Spatial Accuracy

FGDC-STD-007.3-1998
The NSSDA uses root-mean-square error (RMSE) to estimate positional accuracy. RMSE is the
square root of the average of the set of squared differences between dataset coordinate values and
coordinate values from an independent source of higher accuracy for identical points1.
Accuracy is reported in ground distances at the 95% confidence level. Accuracy reported at the 95%
confidence level means that 95% of the positions in the dataset will have an error with respect to true
ground position that is equal to or smaller than the reported accuracy value. The reported accuracy
value reflects all uncertainties, including those introduced by geodetic control coordinates,
compilation, and final computation of ground coordinate values in the product.
3.2.2
Accuracy Test Guidelines

According to the Spatial Data Transfer Standard (SDTS) (ANSI-NCITS, 1998), accuracy testing by
an independent source of higher accuracy is the preferred test for positional accuracy.
Consequently, the NSSDA presents guidelines for accuracy testing by an independent source of
higher accuracy. The independent source of higher accuracy shall the highest accuracy feasible and
practicable to evaluate the accuracy of the dataset.2
The data producer shall determine the geographic extent of testing. Horizontal accuracy shall be
tested by comparing the planimetric coordinates of well-defined points3 in the dataset with
coordinates of the same points from an independent source of higher accuracy. Vertical accuracy
shall be tested by comparing the elevations in the dataset with elevations of the same points as
determined from an independent source of higher accuracy.
Errors in recording or processing data, such as reversing signs or inconsistencies between the dataset
and independent source of higher accuracy in coordinate reference system definition, must be
corrected before computing the accuracy value.
A minimum of 20 check points shall be tested, distributed to reflect the geographic area of interest
and the distribution of error in the dataset.4 When 20 points are tested, the 95% confidence level
allows one point to fail the threshold given in product specifications.
see Appendix 3-A
see Appendix 3-C, section 2
3-4
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FGDC-STD-007.3-1998
If fewer than twenty points can be identified for testing, use an alternative means to evaluate the
accuracy of the dataset. SDTS (ANSI-NCITS, 1998) identifies these alternative methods for
determining positional accuracy:
Deductive Estimate
Internal Evidence
Comparison to Source
3.2.3
Accuracy Reporting
Spatial data may be compiled to comply with one accuracy value for the vertical component and
another for the horizontal component. If a dataset does not contain elevation data, label for
horizontal accuracy only. Conversely, when a dataset, e.g. a gridded digital elevation dataset or
elevation contour dataset, does not contain well-defined points, label for vertical accuracy only.
A dataset may contain themes or geographic areas that have different accuracies.
guidelines for reporting accuracy of a composite dataset:
Below are
If data of varying accuracies can be identified separately in a dataset, compute and report
separate accuracy values.
If data of varying accuracies are composited and cannot be separately identified AND the
dataset is tested, report the accuracy value for the composited data.
If a composited dataset is not tested, report the accuracy value for the least accurate dataset
component.
Positional accuracy values shall be reported in ground distances. Metric units shall be used when
the dataset coordinates are in meters. Feet shall be used when the dataset coordinates are in feet.
The number of significant places for the accuracy value shall be equal to the number of significant
places for the dataset point coordinates.
Accuracy reporting in ground distances allows users to directly compare datasets of differing scales
or resolutions. A simple statement of conformance (or omission, when a map or dataset is nonconforming) is not adequate in itself. Measures based on map characteristics, such as publication
scale or contour interval, are not longer adequate when data can be readily manipulated and output
to any scale or to different data formats.
Report accuracy at the 95% confidence level for data tested for both horizontal and vertical accuracy
as:
Tested ____ (meters, feet) horizontal accuracy at 95% confidence level
____ (meters, feet) vertical accuracy at 95% confidence level
3-5
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FGDC-STD-007.3-1998
Use the compiled to meet statement below when the above guidelines for testing by an independent
source of higher accuracy cannot be followed and an alternative means is used to evaluate accuracy.
Report accuracy at the 95% confidence level for data produced according to procedures that have
been demonstrated to produce data with particular horizontal and vertical accuracy values as:
Compiled to meet ____ (meters, feet) horizontal accuracy at 95% confidence level
____ (meters, feet) vertical accuracy at 95% confidence level
Report accuracy for data tested for horizontal accuracy and produced according to procedures that
have been demonstrated to comply with a particular vertical accuracy value as:
Tested ____ (meters, feet) horizontal accuracy at 95% confidence level
Compiled to meet ____ (meters, feet) vertical accuracy at 95% confidence level
Show similar labels when data are tested for vertical accuracy and produced according to procedures
that have been demonstrated to produce data with a particular horizontal accuracy value.
For digital geospatial data, report the accuracy value in digital geospatial metadata (Federal
Geographic Data Committee, 1998, Section 2), as appropriate to dataset spatial characteristics:
(Data_Quality_Information/Positional_Accuracy/Horizontal_Positional_Accuracy/Horizontal_Po
sitional_Accuracy_Assessment/Horizontal_Positional_Accuracy_Value)
and/or
(Data_Quality_Information/Positional_Accuracy/Vertical_Positional_Accuracy/Vertical_Position
al_Accuracy_Assessment/Vertical_Positional_Accuracy_Value)
Enter the text National Standard for Spatial Data Accuracy for these metadata elements (Federal
sitional_Accuracy_Assessment/Horizontal_Positional_Accuracy_Explanation)
and/or
al_Accuracy_Assessment/Vertical_Positional_Accuracy_Explanation)
Regardless of whether the data was tested by a independent source of higher accuracy or evaluated
for accuracy by alternative means, provide a complete description on how the values were determined
in metadata, as appropriate to dataset spatial characteristics (Federal Geographic Data Committee,
1998, Section 2):
sitional_Accuracy_Report)
and/or
al_Accuracy_Report)
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3.3

