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Co n t e n t s
(1) Introduction
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
3
11
13
15
18
23
24
Appendix A
Thesis Proposal Models - Social Sciences
Appendix B
Thesis Proposal Models - Science and Engineering
27
37
The contribution of Henrike Korner and Helen Drury to earlier versions of this
publication is gratefully acknowledged.
Ob je c t iv e s
After you have worked through these materials, you should be able to:
Focus your thesis topic
Understand the purpose of the thesis proposal
Understand the general structure of a thesis proposal
Understand the purpose and structure of the introduction of a thesis
proposal
s Be clear abot how to formulate research questions, aims, objectives.
s
s
s
s
Some sections have exercises for you to complete. Some of these exercises
provide an answer key marked with the symbol
( 1 ) I n t ro d u c t io n
There is no one "definitive" way to chose a research topic and to get it accepted.
In fact, there are probably as many ways as there are departments in a university.
Some departments require a proposal, others don't. Some departments require a
detailed proposal, others are satisfied with a general preliminary outline. Some
departments require students to present their proposals at a research seminar,
others circulate proposals among staff and often a student will have an interview
with a potential supervisor. Despite this variety of procedures, there are still some
general issues that all students should consider before they start their research,
even if they don't have to write a proposal at all.
1 . 1 Diffe re n t De g re e s - Diffe re n t Th e s e s
A thesis is usually required from students who do Honours, Masters and PhD
degrees. At the Honours level, the thesis is one part of the overall degree, at the
Master or other Doctoral level it can be one part of the degree in conjunction
with coursework or the whole degree, and at the PhD level, the thesis constitutes
the sole requirements of the degree.
Length, scope, depth and originality of the thesis depend on the degree which it is
for. The following table presents an overview of the general expectations of a
thesis at Honours, Masters and PhD level.
D EFI N I TI ON
HON OURS
A substantial project
which demonstrates
an understanding of
the research process
and scholarly
conventions of the
discipline.
MAS TERS
MAJOR THES I S
Shows evidence of
advanced knowledge in a
specialist field.
LENGTH
S CHOLARS HI P
S COP E
Similar to Masters
minor thesis.
MAS TERS
MI N OR THES I S
An ordered, critical
exposition of
knowledge gained
through students
own effort.
Demonstrates sound
under-standing of
research process.
Varies by
department; depends
on weighting against
coursework.
Shows evidence of
independent
investigation and testing
of hypotheses.
Ability to make critical
use of published work.
Appreciation of
relationship of topic to
wider field of
knowledge.
Competence in
independent work.
Understanding of
approaches and
techniques appropriate
to research question.
Should draw
generalisations or
further hypotheses for
testing.
P HD
Candidate has:
conducted a substantial
piece of research; has
been conceived
conducted and reported
by the candidate under
academic supervision in
an academic environment
for a prescribed period.
Similar to Masters Research
degree, but deeper, more
comprehensive treatment of
subject.
Demonstrates authority
in candidates field and
shows evidence of
knowledge in relevant
cognate field.
Mastery of appropriate
methodological
techniques and awareness
of limitations. Makes a
distinct contribution to
knowledge.
Originality of approach or
interpretation.
Ability to communicate
research findings
effectively in professional
and international
contexts.
Research apprenticeship is
complete and holder is
admitted to the
community of scholars in
the discipline.
Max. 100,000 words.
GU I D AN CE/
TI MI N G
D EGREE OF
FREED OM
RAN GE
There are also considerable differences between the sciences, the humanities and
the social sciences as far as students' range of topic choice, students' degree of
freedom in choosing specific research questions, and the overall timing of the
research project is concerned. The following table provides an overview of
disciplinary influences on topic selection.
S CI EN CES
HUMAN I TI ES
S OCI AL S CI EN CES /
A P P LI ED
P ROFES S I ON AL
FI ELD S
supervisor reluctant to
interfere in topic choice,
theoretical perspective,
method, specific research
question
identification of specific
research question may take
considerable time as students
require a good deal of
disciplinary and methodological grounding before they
are able to formulate specific
research questions
Exe rcis e
Think about the following questions:
s Into what disciplinary area does your research field fall? Can it be clearly
located in one area or does your research go across disciplines?
s Depending on the amount of preparation you have already done, what has
been your experience with regard to topic choice, degree of freedom and
guidance?
s If you are still very much at the beginning of your research, think about what
problems you might encounter and how you might deal with them.
1 . 3 I s My To p ic Fe a s ib le ?
You may start with a rather vague idea of a research topic. It is then necessary to
assess how the topic can be narrowed down to potential sub-topics for more
thorough consideration. The following checklist contains one set of general
questions, and five sets of specific questions for specific types of topics. It is
recommended that you read all the questions in all sub-sections because the
questions may trigger ideas that you have not considered previously. Also, you will
not be able to answer all the questions at this stage. Rather, use them to guide
your thinking.
(a ) Qu e s t io n s a b o u t t h e t o p ic in g e n e ra l
(1) Is there current interest in this topic in your field or in a closely related
field?
(2) Is there a gap in knowledge that work on this topic could help to fill or
a controversy that it might help to resolve?
(3) Is it possible to focus on a small enough segment of the topic to make
a manageable thesis project?
(4) Can you envisage a way to study the topic that will allow conclusions to
be drawn with substantial objectivity. Is the data collection approach
(i.e. test, questionnaire, interview) acceptable in your school?
(5) Is there a body of literature available relevant to the topic? Is a search
manageable?
