Chapter 1 Biology : Exploring Life

1.1
All forms of life share common properties
Biology is the scientific study of life.
*7 properties and processes that we associate with life:
Order
Reproduction
Growth and Development
Energy Processing
Response to the environment
Regulation
Evolutionary Adaptation
1.2 In lifes hierarchy of organization, new properties emerge at each level
o
o
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o
o
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Biosphere all of the environments that support life

Ecosystem all of the organisms living in a particular area
Community - the entire array of organisms in an ecosystem
Population all the individuals of a particular species living in an area
Organism an individual living thing
Organ System consists of several organs that cooperate in a specific function
Organ made up of a group of similar cells that perform specific function
Tissue organs are made up of tissues
Cell fundamental unit of life
Organelle membrane-enclosed structure that performs a specific function in a
cell
Molecule cluster of small chemical units called atoms held together by chemical
bonds

Emergent properties result from the interactions among component parts.

1.3 Cells are the structural and functional units of life

The cell is the level at which the properties of life emerge.
Cell Theory - All organisms are made up of cells. All Cells share many characteristics.
2 Basic Types of Cells:
Eukaryotic Cells 2.1 billon years ago
-membrane-enclosed organelles, including a nucleus containing DNA
Prokaryotic Cells 1.5 billion years of life on Earth
-smaller and lack such organelles
1.4 Organisms interact with their environment, exchanging matter and energy
1.5 The unity of life is based on DNA and a common genetic code
Evolution is the core theme of Biology
DNA responsible for hereditary and for programming the activities of a cell

1.6 The diversity of life can be arranged into three domains.

Diversity is a hallmark of life.

The 3 domains of Life:

Bacteria and
Archea, consist of prokaryotes
Eukarya eukaryotic domain, includes various protists and
Kingdoms : Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia

1.7 Evolution explains the unity and diversity of life

Charles Darwin synthesized the theory of evolution by natural selection
1.8 Scientific inquiry is used to ask and answer questions about nature
Science is derived from a Latin verb meaning to know
Data may be qualitative or quantitative
Inductive reasoning this kind of reasoning derives generalizations from a large number of
specific observations
Hypothesis is a proposed of explanation for a set of observation
Deductive reasoning the logic flows from general premises to the specific results we should
expect if the premises are true
Scientific Theory is broad in scope, generated new hypotheses, and is supported by a large
body of evidence
1.9 Scientists form and test hypothesis and share their results
Predictions can be tested by experiments. Results can either falsify or support the hypothesis.
In a controlled experiment, the use of control and experimental groups helps to demonstrate the
effect of a single variable.
1.10 Biology, technology, and society are connected in important ways
Technologies advances stem from scientific research, and research benefits from new technologies.

1.11 Evolution is connected to our everyday lives

Evolutionary theory is useful in medicine, agriculture forensics, and conservation

Chapter 2 : The Chemical Basis of Life

2.1 Organisms are composed of elements, in combinations called compounds

Matter anything that occupies space and has mass
Element a substance that cannot be broken down to other substances by ordinary chemical
means
Compound substance consisting of 2 or more different elements combined in a fixed ratio
Oxygen, Carbon, Hydrogen, and Nitrogen 96% of living matter

2.2 Trace elements are common additives to food and water

Iron vital for energy processing and for transporting oxygen in blood
Iodine essential ingredient of a hormone produce by thyroid gland
- Iodine deficiency = goiter
Fluoride mouthwash & toothpaste

2.3 Atom consist of proton, neutrons, and electrons

Atom indivisible, smallest unit of matter

Proton positively charged

Electron negatively charged
Neutron neutral (no charge)
Atomic Number = Proton = Electron
Mass number = Protons+Neutrons = atomic mass
Isotope of an element have the same # of protons but different numbers of neutrons
Radioactive isotopes nucleus decays spontaneously, giving of particles and energy
2.4 Radioactive isotopes can help or harm us
Chemical Bonds
2.5 The distribution of electrons determines an atoms chemical properties
Electron shells electrons move around the nucleus only at certain energy levels
Chemical bonds an atom whose outer electron shell is not full tends to interact with other
atoms and share, gain, or lose electrons, resulting in attraction called chemical bonds
2.6 Covalent bonds join atoms into molecules through electron sharing
Covalent bond 2 atoms share one or more pairs of out-shell electron