FGDC-STD-007.3-1998
NSSDA and Other Map Accuracy Standards

Accuracy of new or revised spatial data will be reported according to the NSSDA. Accuracy of
existing or legacy spatial data and maps may be reported, as specified, according to the NSSDA or
the accuracy standard by which they were evaluated. Appendix 3-D describes root mean square
error (RMSE) as applied to individual x-, y- components, former NMAS, and ASPRS Accuracy
Standards for Large-Scale Maps. These standards, their relationships to NSSDA, and accuracy
labeling are described to ensure that users have some means to assess positional accuracy of spatial
data or maps for their applications.
If accuracy reporting cannot be provided using NSSDA or other recognized standards, provide
information to enable users to evaluate how the data fit their applications requirements. This
information may include descriptions of the source material from which the data were compiled,
accuracy of ground surveys associated with compilation, digitizing procedures, equipment, and
quality control procedures used in production.
No matter what method is used to evaluate positional accuracy, explain the accuracy of coordinate
measurements and describe the tests in digital geospatial metadata (Federal Geographic Data
Committee, 1998, Section 2) , as appropriate to dataset spatial characteristics:
sitional_Accuracy_Report)
and/or
al_Accuracy_Report)
Provide information about the source data and processes used to produce the dataset in data elements
of digital geospatial metadata (Federal Geographic Data Committee, 1998, Section 2) under
(Data_Quality_Information/Lineage).
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FGDC-STD-007.3-1998
References
American National Standards Institute, Information Technology - Spatial Data Transfer Standard (SDTS)
(ANSI-NCITS 320:1998): New York, New York.
American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing (ASPRS) Specifications and Standards
Committee, 1990, ASPRS Accuracy Standards for Large-Scale Maps: Photogrammetric Engineering
and Remote Sensing, v. 56, no. 7, p. 1068-1070.
Clinton, William J., 1994, Executive Order 12906, Coordinating Geographic Data Acquisition and Access:
The National Spatial Data Infrastructure: Washington, DC, Federal Register, Volume 59, Number
71, pp. 17671-17674.
Facilities Working Group, 1997, Part 4, Draft Standards for Architecture, Engineering, Construction (A/E/C)
and Facility Management, Geospatial Positioning Accuracy Standards: Washington, DC, U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers, 21 p.
Federal Geodetic Control Committee, 1984, Standards and Specifications for Geodetic Control Networks:
Silver Spring, Md., National Geodetic Survey, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration,
29 p.
Federal Geographic Data Committee, 1998, Content Standards for Digital Geospatial Metadata (version 2.0),
FGDC-STD-001-1998: Washington, D.C., Federal Geographic Data Committee, 66 p.
Federal Geographic Data Committee, 1998, Part 2, Standards for Geodetic Networks, Geospatial Positioning
Accuracy Standards, FGDC-STD-007.2-1998: Washington, D.C., Federal Geographic Data
Committee, 9 p.
Federal Geographic Data Committee, 1996, FGDC Standards Reference Model: Reston, Va., Federal
Geographic Data Committee, 24 p.
Greenwalt, C.R. and M.E. Schultz, 1968, Principles and Error Theory and Cartographic Applications,
ACIC Technical Report No. 96: St. Louis, Mo., Aeronautical Chart and Information Center, U.S.
Air Force, 89 p.
National Mapping Division, 1987, Procedure Manual for Map Accuracy Testing (draft): U.S. Geological
Survey, Reston, Va.
U.S. Bureau of the Budget, 1947, United States National Map Accuracy Standards: U.S. Bureau of the Budget,
Washington, D.C.
3-8
Photogrammetry II