(6) Are there large problems (i.e. logistic, attitudinal) to be surmounted in
working in this topic? Do you have the means to handle them?
(7) Does the topic relate reasonably well to others done in your
department? If not, do you have any information about its
acceptability?
(8) Would financial assistance be required? If yes, is it available?
(9) Are the needed data easily accessible? Will you have control of the
data?
(10) Do you have a clear statement of the purpose, scope, objectives,
procedures, and limitations of the study? Do you have a tentative table
of contents? Are any of the skills called on by the study skills that you
have yet to acquire?
( b ) Qu e s t io n s fo r t o p ics e m p lo yin g a re s e a rch q u e s t io n o r
h y p o t h e s is
(1) Do you have acceptable statements of research questions or
hypotheses?
6
(2) Can you specify how you will answer the questions or test the
hypotheses?
(3) Would the thesis be a contribution if the findings do not support the
hypotheses or fail to answer the questions?
(4) Have subsidiary questions or hypotheses been identified that deserve
study along with the major ones?
(5) Are there alternative questions or hypotheses that might explain the
findings anticipated?
(c) Qu e s t io n s fo r t o p ics re q u irin g in t e rvie ws fo r d a t a co lle ct io n
(1) What style or type of interview is best suited to the objectives of the
study?
(2) Does an interview protocol exist that fits the purposes of the
investigation? Has it been pilot tested?
(3) How will the data be recorded and collated for optimum speed,
accuracy, and reliability?
(4) How will matters of confidentiality and permission be handled?
(5) How will bias in the interviewer and the respondent be minimised or
measured?
( d ) Qu e s t io n s fo r t o p ics u s in g a q u e s t io n n a ire a p p ro a ch
(1) What form of questionnaire will be most productive for this kind of
study? Has it been tested?
(2) How will questionnaire items be related specifically to the purpose of
the investigation?
(3) Why is the questionnaire the tool of choice for data collection?
(4) How will it be assured that the questionnaire will be answered?
(5) How will the questionnaire responses be validated? Analysed?
(e ) Qu e s t io n s fo r t o p ics in vo lvin g m a t h e m a t ica l a n a lys is o f d a t a
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
From these questions we can extract a number of issues that are relevant to most
research topics:
s
s
s
s
s
In addition to these, when your research deals with human beings or with sensitive
material:
s Confidentiality
The answers to these questions are by no means easy, and some questions may
even seem unanswerable at this early stage of your research. But keeping these
questions in mind and trying to think of an answer will force you to refine and
polish your topic until the project becomes acceptable and manageable.
Exe rcis e
Think about the following:
(1) Which of these questions and issues are relevant to your research?
(2) What further questions and issues do you think may be relevant for your
research?
(3) Can you think of any preliminary answers how you might deal with these
questions?
1 . 4 Fo c u s in g Th e To p ic
Exe rcis e
The following represents three consecutive drafts of a thesis outline. In which
order do you think these drafts were written? Which draft do you think found the
supervisor's approval and why?
Ou t lin e A
(1) The conflicting ambitions of the two great power rivals, the Soviet Union
and Great Britain in Iran from 1921 to 1941.
(a) The concept of rivalry
(b) The area of influence in international relations
(2) International events as external elements of rivalry in Iran
(3) Internal decisive elements which made the two great power rivals interested
in competing against each other in areas such as oil and security belt.
Ou t lin e B
(1) Great Powers - USSR and GB - perception and nature of interests in the
Middle East, especially in Iran, from 1921 to 1941.
(a) perception of each other
(b) nature of their rivalry
(2) Middle powers as pawns in a geopolitical area which involves great power
rivalry
(3) How such rivalry impacts upon the internal and external policies of Iran.
9
Ou t lin e C
(1) Types of Iranian foreign policy vis-a-vis outside rival powers since nineteenth
century:
(a) Membership of an alliance
(b) Establishment of acknowledged sphere of influence
(c) Neutrality
(d) Balance of power
(e) Collective security
(2) Domestic spheres of the time and policies adopted
(a) Socio-cultural
(b) Economic - military
(c) Political
(3) International and regional systems of the times
(4) Discussion of the relevance and coherence between the respective spheres
and the different policies together with evaluation of the efficacy in
maintaining the Iranian integrity and independence.
(c) was the first draft. The topic is far too broad and general, and
the proposal is purely descriptive.
(a) was the second draft. The topic has become more focused and
there is now an interpretive element, rivalry; but still, the
argument is not very clear.
(b) was the final draft and the supervisor was happy with it. The
focus has become even stronger and a clear thesis has emerged:
The middle powers as pawns between the great powers.
10
( 2 ) W h a t is a Th e s is P ro p o s a l?
2 . 1 P u rp o s e Of A Th e s is P ro p o s a l
In the most general sense, a thesis proposal is "a document that presents a case for
an idea and the action one proposes with respect to it." (Krathwohl, 1988:12, emphasis
added)
Its purpose is "to justify what you plan to do in order to gain approval for it."
(Thornquist, 1986:3, emphasis added)
2 . 2 W h y W rit e A Th e s is P ro p o s a l?
s A thesis proposal lays the groundwork for the research you're planning to
do.
s Because it forces you to think through the whole project from beginning to
end, you will be able to anticipate problems that may occur during the course
of your study and to be prepared for them.
s If you have an idea where you're going it's easier to get there.
