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OUTLINE
Displacement Sensors
Temperature Sensors
Electromagnetic radiation Sensors
Type of Sensors
A. Displacement Sensors:
resistance, inductance, capacitance, piezoelectric
B. Temperature Sensors:
Thermistors, thermocouples
A. Displacement Measurements
Used to measure directly and indirectly the size,
shape, and position of the organs.
Displacement measurements can be made using
sensors designed to exhibit a resistive, inductive,
capacitive or piezoelectric change as a function of
changes in position.
1. Resistive sensors
Potentiometers
Measure linear and angular position
Resolution a function of the wire construction
Measure velocity and acceleration
2 to 500mm
5
1. Resistive sensors
Potentiometers
1. Resistive sensors
Strain gages
Devices designed to exhibit a change in resistance as a result of experiencing
strain to measure displacement in the order of nanometer.
For a simple wire:
L
A
R / R
/
G
1 2
L / L
L / L
D / D
Is Poissons ratio
for most metals =0.3
L / L
7
1. Resistive sensors
Strain gages
1. Resistive sensors
1. Resistive sensors
Wheatstone Bridge
vo is zero when the bridge is balanced- that is when
R1 / R2 R4 / R3
If all resistor has initial value R0 then if R1 and R3 increase by R, and R2 and
R4 decreases by R, then
R
v0
vi
R0
10
1. Resistive sensors
Wheatstone Bridge
B
11
R3
R4
Va Vi
Vb Vi
R1 R4
R2 R3
R3
R4
Vo Va Vb Vi
R2 R3 R1 R4
R4 ( R3 R2 ) R3 ( R1 R4 )
Vo Vi
( R2 R3 )( R1 R4 )
1. Resistive sensors
1. Resistive sensors
13
14
1. Resistive sensors
1. Resistive sensors
1. Resistive sensors
2. Inductive sensors
i
+
v
d
vN
dt
17
v2
v1
N1
N2
N1
v1
v2
N2
2. Inductive sensors
Self-inductance
L n G
Mutual inductance
Differential
transformer
di
v 18 L
dt
2. Inductive sensors
3. Capacitive sensors
Capacitive sensors
A
C 0 r
x
20
3. Capacitive sensors
C
A
0 r 2
x
x
Vo ( j ) E / xo j
X 1 ( j )
j 1
Characteristics of capacitive sensors:
dvc
ic
dt
3. Capacitive sensors
Example:
For a 1 cm2 capacitance sensor, R is 100 M. Calculate x,
the plate spacing required to pass sound frequencies above
20 Hz.
Answer:
From the corner frequency, C =1/2fR=1/(220108)= 80 pF.
x can be calculated as follows:
12
22
A (8.854 10 )(110 )
x 0 r
C
80 10 12
x 1.11 10 5 m 1.11 m
4. Piezoelectric sensors
Vo
4. Piezoelectric sensors
q kf
k piezoelect ric constant, C/N
(typically pC/N, a material property)
k for Quartz = 2.3 pC/N
k for barium titanate = 140 pC/N
To find Vo, assume system acts like a capacitor (with infinite leak resistance):
q kf
kfx
Vo
C C 0 r A
Capacitor:
A
C 0 r
x
For piezoelectric sensor of 1-cm2 area and 1-mm thickness with an applied force
due to a 10-g weight, the output voltage v is
0.23 mV
for quartz crystal
24
14 mV
for barium titanate crystal.
4. Piezoelectric sensors
Piezoelectric polymeric films, such as polyvinylidence fluoride (PVDF). Used for uneven
25 and for microphone and loudspeakers.
surface
4. Piezoelectric sensors
q Kx
K proportionality constant
x deflection
4. Piezoelectric sensors
q Kx
is ic iR
dq
dx
is
K
dt
dt
ic is i R
dx Vo
dVo
C
K
dt R
dt
Vo j K s j
X j j 1
Curre
nt
R
a
4. Piezoelectric sensors
q VC Kx
Kx
V0
C
The decay and undershoot can be minimized by increasing the time constant
=RC.
28
4. Piezoelectric sensors
Example:
A piezoelectric sensor has C = 500 pF. Sensor leakage
resistanse is 10 G. The amplifier input impedance is 5 M.
What is the low corner frequency? Current
C = 500 pF
Rleak = 10 G
Ra = 5 M
What is fc,low ?
1
1
f c,low
64 Hz
6
12
2RC 2 (5 10 )(500 10 )
If input impedance is increased 100 times:
1
(Ra = 500 M )
f c,low
29
Then
the fc,low :
2 (500 10 6 )(500 10 12 )
0.64 Hz
R
s
30
Vo j K s j
X j j 1
OUTLINE
Displacement Sensors
Temperature Sensors
Electromagnetic radiation Sensors
B. Temperature Measurement
The human body temperature is a good indicator of the health
and physiological performance of different parts of the human
body.
Temperature indicates:
32
Thermocouples
Thermistors
Radiation and fiber-optic detectors
p-n junction semiconductor (2 mV/oC)
Thermocouple
T1
A
B
T2 T1
E = f(T1 T2)
33
Thermocouple
Advantages of Thermocouple
fast response (=1ms), small size (12 m diameter), ease of
fabrication and long-term stability
Disadvantages
Small output voltage, low sensitivity, need for a reference
temperature
34
Thermocouple
Empirical calibration data are usually curve-fitted with
a power series expansion that yield the Seebeck
voltage.
T1
A
B
T2 T1
E = f(T1 T2)
1 2
E aT bT ....
2
35
T: Temperature in Celsius
Reference junction is at 0 oC
Thermocouple Laws
1- Homogeneous Circuit law: A circuit composed of a
single homogeneous metal, one cannot maintain an
electric current by the application of heat alone. See
Fig. 2.12b (next slide)
2- Intermediate Metal Law: The net emf in a circuit
consisting of an interconnection of a number of unlike
metals, maintained at the same temperature, is zero.
See Fig. 2.12c (next slide)
- Second law makes it possible for lead wire connections
1
1
E23 E13 E12 a1T3 b1T3 a1T2 b1T2
2
2
36
T1
T2
T3
Thermocouple Laws
3- Successive or Intermediate Temperatures Law: See
Fig. 2.12d (next slide)
The third law makes it possible for calibration curves derived
for a given reference-junction temperature to be used to
determine the calibration curves for another reference
temperature.
1
1
E23 E13 E12 a1T3 b1T3 a1T2 b1T2
2
2
37
T1
T2
T3
38
Thermoelectric Sensitivity
E T
1
bT 2
2
dE
a bT
dT
T1
A
B
E = f(T1 T2)
T2
R3
vb
va
R2
Rt
Thermistors Resistance
[ (T0 T ) / TT0 ]
Rt R0e
1000
100
1 dRt
2
Rt dT
T
(% / K )
0.1
0.01
0.001
(a)
(a) Typical thermistor zero-power resistance
ratio-temperature characteristics for various materials.
42
Temperature, C
Voltage-Versus-Current
Characteristics
Voltage, V
100
Water
10
Air
1.0
0.1
0.10
1.0
10.0
100.0
Current, mA
(b)