Appendix 3-A (normative): Accuracy Statistics
Appendix 3-A.
Accuracy Statistics
(normative)
3-9

FGDC-STD-007.3-1998
Photogrammetry II


FGDC-STD-007.3-1998
EXPLANATORY COMMENTS
1.
Horizontal Accuracy
Let:
RMSEx = sqrt[ (x data, i - x check, i)2/n]
RMSEy = sqrt[ (y data, i - y check, i)2/n]
where:
x data, i, y data, i are the coordinates of the i th check point in the dataset
x check, i, y check, i are the coordinates of the i th check point in the independent source of higher
accuracy
n is the number of check points tested
i is an integer ranging from 1 to n
Horizontal error at point i is defined as sqrt[(x data, i - x check, i)2 +(y data, i - y check, i)2]. Horizontal RMSE
is:
RMSEr = sqrt[ ((x data, i - x check, i)2 +(y data, i - y check, i)2)/n]
= sqrt[RMSEx2 + RMSEy 2]
Case 1: Computing Accuracy According to the NSSDA when RMSEx = RMSEy
If RMSEx = RMSEy,
RMSEr = sqrt(2*RMSEx2 ) = sqrt(2*RMSEy 2 )
= 1.4142*RMSEx = 1.4142*RMSEy
It is assumed that systematic errors have been eliminated as best as possible. If error is normally
distributed and independent in each the x- and y-component and error, the factor 2.4477 is used to
compute horizontal accuracy at the 95% confidence level (Greenwalt and Schultz, 1968). When the
preceding conditions apply, Accuracyr , the accuracy value according to NSSDA, shall be computed
by the formula:
Accuracyr
Accuracyr
= 2.4477 * RMSEx = 2.4477 * RMSEy

= 2.4477 * RMSEr /1.4142
= 1.7308 * RMSEr
3-10
Photogrammetry II

Case 2: Approximating circular standard error when RMSEx

FGDC-STD-007.3-1998
RMSEy
If RMSEmin/RMSEmax is between 0.6 and 1.0 (where RMSEmin is the smaller value between RMSEx
and RMSEy and RMSEmax is the larger value), circular standard error (at 39.35% confidence) may
be approximated as 0.5*(RMSEx + RMSEy ) (Greenwalt and Schultz, 1968). If error is normally
distributed and independent in each the x- and y-component and error, the accuracy value according
to NSSDA may be approximated according to the following formula:
Accuracyr
2.
~ 2.4477 * 0.5 * (RMSEx + RMSEy )
Vertical Accuracy
Let:
RMSEz = sqrt[ (zdata i - zcheck i)2/n]
where
z data i is the vertical coordinate of the i th check point in the dataset.
z check i is the vertical coordinate of the i th check point in the independent source of higher accuracy
n = the number of points being checked
i is an integer from 1 to n
It is assumed that systematic errors have been eliminated as best as possible. If vertical error is
normally distributed, the factor 1.9600 is applied to compute linear error at the 95% confidence level
(Greenwalt and Schultz, 1968). Therefore, vertical accuracy, Accuracyz, reported according to the
NSSDA shall be computed by the following formula:
Accuracyz = 1.9600 *RMSEz.
3-11
Photogrammetry II

Appendix 3-B (informative): Horizontal Accuracy Computations
Appendix 3-B
Horizontal Accuracy Computations
(informative)
3-12