2 . 3 Re q u ire m e n t s o f a P ro p o s a l
In order to achieve its purpose, a thesis proposal must fulfil the following general
requirements:
Establish a context for your research and demonstrate the need for it
Show that your study will meet this need, and how it will meet this need, i.e.
the method you will use
More specifically, a research proposal should have the following elements:
s Introduction
Nature of the problem
Why the problem is important
How your research would contribute to the solution of the problem
11
12
3 . W rit in g t h e P ro p o s a l
3 . 1 Au d ie n c e
The proposal should be written for an intelligent, well-informed person, but one
who is not deeply involved in the particular problems you are addressing. (Mauch
and Birch, 1989:65)
3 . 2 Ge t t in g S t a rt e d
The first step in preparing a research proposal is to prepare a rough draft. The
following questions, and any additional questions that may be relevant to your
study, can provide a framework for this.
Start by writing preliminary answers to these questions. At this stage, the answers
do not have to be, and cannot be, complete. This is merely a means to get you
over the first hurdle.
(1) What is the tentative title?
The emphasis here is on "tentative". The title will change as your research
progresses.
(2) Why do you want to do this research? What do you think you will be able to
say when your research is complete?
(3) What steps will you have to take to accomplish what you want to do? Can you
put these steps into a sequential order?
(4) What facilities will you need?
(5) What kind of help from other people will you need?
(6) What kind of permission will you need?
(adapted from Mauch and Birch, 1989:57-58)
If your research involves human being or animals, your research will need to be
approved by the relevant Ethics Committee. Some general information is
available from the University of Sydney website at
http://www.usyd.edu.au/ethics/ (This is general information only. You will need
to contact the Ethics Committee yourself and obtain any clearance and
permission that may be required.)
While the answers to these questions are still rather rough and tentative, you
should take some time to edit this preliminary outline once or twice so that it
becomes a cohesive text, not simply a string of answers. Also, while the content of
13
this draft is still quite informal, the proposal should be written in an acceptable
formal academic style.
It is also a good idea to consult university and departmental guidelines about
formal requirements and editorial matters at this early stage of your research.
This will save you much time later. The most comprehensive and authoritative
guide for the Australian context is the Style Manual for Authors, Editors and Printers,
Canberra: Australian Government Printing Service.
Note: The Learning Centre offers workshops on Clearer Writing and Writing in an
Academic Style.
3 . 3 S t ru c t u re Of Th e P ro p o s a l
Of the proposals examined for these materials, there were not two that followed
the same structure. But all were considered to be good proposals by the
respective supervisors, and all were successful. Below is an overview of the
structure of four proposals from four different disciplines.
Proposal Headings:
Bio lo g y
( Ph D)
Aim:
1. to describe
2. to test theory ...
An t h ro p o lo g y
( Ph D)
An introduction
showing why the
research is important
and what the gaps in
existing research are.
P o lit . S c ie n c e
( Ph D)
Problem
Background
Literature review
(short)
Subproblems
(7 questions)
Additional questions
Method
Hypotheses (4)
Theory
Map
Delimitations
Timetable
Bibliography
Definitions of terms
Ed u c a t io n
( MEd )
1. The problem
1.1 Background
1.2 Introduction
1.3 Purpose of study
1.4 Hypotheses
1.5 Definitions
1.6 Delimitations
0000and limitations
2. Theoretical
framework and lit.
review
2.1 .....
2.2 .....
3. Methodology
3.1 .....
3.2 .....
4. Application of
findings
5. Conclusion
Methodology
References
Proposal: 8 pages
Bibliography: 19 pages
Length: 9 pages
14
Length: 19 pages
( 4 ) Th e I n t ro d u c t io n
No matter what heading you choose for the introductory section of your
proposal, it should, in the most general sense, do two things for the reader:
s It should provide a "map" of what is ahead
s It should make the reader want to find out more about your research.
More specifically the introductory section to a thesis proposal should tell the
reader something about the following:
s
s
s
s
s
s
15
Exe rcis e
Examine the following introduction to the proposal Determination of Range Carrying
Activity.
What information does it provide for the reader?
What information is missing?
What could be improved?
Determination of range carrying capacity is one of the most fundamental aspects of range
management. Several methods are used depending on the required precision and available funds,
time and manpower. Although the clipping and weighing method for range carrying capacity
determination is the most accurate, its high cost and time consumption limits its wider usage. So
it is worthwhile to use a faster method with an acceptable level of accuracy for larger rangelands.
Determination of range land production by measuring vegetation cover is such a method. Payne
(1974) showed that vegetation cover determination is a good indicator of the weight of many
grasses. I have studies the relationship between canopy cover, foliage cover and basal area with
range plant production for 13 species. The highest correlation coefficient was observed between
the canopy cover, foliage cover and plant production for all species. No significant correlation
was found between basal cover and plant production. Since basal cover will be affected less than
canopy cover by grazing or by short term wether changes and sometimes it is not practical to
prevent grazing for determination of range carrying capacity, it is worthwhile to study the
application to basal cover for estimation of range production. Therefore I am interested in
following this line of research.
AIMS:
(1) to study the relationship between basal cover and plant production by inclusion of
plant height in the method
(2) to fund out the relationship between canopy cover and foliage cover and range
production in other species not mentioned in my previous study and compare this
method and the clipping and weighing method in terms of costs, timing labour, and
expertise required.
There is some information about the importance of the research,
and the writer describes his own work in this area, however, the
reader would probably like a better overview of some of the
relevant research in this area.
16
An Alt e rn a t iv e I n t ro d u c t io n
Exe rcis e
The writer of the following introduction used a different criterion to organise the
information in the introduction. What criterion did the writer use?
Policy Evauation on Retaining Boarding/ Lodging Houses for the Accommodation of Low
Income Aged People in Waverley Municipality
(1) Problem
The changing use of Boarding/ Lodging Houses (B/ LH) from housing for low income aged
people to other uses, mainly tourist budget accommodation, has affected the housing stock
available to low income people in Sydney. The government realises the negative impacts of this
process, such as homelessness, youth crime, and other social problems. Much of the government's
effort has been directed towards the provision of low income accommodation, either directly or
indirectly, but the stock of low income accommodation is tending to decline. One government
policy to counteract this trend is to retain the function of the B/ LH for the accommodation of
low-income aged people by using SEPP 10 from the State Government and through Local
Government LEPs. Nevertheless, in Waverley municipality for example, these policies have not
worked as expected, as seen in the reluctance of the B/ LH owners to maintain their properties
and continuing change in the usage of these properties.
The writer states a general problem, then states a solution which
has been unsuccessful Much of the governments effort ... One
government policy to counteract this trend.... Then the writer re-states
the problem and provides a specific example: Nevertheless, in
Waverly municipality
Exe rcis e
Try and draft a general introduction (one or two paragraphs) to your research.
What criterion are you going to use to organise the information in your
introduction?
17
( 5 ) Ma k in g t h e P u rp o s e Cle a r
The general purpose of the study can be stated at the end of the introduction. See
the example below:
An Investigation of Some Aspects of Science Education Cognitive Structure Research in a
Tertiary Physics Education Context
Background
TV lectures have been used for some years in the first year physics course at the University of
Sydney. Many of these TV lectures have been revised and redeveloped. Five new lectures on
Electricity have recently been produced by the Veterinary, Medical, Agricultural and Life
Science students. The School of Physics has decided it is an appropriate time to review this
teaching structure. It has convened a working party comprising of two physicists, Director of
Television Services, and myself to advise it on future development and use of TV lectures. It has
been decided to use the development and implementation of the Electricity series of lectures as a
case study for the review.
The topic, Electricity, comprises five TV lectures, three live lectures and a set of lecture notes.
The TV lectures include a number of demonstrations, graphics etc. The live lectures summarise,
go over difficult points and work through some problems associated with the lecture material.
The lecture notes include a set of objectives, some pre-lecture reading summary and in some cases
further amplification of the TV lectures, some post-lecture reading including mathematical
proofs etc. and some problems for the students to work through. There is no set text or
recommended list of references for the course.
The aim of the present review is to provide the School with information and views
appropriate to assisting it determine its immediate policy on the future development or
redevelopment of TV lectures. In particular the review will
(1) describe the production process and subsequent use of the TV lectures
(2) collect views of the various participants on the development and use of the TV lectures
(3) examine the use of the TV lectures in the context of the course in general.
But quite often the purpose is shown more clearly in a separate section (see figure
"Proposal Headings").
18
5 . 1 Aim s An d Ob je c t iv e s
E xample 1
The purpose of this study is to investigate the relationship between
foreign/second language learners' knowledge of vocabulary and their
comprehension in reading formal prose such as that exemplified by secondary and
tertiary level textbooks and journals. A further subsidiary aim is to investigate the
relationship between scores on vocabulary tests composed of a random selection
of contents items deleted from the cloze tests and scores on the standardised
vocabulary test, using the same subjects.
E xample 2
This research proposes to evaluate the group influence in China's decision making
in the case of the vibrations in China's macroeconomic policies between
decentralisation and centralisation in economic planning and management to and
from local authorities and economic entities during the course of implementation
in the decade of the 1980s.
E xample 3
My research has two aims: firstly to describe the life history of a newly discovered
diverse fauna living in mangrove swamps around the Sydney district; and secondly
to test ecological theories on settlement and recruitment which have been
formulated to explain patterns of distribution and abundance on species living on
rocky intertidal shores.
E xample 4
The objectives of this research are as follows:
(1) to conduct the mid-term evaluation of the sixth educational development plan
(2) to examine the influence of various variables on educational policy
19
5 . 2 Re s e a rc h Qu e s t io n s
E xample 1
(1) Why can an interest group approach to politics be applied to the study of
socialist and Chinese politics?
(2) What do we mean by "interest", "group", and "interest group"?
(3) How could Chines elite interest groups be identified?
(4) What factors gave rise to the formation of Chinese elite interest groups and
how did they recruit members?
(5) What were the respective interests of the identified groups?
(6) In terms of power politics, i.e. disputes over personal power allocation and
policy disputes respectively, what were the major issues at stake during the
conflict of different interest groups?
(7) How die the interest groups act to defend or advance their interests, that is,
what were the modes of interaction between interest groups and decisionmakers and with what success?
E xample 2
The study will comprise two inter-related sets of research questions. The first set
relates to the decision-oriented part and the second set to the conclusion oriented
parts of the study. The research questions and the research itself should be seen
as arising out of, and contributing to, the discussion of curriculum issues in
science education. The major questions posed for the decision-oriented research
are:
(1) What techniques are appropriate for investigating and representing cognitive
and conceptual structures in the context of decisions to be made about the
redevelopment of a unit of work in large enrolment introductory tertiary
physics courses?
(2) What is the range of conceptual and cognitive structures impacting on and as
a result of studying a unit of work in a large enrolment introductory tertiary
physics course?