FGDC-STD-007.3-1998
Photogrammetry II

Appendix 3-B (informative): Horizontal Accuracy Computations

FGDC-STD-007.3-1998
Horizontal Accuracy Computations

The data for horizontal accuracy computations come from the draft National Mapping Program (NMP)
Technical Instructions, Procedure Manual for Map Accuracy Testing (National Mapping Division, 1987).
Positions on the Crider, Kentucky 1:24,000-scale USGS topographic quadrangle were tested against a
triangulated solution of positions independent of the control solution used to produce the map. The
photography used to collect the independent source was different from that used for the map compilation,
and a different control configuration was utilized.
Coordinates are on the State Plane Coordinate System (south zone), based on NAD 27. Units are
in feet.
x (computed) and y (computed) are coordinate values from the triangulated solution.
x (map) and y (map) are coordinate values for map positions.
Table 1 assumes that RMSEx = RMSEy. Therefore, the accuracy value according to the NSSDA, at 95%
confidence, is computed by the formula given in Case 1 in Appendix 3-A (normative). The accuracy
value according to the NSSDA is 35 feet. Of twenty-five points tested, only point # 10360 has a positional
error that exceeds 35 feet.
Table 2 uses the formula given in Case 2 in Appendix 3-A (normative) to estimate accuracy when RMSEx
RMSEy. The accuracy value according to the NSSDA, at 95% confidence, is 35 feet.
3-13
1. & Standards
Appendix: MapTable
Testing
Accuracy Calculations for Crider, Kentucky USGS 1:24,000-scale Topographic Quadrangle
RMSEx = RMSEy assumed
Photogrammetry II
Number Description
10351
10352
10353
10354
10355
10356
10357
10358
10359
10360
10361
10362
10363
10364
10365
10366
10367
10368
10369
10370
10371
10372
10373
10374
10375
T-RD-W
T-RD-E
RD AT RR
T-RD-SW
T-RD-SE
RD AT RR
T-RD-E
X-RD
T-RD-E
X-RD
Y-RD-SW
T-RD-W
T-RD-S
Y-RD-W
T-RD-E
T-RD-SE
T-RD-NW
Y-RD-SE
T-RD-S
T-RD-E
T-RD-SE
T-RD-N
T-RD-S
X-RD
X-RD
x (computed)
1373883
1370503
1361523
1357653
1348121
1345601
1350505
1351781
1352361
1360657
1368215
1370299
1373855
1379981
1378625
1374735
1370581
1359379
1346459
1347101
1350733
1354395
1358563
1365561
1373645
x (map)
1373894
1370486
1361537
1357667
1348128
1345625
1350507
1351792
1352379
1360645
1368202
1370282
1373839
1379962
1378628
1374742
1370576
1359387
1346479
1347109
1350748
1354411
1358570
1365574
1373643
diff in x
11
-17
14
14
7
24
2
11
18
-12
-13
-17
-16
-19
3
7
-5
8
20
8
15
16
7
13
-2
squared diff in x y (computed)