(3) How were the results of (1) and (2) above taken account of by the Review
Committee reviewing the unit of work?
5 . 3 Hy p o t h e s e s
The word "hypothesis" means "supposition" or "possible explanation" for a
particular situation or condition. A hypothesis can be defined as "a shrewd guess,
an assumption, an opinion, a hunch, an informed judgment, or an inference that is
20
5 . 4 Ex p re s s in g t h e P u rp o s e a t S e v e ra l Le v e ls
It is also possible to move in the statement of your purpose from a general
statement of aims to specific research questions and hypotheses.
Statement of the Problem
This research proposes to evaluate the group influence in China's decision making
in the case of the vibrations in China's macroeconomic policies between
21
Exe rcis e
Try to draft a statement of purpose for your own research.
22
( 6 ) Brin g in g it a ll To g e t h e r
Exe rcis e
We have included some examples of thesis proposals in the Appendix. Read
through them and think about those aspects of a proposal that we have discussed
so far. How are the proposals similar/different? What are their strengths and
weaknesses? How could they be improved?
23
( 7 ) Ev a lu a t io n o f t h e P ro p o s a l
The following list shows the criteria that committees and examiners look for in
proposals and finished theses. It would be useful to keep those criteria in mind as
you are writing your proposal and your thesis to focus on the relevant criteria.
(The items marked * are used to evaluate the final thesis, not proposals.)
Ch a ra c t e ris t ic s Be in g Ev a lu a t e d
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
(11)
(12)
(13)
(14)
(15)
(16)
(17)
(18)
(19)
(20)
(21)
(22)
(23)
(24)
(25)
(26)
(27)
(28)
(29)
(30)*
(31)*
(32)*
(33)*
(34)*
(35)*
(36)*
(37)*
(38)*
(39)*
(40)*
(41)*
25
Re fe re n c e s
Krathwohl, D.R. (1988) (3rd ed.) How to prepare a research proposal. Guidelines for
funding and dissertations in the social and behavioural sciences. Syracuse, New York:
Syracuse University Press.
Mauch, J.E. and Birch, J.W. (1989) (2nd ed.) Guide to the successful thesis and
dissertation. New York: Marcel Dekker.
Parry, S. and Hayden, M. (1996) The range of practices in higher degree supervision:
Disciplinary and organisational differences. Paper presented at the 11th ViceChancellors Forum on Teaching. University of Sydney, 17 May 1996.
Powles, M. (1994) Postgraduate supervision. Centre for the Study of Higher
Education. University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria.
Tornquist, E.M. (1986) From proposal to publication. An informal guide to writing about
nursing research. Menlo Park, California: Addison-Wesley.
26
Ap p e n d ix A
Th e s is P ro p o s a ls - S o c ia l S c ie n c e s
27
P ro p o s a l 1
Research Proposal to Study Traditional Medicine in Milne Bay Province
Focussing on Sewa Bay, Normanby Island, DEntrecasteaux
Ab s t ra c t
I propose to do field work in Milne Bay Province. The focus of my research
interest is the DEntrecasteaux and, in particular, the comparative study of
traditional medicine with a focus on Sewa Bay, Normanby Island (see map). A
preliminary trip to the Province in December-January clarified my research
objective.
Normanby Island has significant gaps in its ethnographic record. Erhard von
Schlesier, Carl Thune and Daryl Feil have worked in East Normanby, but Sewa
Bay was last recorded briefly by Geza Roheim in 1930. Traditional medicine has
been given little attention. I view my research as essentially collaborative and
concerned with the cultural heritage. The aim is to secure a record which the
people will cherish.
I want my study to be comparative, involving other areas. I propose starting field
work for 12-15 month IN Sewa Bay later this year.
Research Methodology, Relevance and Timetable
...if the anthropologist is to retain his claim to some inside knowledge he must
continue to struggle with problems of language expression and symbolism. This is,
of course, a prime field to be taken over eventually by indigenous scholars, but
the outside worker can make his contribution still, and use the opportunity to test
his explanatory models against his views of the educated insider
Andrew Strahern (1)
...discussions of medicine in Papua New Guinea are most often and obtrusively
couched in a different form - that of dualism or pluralism. The contrast, and
opposition, is presented as one between Western medicine and the local system ...
It is extremely easy to fall into this dualistic way of thinking; but it is misleading.
The convenience of thinking in terms of simple dichotomies is always a
temptation. It seems to clarify issues, but the simplification distorts them. It is
misleading to speak of system when referring to local modes of treatment for
the sick. The local forms are not usually formulated as a unified system of theory,
practice and medical institutions
28
29
knowledge. After initial fieldwork in Sewa Bay, which will last 12-15 months, I
propose to document the knowledge of traditional medical practitioners elsewhere
in Milne Bay so that I will be able to make a comparative study. With local
research assistants acting as interpreters, I want to work in at least four places
with contrasting flora (but time will be a determining factor here). I would like to
compare the traditional medicine of the Mainland (near Alotau) with the coral
islands (the Trobriands), the DEntrecasteaux, and the Lousiades.
The study of traditional medicine will benefit the people by helping to secure and
record the cultural heritage. I see my research as essentially collaborative. And, I
trust my work will add to a small, but significant number of studies of Papua New
Guinea traditional medicine (e.g. Lewis, Frankel, Mayer).