(1)
121
298298
289
303727
196
302705
196
298726
49
299725
576
309911
4
318478
121
307697
324
311109
144
316720
169
309842
289
316832
256
319893
361
311641
9
334995
49
333909
25
324098
64
328690
400
330816
64
335869
225
332715
256
335337
49
335398
169
333873
4
339613
3-14
y (map)
298297
303747
302705
298746
299755
309910
318477
307698
311099
316761
309869
316849
319886
311633
335010
333922
324095
328691
330812
335850
332725
335345
335406
333877
339609
diff in y
-1
20
0
20
30
-1
-1
1
-10
41
27
17
-7
-8
15
13
-3
1
-4
-19
10
8
8
4
-4
squared diff in y
(2)
1
400
0
400
900
1
1
1
100
1681
729
289
49
64
225
169
9
1
16
361
100
64
64
16
16
sum
average
RMSEr
Accuracy per NSSDA
(2.4477 * RMSEr)
(1) +(2)
122
689
196
596
949
577
5
122
424
1825
898
578
305
425
234
218
34
65
416
425
325
320
113
185
20
10066
402.64
20.07
35
square root of
[(1) +(2)]
11.05
26.25
14.00
24.41
30.81
24.02
2.24
11.05
20.59
42.72
29.97
24.04
17.46
20.62
15.30
14.76
5.83
8.06
20.40
20.62
18.03
17.89
10.63
13.60
4.47
Photogrammetry II
Number
10351
10352
10353
10354
10355
10356
10357
10358
10359
10360
10361
10362
10363
10364
10365
10366
10367
10368
10369
10370
10371
10372
10373
10374
10375
Description
T-RD-W
T-RD-E
RD AT RR
T-RD-SW
T-RD-SE
RD AT RR
T-RD-E
X-RD
T-RD-E
X-RD
Y-RD-SW
T-RD-W
T-RD-S
Y-RD-W
T-RD-E
T-RD-SE
T-RD-NW
Y-RD-SE
T-RD-S
T-RD-E
T-RD-SE
T-RD-N
T-RD-S
X-RD
X-RD
2. & Standards
Appendix: MapTable
Testing
Accuracy Computations for Crider, Kentucky USGS 1:24,000-scale Topographic Quadrangle
RMSEx RMSEy
x (computed)
1373883
1370503
1361523
1357653
1348121
1345601
1350505
1351781
1352361
1360657
1368215
1370299
1373855
1379981
1378625
1374735
1370581
1359379
1346459
1347101
1350733
1354395
1358563
1365561
1373645
x (map)
1373894
1370486
1361537
1357667
1348128
1345625
1350507
1351792
1352379
1360645
1368202
1370282
1373839
1379962
1378628
1374742
1370576
1359387
1346479
1347109
1350748
1354411
1358570
1365574
1373643
diff in x
11
-17
14
14
7
24
2
11
18
-12
-13
-17
-16
-19
3
7
-5
8
20
8
15
16
7
13
-2
sum
average
RMSE
RMSEmin/RMSEmax
squared diff in x
121
289
196
196
49
576
4
121
324
144
169
289
256
361
9
49
25
64
400
64
225
256
49
169
4
4409
176.36
13.28
y (computed)
298298
303727
302705
298726
299725
309911
318478
307697
311109
316720
309842
316832
319893
311641
334995
333909
324098
328690
330816
335869
332715
335337
335398
333873
339613
y (map)
298297
303747
302705
298746
299755
309910
318477
307698
311099
316761
309869
316849
319886
311633
335010
333922
324095
328691
330812
335850
332725
335345
335406
333877
339609
diff in y
squared diff in y
-1
20
0
20
30
-1
-1
1
-10
41
27
17
-7
-8
15
13
-3
1
-4
-19
10
8
8
4
-4
1
400
0
400
900
1
1
1
100
1681
729
289
49
64
225
169
9
1
16
361
100
64
64
16
16
5657
226.28
15.04
0.88
Since RMSEmin/RMSEmax is between 0.6 and 1.0, the formula Accuracyr ~ 2.4477 * 0.5 * (RMSEx + RMSEy ) may be used to estimate accuracy according to the NSSDA.
Accuracyr ~35 feet.
3-15
Photogrammetry II

Appendix 3-C (informative): Testing guidelines
Appendix 3-C.
Testing guidelines
(informative)
3-16

FGDC-STD-007.3-1998
Photogrammetry II

1.

FGDC-STD-007.3-1998
Well-Defined Points
A well-defined point represents a feature for which the horizontal position is known to a high
degree of accuracy and position with respect to the geodetic datum. For the purpose of accuracy
testing, well-defined points must be easily visible or recoverable on the ground, on the
independent source of higher accuracy, and on the product itself. Graphic contour data and
digital hypsographic data may not contain well-defined points.
The selected points will differ depending on the type of dataset and output scale of the dataset.
For graphic maps and vector data, suitable well-defined points represent right-angle intersections
of roads, railroads, or other linear mapped features, such as canals, ditches, trails, fence lines,
and pipelines. For orthoimagery, suitable well-defined points may represent features such as
small isolated shrubs or bushes, in addition to right-angle intersections of linear features. For
map products at scales of 1:5,000 or larger, such as engineering plats or property maps, suitable
well-defined points may represent additional features such as utility access covers and
intersections of sidewalks, curbs, or gutters.
2.
Data acquisition for the independent source of higher accuracy

The independent source of higher accuracy shall be acquired separately from data used in the
aerotriangulation solution or other production procedures. The independent source of higher
accuracy shall be of the highest accuracy feasible and practicable to evaluate the accuracy of the
dataset.
Although guidelines given here are for geodetic ground surveys, the geodetic survey is only one
of many possible ways to acquire data for the independent source of higher accuracy. Geodetic
control surveys are designed and executed using field specifications for geodetic control surveys
(Federal Geodetic Control Committee, 1984). Accuracy of geodetic control surveys is evaluated
using Part 2, Standards for Geodetic Networks (Federal Geographic Data Committee, 1998). To
evaluate if the accuracy of geodetic survey is sufficiently greater than the positional accuracy
value given in the product specification, compare the FGCS network accuracy reported for the
geodetic survey with the accuracy value given by the product specification for the dataset.
Other possible sources for higher accuracy information are Global Positioning System (GPS)
ground surveys, photogrammetric methods, and data bases of high accuracy point coordinates.
3.
Check Point Location