No te s
I am particularly grateful to John Beaumont, Ann Chowning, Debbora Barraglia,
Richard Dawana, Linus Digimrima, Brent Ingram, John Kabual, Jerry Leach,
Andrew Strathern, Carl Thune, and especially Michael Young and Darly Feil for
help over this proposed research.
(1) From The future of research in Melanesia (1975), p.30-31
(2) From Patterns of Continuity and Change in Frankel & Lewis (1989) p.32
MAP
(details omitted)
Bib lio g ra p h y
(18 pages)
31
P ro p o s a l 2
RES EARCH OUTLINE FOR THE Ph D. DEGREE
( POLITICAL S CIENCE)
( NO TITLE)
THE P ROBLEM AN D I TS S ETTI N G
Th e S t a t e m e n t o f t h e P ro b le m
This research proposes to evaluate the group influence in Chinas decision making
in the case of the vibrations in Chinas macroeconomic policies between
decentralisation and centralisation in economic planning and management of and
form local authorities and economic entities during the course of implementation
in the decade of 1980s.
Th e S u b p ro b le m s
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Hy p o t h e s e s
1.
2.
3.
4.
Th e De lim it a t io n s
This study will only attempt to study the behaviour of Chinese bureaucratic
interest groups. We exclude mass societal organisations from different
consideration here because they have less effective means to express their
interests and to press those responsible for policy making to place their demands
33
on the public and formal agendas for consideration. They are designed reather to
transmit the partys conception of national interest.
Aside from this, the bureaucratic agencies act as the exclusive interest aggregators
in Chinese society. It is only bureaucratic elites, or cadres, who can mobilise
substantial political resources to back demands and convert demands into policy
alternatives. Moreover, the positions of bureaucratic elites legitimise the handling
of controversial issues and provide them sore sort of protection against the
possibility of exclusion from the political process. Demands espoused by
bureaucratic groups are therefore especially powerful in authoritarian societies.
Bureaucratic articulation of interests is the primary means for presenting demands
to the centre of power. Cadres for the most active and salient political interest
groups in China.
The study will also be limited to the change in foreign trade policy. Chinas foreign
trade is an area in which nearly all salient interest groups consciously attempt to
engage and about which information is easier to obtain.
As s u m p t io n
The attitudes of an individual member of a social or occupational groups (sic) are
not always determined by his belonging to that aggregates. Hence within an
occupational group there may be members of different interest groups.
De fin it io n o f Te rm s
An interest can be defined as a conscious desire to have public policy, or the
authoritative allocation of values, move or continue to move in a particular
general or special direction.
Basically, group can be distinguished between on the one hand categoric group
i.e. a set of individuals who have some characteristics in common and on the
other hand social group, which develops some common attitudes based on a
minimum frequency of interaction and from which arises certain common habits
of response.
An interest group is any group that, on the basis of the shared attitudes and the
behaviourally revealed preference on the matter of concern, makes certain claims
on other groups in the society for the establishment, maintenance, or
enhancement of forms of behaviour corresponding to the shared attitudes and
the preference. A political interest group is present when the expression of these
interests lead to the making of claims on government institutions. it is only when a
common attitude leads to an expressed common claims on those in authority for
action that a political interest group may be said to exist.
34
1.
2.
Ba s ic Re a d in g :
.....
36
Ap p e n d ix B
Th e s is P ro p o s a ls - S c ie n c e a n d En g in e e rin g
37
P ro p o s a l 1
Proposed Research Project. Presented for conversion to the degree of PhD
Ec o lo g y o f Ba rn a c le s in Ma n g ro v e S w a m p s
in t h e S y d n e y Dis t ric t
My research has two aims: firstly to describe the life history of a newly discovered
diverse fauna living in mangrove swamps around the Sydney district; and secondly
to test ecological theories on settlement and recruitment which have been
formulated to explain patterns of distribution and abundance on species living on
rocky intertidal shores.
1.
Life His t o ry
Barnacles in mangrove swamps have been little studies. Recently three species of
barnacles were found in N.S.W. mangrove swamps. Previous work has recorded
barnacles on particular substrata in the mangrove swamp, for example, Elminius
covertus on leaves and trunks of Avicenna marina, Hexaminius popeiana on trunks
exclusively and Hexaminius foliorum on leaves and saplings of the grey mangrove,
Avicennia marina.
Questions I initially formulated from this information are as follows:
1.
2.
What are the distribution and abundance patterns of the three species
throughout the year?
When does each species reproduce, settle and recruit into the reproductive
population?
Unlike the two dimensional rock platform, the mangrove tree supplies a tridimensionality (from roots to leaves), so to answer question 1 it was necessary to
divide the mangrove swamp into three spatial components. These are:
Horizontal (tidal zones): seaward:middle:landward
Positional (on a mangrove tree relative the shore) seaward:landward
Vertical (height of the tree) upper/lower surface at each height.
To enable a precise calculation of population density a stratified random sampling
program was designed and implemented. This means each substratum was
sampled separately.
38
This program has thus allowed for estimation of the variation that exists among
tree trunks, among twigs on trees, among leaves on trees and among saplings of
the grey mangrove, Avicennia marina.
The sampling program has been in progress sing August 1987 at two locations:
Wolooware and Careel Bay. It will be completed in February 1990.
These samples taken each season (and additional samples taken in months when
densities were not being sampled), have enabled an accurate estimation of when
the population is reproductive. Consecutive growth studies on plates in the field
(in progress since February 1988), have also given information on how long it
takes a barnacle to recruit into the reproductive population, throughout zones in
the mangrove forest.