Due to the diversity of user requirements for digital geospatial data and maps, it is not realistic to
include statements in this standard that specify the spatial distribution of check points. Data
and/or map producers must determine check point locations. This section provides guidelines for
distributing the check point locations.
Check points may be distributed more densely in the vicinity of important features and more
sparsely in areas that are of little or no interest. When data exist for only a portion of the dataset,
confine test points to that area. When the distribution of error is likely to be nonrandom, it may
3-17
Photogrammetry II


FGDC-STD-007.3-1998
be desirable to locate check points to correspond to the error distribution.

For a dataset covering a rectangular area that is believed to have uniform positional accuracy,
check points may be distributed so that points are spaced at intervals of at least 10 percent of the
diagonal distance across the dataset and at least 20 percent of the points are located in each
quadrant of the dataset.
3-18
Photogrammetry II

Appendix 3-D (informative): Other Accuracy Standards
Appendix 3-D.
Other Accuracy Standards
(informative)
3-19

FGDC-STD-007.3-1998
Photogrammetry II

1.
Root-Mean-Square Error (RMSE) Component Accuracy
1.1
Relationship between NSSDA (horizontal) and RMSE (x or y)

FGDC-STD-007.3-1998
From Appendix 3-A, Section 1, assuming RMSEx = RMSEy and error is normally distributed and
independent in each the x- and y-component, RMSEx and RMSEy can be estimated from RMSEr
using:
RMSEx = RMSEy = RMSEr /1.4142
Using the same assumptions, RMSEx and RMSEy can also be computed from Accuracyr, the
accuracy value according to NSSDA:
RMSEx = RMSEy = Accuracyr/2.4477
1.2
Relationship between NSSDA (vertical) and RMSE (vertical)

From Appendix 3-A, Section 2, if vertical error is normally distributed, RMSEz can be
determined from Accuracyz, vertical accuracy reported according to the NSSDA:
RMSEz = Accuracyz/1.9600
1.3
RMSE Accuracy Reporting

Label data or maps as described in Section 3.2.3, "Accuracy Reporting," but substitute "RMSE"
for "accuracy at 95% confidence level." For horizontal accuracy, provide separate statements for
each RMSE component.
For digital geospatial metadata, follow the guidelines for preparing metadata in Section 3.2.3,
"Accuracy Reporting," but substitute Root-Mean-Square Error for National Standard for
Spatial Data Accuracy for these metadata elements (Federal Geographic Data Committee, 1998,
Section 2), as appropriate to dataset spatial characteristics:
and/or
3-20
Photogrammetry II

2.
Former National Map Accuracy Standards (NMAS)
2.1
Relationship between NSSDA and NMAS (horizontal)

FGDC-STD-007.3-1998
NMAS (U.S. Bureau of the Budget, 1947) specifies that 90% of the well-defined points that are
tested must fall within a specified tolerance:
For map scales larger than 1:20,000, the NMAS horizontal tolerance is 1/30 inch,
measured at publication scale.
For map scales of 1:20,000 or smaller, the NMAS horizontal tolerance is 1/50 inch,
measured at publication scale.
If error is normally distributed in each the x- and y-component and error for the x-component is
equal to and independent of error for the y-component, the factor 2.146 is applied to compute
circular error at the 90% confidence level (Greenwalt and Schultz, 1968). The circular map
accuracy standard (CMAS) based on NMAS is:
CMAS = 2.1460 * RMSEx = 2.1460 * RMSEy
= 2.1460 * RMSEr /1.4142
= 1.5175 * RMSEr
The CMAS can be converted to accuracy reported according to NSSDA, Accuracyr, using
equations from Appendix 3-A, Section 1:
Accuracyr = 2.4477/2.1460 * CMAS = 1.1406 * CMAS.
Therefore, NMAS horizontal accuracy reported according to the NSSDA is:
1.1406* [S * (1/30")/12"] feet, or 0.0032 * S, for map scales larger than 1:20,000
1.1406* [S * (1/50")/12"] feet, or 0.0019 * S, for map scales of 1:20,000 or smaller
where S is the map scale denominator.
2.2
Relationship between NSSDA and NMAS (vertical)

NMAS (U.S. Bureau of the Budget, 1947) specifies the maximum allowable vertical tolerance to
be one half the contour interval, at all contour intervals. If vertical error is normally distributed,
the factor 1.6449 is applied to compute vertical accuracy at the 90% confidence level (Greenwalt
and Schultz, 1968). Therefore, the Vertical Map Accuracy Standard (VMAS) based on NMAS
is estimated by the following formula:
VMAS = 1.6449 * RMSEz
3-21
Photogrammetry II


FGDC-STD-007.3-1998
The VMAS can be converted to Accuracyz, accuracy reported according to the NSSDA using
equations from Appendix 3-A, Section 2:
Accuracyz = 1.9600/1.6449 * VMAS = 1.1916 * VMAS.
Therefore, vertical accuracy reported according to the NSSDA is (1.1916)/2 * CI = 0.5958 * CI,
where CI is the contour interval.
2.3
NMAS Reporting
Map labels provide a statement of conformance with NMAS, rather than reporting the accuracy
value. Label maps, as appropriate to dataset spatial characteristics:
This map complies with National Map Accuracy Standards of 1947 for horizontal
accuracy
OR
This map complies with National Map Accuracy Standards of 1947 for vertical
accuracy
OR
This map complies with National Map Accuracy Standards of 1947 for horizontal and
vertical accuracy
For digital geospatial data evaluated by the NMAS, follow the guidelines for preparing metadata
in Section 3.2.3, "Accuracy Reporting," but substitute U.S. National Map Accuracy Standards of
1947" for National Standard for Spatial Data Accuracy for these metadata elements (Federal
and/or
3.
American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing (ASPRS) Accuracy Standards for
Large-Scale Maps
3.1
Explanation of ASPRS Accuracy Standards for Large-Scale Maps

ASPRS Accuracy Standards for Large-Scale Maps (ASPRS Specifications and Standards
Committee, 1990) provide accuracy tolerances for maps at 1:20,000-scale or larger prepared for
special purposes or engineering applications. RMSE is the statistic used by the ASPRS
standards. Accuracy is reported as Class 1, Class 2, or Class 3. Class 1 accuracy for horizontal
and vertical components is discussed below. Class 2 accuracy applies to maps compiled within
limiting RMSEs twice those allowed for Class 1 maps. Similarly, Class 3 accuracy applies to
3-22
Photogrammetry II


FGDC-STD-007.3-1998
maps compiled within limiting RMSEs three times those allowed for Class 1 maps.
3.2
Relationship between NSSDA and ASPRS Accuracy Standards for Large-Scale Maps
(horizontal)
ASPRS Accuracy Standards for Large-Scale Maps (ASPRS Specifications and Standards
Committee, 1990) evaluates positional accuracy for the x-component and the y-component
individually. Positional accuracy is reported at ground scale. Table 3 shows Class 1 planimetric
limiting RMSE in feet associated with typical map scales, while Table 4 shows Class 1
planimetric limiting RMSE in meters associated with typical map scales.
Table 3
ASPRS Accuracy Standards for Large-Scale Maps
Class 1 horizontal (x or y) limiting RMSE for various map scales
at ground scale for feet units
Class 1 Planimetric Accuracy,
limiting RMSE (feet)
Map Scale
0.05
1:60
0.1
1:120
0.2
1:240
0.3
1:360
0.4
1:480
0.5
1:600
1.0
1:1,200
2.0
1:2,400
4.0
1:4,800
5.0
1:6,000
8.0
1:9,600
10.0
1:12,000
16.7
1:20,000
3-23
Photogrammetry II