Results of growth studies have highlighted density an important factor in
determining growth rate. An experiment to investigate this has been designed and
was implemented in January 1989.
Additionally, the following questions will be important to answer to fully
understand the life history of barnacles in mangrove swamps:
(1) Are cyprids selecting particular substrata to settle on, or settling at random,
and not surviving to adults?
To answer this rearing of cyprids in the laboratory and subsequent
settlement and growth will allow identification of newly settled stages.
(Completed for E. covertus by field work, in progress for H. popeiana and H.
forliorum Dec/Jan 1989).
(2) a.
b.
These questions are especially relevant when considering the ephemeral nature of
leaves. An experiment was set up in Dec. 1988 to answer these questions.
2.
Ec o lo g ic a l Th e o rie s
Most theories on intertidal ecology have been formulated from species on rocky
shores. When comparing mangrove swamps to rocky shores one interesting
question is: Are the same factors that affect patterns of distribution and
abundance of species on rocky shores responsible for observed patterns of
barnacles in mangrove swamps, which have reduced wave action, diverse
substrata, greater turbidity, and much more patchily spaced resources of hard
substrata?
39
The patten of vertical and horizontal distribution and abundance of species has
generally been understood as the result of differential mortality (physical and
biological), operating on a barnacle-covered substratum (i.e. post-settlement
processes).
Alternative explanations have been suggested. These focus on the importance of
pre-settlement (i.e. survival and transport of larvae), and settlement processes (i.e.
habitat selection), determining the distribution of patterns of adults, including
invertebrates and fish.
In the second part of my project I will evaluate the relative importance of larval
availability, settlement and post-settlement (i.e. recruitment factors, both physical
and biological), in determining adult distribution and abundance on diverse
substrata.
A bi-monthly quantification of recruitment has been in progress since October
1987 and will be completed in March 1989. The results have been analysed and
pose questions concerning settlement.
Settlement is defined as the moment a larvae (cyprid) attaches itself to the
substratum. It has generally been determined by daily counts (24 hours), however,
it is known barnacle mortality is greatest immediately following settlement, and it
is possible that death has occurred in the intervening hours after settlement,
before measurement. Thus, erroneous conclusions may be made on the
relationship between settlement and recruitment.
A program designed to quantify settlement every 12 hours (after one high tide),
has been in progress since July 1988. Initial results have been obtained and
analysed for E. covertus on trunks. My plans are to repeat this for H. popeiana and
H. foliorum on trunks and leaves.
Initial results of settlement and plans to investigate these patterns are as follows:
(1) Between zones: Settlement is greatest in the seaward zone and significantly
less in the landward zone.
Plans: To quantify larval availability by taking plankton samples throughout
the zones in the mangrove forest, in July 1989 and Jan. 1990.
(2) Within a zone: Settlement is not significantly different between heights or
surfaces.
40
Plans: To quantify mortality after settlement in Jan. 1989 and July 1989.
Long term: Setting up of experiments in 1990 to investigate factors affecting
mortality (physical and biological).
(3) Lunar cycle: Settlement peaks are occurring on the full moon.
Plans: To investigate what effect arriving early on the full moon cycle may
have on mortality of cyprids compared to those cyprids arriving late.
Thus on completion of this work, a detailed account of the life history of the
mangrove barnacles will be obtained. Also, the relative importance of larval
availability, settlement and post-settlement factors will be determined in forming
adult distribution and abundance patterns of each species on each substrata. This
information will then provide a comparison to ecological theories about settlement
and recruitment mostly formulated on exposed rocky shores on other
invertebrates and fish.
This research will be completed as outlined in the schedule below.
De c/ Ja n / Fe b . 1 9 8 9
Quantification of settlement of H. popeiana/ H. foliorum on trees and leaves
respectively.
Quantification of mortality after settlement of H. popeiana/ H. foliorum on trees and
leaves respectively.
Setting up of experiments on growth and density of H. popeiana/ H. foliorum.
Setting up of experiments on leaf twist and leaf age.
Rearing of H. popeiana andH. foliorum in the laboratory to solve identification
problem of newly settled stages.
Last seasonal sample at Careel Bay.
Ma rch / Ap ril 1 9 8 9
Last bi-monthly recruitment collection
Lab work accumulated from above experiments
Writing up of above experiments (including a paper on leaf age and leaf twist)
Ju n e / Ju ly 1 9 8 9
Quantification of settlement of E. covertus onto trunks and leaves
Quantification of mortality after settlement of E. covertus on trunks and leaves
Setting up of experiments on growth and density of E. covertus onto trunks and
leaves
Setting up of experiment on leaf twist
41
42
P ro p o s a l 2
As p e c t s o f t h e Bio lo g y a n d Cu lt u re Te c h n iq u e s
o f t h e Ca n in e - c a t fis h Ee l ( P lo t o s u s c a n iu s Ha m .)
S ig n ific a n c e :
Demand for fish in the Philippines, as elsewhere in Asia at least, as a source of
high quality protein, is ever increasing, obviously because of the ever-growing
human population. Thus, the search for fish species to be domesticated is always
a major concern. specifically for aquaculture, the need to screen potential species
for domestication in suitable culture systems is due to the fact that several key
species currently reared in aquaculture systems are approaching their natural limit
of growth and additional inputs are necessary to increase production. And
certainly, any scheme to develop appropriate culture techniques for an aquatic
species will depend upon biological data vital to the rearing process.