FGDC-STD-007.3-1998
Table 4
ASPRS Accuracy Standards for Large-Scale Maps
Class 1 horizontal (x or y) limiting RMSE for various map scales
at ground scale for metric units
Class 1 Planimetric Accuracy
Limiting RMSE (meters)
Map Scale
0.0125
1:50
0.025
1:100
0.050
1:200
0.125
1:500
0.25
1:1,000
0.50
1:2,000
1.00
1:4,000
1.25
1:5,000
2.50
1:10,000
5.00
1:20,000
See Section 1.1 of this appendix on the relationship between horizontal accuracy reported
according to the NSSDA and RMSE.
3.3
Relationship between NSSDA and ASPRS Accuracy Standards for Large-Scale Maps (vertical)
Vertical map accuracy is defined by the ASPRS Accuracy Standards (ASPRS Specifications and
Standards Committee, 1990) as the RMSE in terms of the projects elevation datum for welldefined points only. See Section 1.3 of this appendix on the relationship between vertical
accuracy reported according to the NSSDA and RMSE.
For Class 1 maps according to the ASPRS Accuracy Standards, the limiting RMSE is set at onethird the contour interval. Spot elevations shall be shown on the map with a limiting RMSE of
one-sixth the contour interval or less.
3-24
Photogrammetry II

3.4

FGDC-STD-007.3-1998
ASPRS Accuracy Standards for Large-Scale Maps Reporting

Maps evaluated according to ASPRS Accuracy Standards for Large-Scale Maps are labeled by a
conformance statement, rather than a numeric accuracy value.
Label maps produced according to this standard:
THIS MAP WAS COMPILED TO MEET THE ASPRS
STANDARD FOR CLASS (1., 2., 3.) MAP ACCURACY
Label maps checked and found to confirm to this standard:
THIS MAP WAS CHECKED AND FOUND TO CONFORM
TO THE ASPRS
STANDARD FOR CLASS (1., 2., 3.) MAP ACCURACY
3-25

Photogrammetry2 Ghadi Zakarneh

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Palestine Polytechnic University

College of Engineering & Technology

Eng. Ghadi Zakarneh

Ch01: Tilted Photographs

By: Eng.Ghadi Zakarneh

Palestine Polytechnic University(PPU)

Ch01: Tilted Photographs

By: Eng.Ghadi Zakarneh

2- Angular Orientation In Tilt, Swing, and Azimuth

The datum nadir point N d

Palestine Polytechnic University(PPU)

Ch01: Tilted Photographs

By: Eng.Ghadi Zakarneh

3- Coordinates systems for tilted photographs

Palestine Polytechnic University(PPU)

Ch01: Tilted Photographs

By: Eng.Ghadi Zakarneh

its origin at the photographic nadir point n

Conversion from the xy fiducial system to x y coordinates system:

Auxiliary coordinates x - y is obtained by adding the translation distance on

Palestine Polytechnic University(PPU)

Ch01: Tilted Photographs

By: Eng.Ghadi Zakarneh

4- Angular Orientation In Omega-phi-kappa

(a) Rotation about the x axis through angle omega.

5- Scale of tilted photographs

Palestine Polytechnic University(PPU)

Ch01: Tilted Photographs

By: Eng.Ghadi Zakarneh

Scale on a tilted photograph for any point:

Palestine Polytechnic University(PPU)

Ch01: Tilted Photographs

By: Eng.Ghadi Zakarneh

6- Ground coordinates from Tilted photographs

Palestine Polytechnic University(PPU)

Ch01: Tilted Photographs

By: Eng.Ghadi Zakarneh

7- Relief Displacement on A Tilted Photograph

8- Determining the elements of the exterior orientation

Where the collinearity equations are:

m21 ( X A X L ) + m22 (YA YL ) + m23 ( Z A Z L )

Palestine Polytechnic University(PPU)

Ch01: Tilted Photographs

By: Eng.Ghadi Zakarneh

The collinearity equations development:

Palestine Polytechnic University(PPU)

Ch01: Tilted Photographs

If z a = f , divide D-2 and D-3 by D-4 , then

By: Eng.Ghadi Zakarneh

add corrections of the principle point ( x0 , y 0 ). We get:

m11 ( X A X L ) + m12 (Y A YL ) + m13 ( Z A Z L )

m21 ( X A X L ) + m22 (YA YL ) + m23 ( Z A Z L )

Or can be written as:

Palestine Polytechnic University(PPU)

Ch01: Tilted Photographs

By: Eng.Ghadi Zakarneh

9- Rectification of Tilted Photographs

Rectification is the process of making equivalent vertical photographs

The resulting equivalent vertical photos are called rectified

Rectified photos theoretically are truly vertical photos, and as such

Orthophoto rectification & Differential rectification

10- Rectification Methods

Palestine Polytechnic University(PPU)