The Alimusang or canine catfish eel (Plotosus canius Ham.) is one such promising
species and aspects on its biology and culture deserve serious scientific
investigation. these aspects are virtually (if not totally) unexplored to date. At
most, preliminary studies have been done in India and Australia. The first aspect
involves studies of the spatial and temporal distribution, growth, sexual maturity,
fecundity and food and feeding habits of this species. This biological information
is an important base to the culture aspect, which generally involves the
development of appropriate aquaculture technologies, including the nutritional
requirements and artificial propagation of the fish. Specifically, these will
constitute studies in tanks and ponds to evaluate its growth and survival at varying
management levels. Water quality and biological variables in these culture systems
also need to be regularly monitored. Relevant to these, the proposed work will
employ multivariate analytical tools, in contrast to the classical analysis of
variance, to make the greatest use of these parameters in predicting yield and
yield-related variables.
At present, the marketable P. canius which are being sold (at prohibitive prices
because the fish is a delicacy) in public markets (notably in the Bicol Region,
Philippines) have been caught in the wild. This system of resource utilisation is
definitely not dependably stable and prospects for resource development and
management are poor. The two aspects (to be referred to as Study 1 and Study 2
hereafter) mentioned are vital in looking into the feasibility of culturing P. canius
under controlled and semi-controlled conditions toward a desirable production
goal to augment supplies for domestic consumption. The proposed work will
utilise the stock of P. canius from the wild population.
43
Study 1 - Aspects of the Biology of the Canine-catfish Eel (Plotosus canius Ham.)
S p e c ific Ob je c t iv e s :
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
44
P ro p o s a l 3
S t u d ie s o f Ble n d s o f
P o ly e t h y le n t e re p h t h a la t e w it h N y lo n 6
I n t ro d u c t io n :
When two or more polymers are mixed together the composition is generally
referred to as a polymer blend or polyblend, and can assume many forms. the
forms depend on the degree of miscibility or immisicibility of polymers, including
a random copolymer or block or graft copolymer.
Commercial progress in the area of polyblends during the past two decades has
been tremendous and was driven by the realisation that new molecules are not
always required to meet needs for new materials and that blending can usually be
implemented more rapidly and economically that the development of new
chemistry. Also the tailoring of multicomponent polymer systems is less expensive
than producing a novel homopolymer. It is likely that polyblends will continue to
proliferate.
For several practical applications homopolymers may not satisfy all the end use
requirements, while suitable blending of two or more polymers can provide the
required balance of properties and such considerations form the basis of the
study of polymer blends. This study will describe the development of polymer
blends by the incorporation of nylon 6 to polyethylenterephthalate (PET) to
facilitate the use of P.E.T. as a moulding thermoplastic and consider the
compatibility of the two polymers. Such a study is expected to develop new kinds
of materials to fit a wide range of engineering applications. The shortcomings of
PET which have made its applications restricted include the following:
(a) its low melt viscosity and, hence, low melt strength creating difficulty in its
processing
(b) its low impact strength for engineering application
(c) high glass transition temperature (t g)
(d) slow rate of crystallisation making it highly amorphous in normal moulding
processes.
There are many ways to remove the above problems, but my aim in this study is
to minimise most of them by choice of nylon 6 which might be blended with PET
and considerations of the compatibility characteristics among the components in
this polymer blend should be taken into account.
45
Me t h o d o lo g y :
(a) Literature review:
At first I have to do a literature review and a survey in the library of the UNSW
and other sources in the world from international data banks by computer and
telex. Finding all papers about this study, and all information which is related to
this study.
(b) Materials and instruments:
Thinking about materials and instruments and preparing some of them.
Materials such as: polyethylenterephthalate, nylon 6, solvents, etc.
Instruments such as: Extruder, injection moulding, differential scanning
calorimetric, input tester, Universal testing machine for evaluations of tensile
strength, scanning electron microscope etc.
(c) Preparation of blends:
There are at least five distinct techniques for the preparation of polyblends, melt
solution latex blending, block and graft copolymers and synthesis of
interpenetrating networks.
In this study for preparation of blends I will use melt blending process, in which
two polymers are mixed in the molten state. In this process there are no
impurities and it requires no removal of extraneous solvents and the degree of
mixing depends on temperature, shear and time. These three factors must be
controlled, because the will also cause degradation, cross linking and formation of
block and graft copolymers, all of which will affect our understanding of the
product and its properties. The samples of blends with various composition in this
study will be prepared by extrusion and injection moulding.
(d) Characterisation and testing:
- consideration of compatibility of blends of O.S.C., S.E.M., etc.
- morphological observation
- consideration of mechanical properties such as tensile properties. Impact
strength, flexural properties, etc.
46
S t ru c t u re o f Th e s is :
- content
Chapter 1: Introduction
This chapter includes background description, summary of previous research
related to this study and aims.
Chapter 2: Experimental
This chapter includes materials, methods of the preparation of blends,
characterisation, testing methods and experimental results.
Chapter 3: Discussion and Conclusions.
Tim e t a b le :
- Literature review - 6 months
- Experimental - 24 months
- Writing of thesis - 6 months
Re fe re n c e s :
(1) Encyclopedia of Polymer Science and Engineering, second edition 1988,
vol.12
(2) Encyclopedia of Polymer Science and Technology. Supplement volume 2,
1977
(3) R.P. Burcord. Polymer blends and networks, a survey. School of Chemical
Engineering and Industrial Chemistry, University of New South Wales.
47