Nonpolar Covalent Bond electrons are shared equally

Polar Covalent Bonds (in water), electrons are pulled closer to the more
electronegative atom

2.7 Ionic bonds are attraction between ions of opposite charge

Ion is an atom or molecule with an electrical charge resulting from a gain or loss of one or
more electrons
2.8 Hydrogen bonds are weak bonds important in the chemistry of life
2.9 Chemical reactions make and break chemical bonds
Waters Life-Supporting Properties

2.10 Hydrogen bonds make liquid cohesive

Cohesion molecules stick together
2.11 Waters hydrogen bonds moderate temperature
Heat amount of energy associated with the movement of atoms & molecules
Temperature intensity of heat
2.12 Ice is less dense than liquid water
Ice: hydrogen bonds are stable
Liquid Water: hydrogen bonds constantly break and re-form
2.13 Water is the solvent of life
Solution liquid consisting of a uniform mixture of 2 or more substances
Solvent dissolving agent
Solute substance that is dissolved
2.14 The chemistry of life is sensitive to acidic and basic condition
Acid compound that releases H+ in solution
Base accepts H+
pH (potential of hydrogen), describe how acidic or basic a solution is.
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0= most acidic, 7= neutral, 14= most basic

2.15 Acid precipitation and ocean acidification threaten the environment

2.16 The search for extraterrestrial life centers on the search for water

Chapter 3 The Molecules of Cell

3.1 Lifes molecular diversity is based on the properties of carbon

Carbon-based molecules are called organic compounds.

Compounds composed of only carbon and hydrogen are called hydrocarbons. (methane,
propane)
The chain of carbon atoms in an organic molecule is called a carbon skeleton.
Compounds with the same formula but different structural arrangements are called isomers.
3.2 A few Chemical groups are key to the functioning of biological molecules
Hydroxyl group consists of a hydrogen atom bonded to an oxygen atom.
Carbonyl group, a carbon atom is linked by a double bond to an oxygen atom.
Carboxyl group consists of a carbon double-bonded to an oxygen atom and also bounded to a
hydroxyl group.
Amino group has a N bonded to two H and the C skeleton.
Phosphate group consists of a P atom bonded to four O atoms.
Methyl group consists of a carbon bonded to three hydrogens.
3.3 Cells make a huge number of large molecules from a limited set of small molecules
Four main classes of molecules; carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids
Macromolecules; carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids
Cells make most of their macromolecules by joining smaller molecules into chains called
polymers. (many, part)
Polymer is a large molecule consisting of many identical or similar building blocks strung
together.
The building blocks of polymers are called monomers.
Cells link monomers together to form polymers by a dehydration reaction, a reaction that
removes a molecule of water.
Digestion process is called hydrolysis; means to break (lyse) with water (hydro-).
3.4 Monosaccharides are the simplest carbohydrates.
The carbohydrate monomers (single-unit sugars) are monosaccharides
Glucose are the main fuel molecules for cellular work.
3.5 Two monosaccharides are linked to form a disaccharide.
3.7 Polysaccharides are long chains of sugar units.
Starch, a storage polysaccharide in plants.
Glycogen, storage polysaccharide of animals.
Cellulose, most abundant organic compound on Earth. Found in plant cell walls.
Chitin, a component of insect exoskeletons and fungal cell walls.
3.8 Fats are lipids that are mostly energy-storage molecules
Lipids are diverse, hydrophobic compounds composed largely of carbon and hydrogen.
-dont form polymers

Fats (triglycerides) consist of glycerol linked to 3 fatty acids.

Saturated fatty acids found in animal fats
Unsaturated fatty acids are typical of plant oils

3.9 Phospholipids and steroids are important lipids with a variety of functions.
Cells could not exist without phospholipids; components of cell membranes
Steroids include cholesterol and some hormones

Cholesterol common component in animal cell membranes.

3.10 Anabolic steroids pose health risks

Anabolic steroids are synthetic variants of the male hormone testosterone.
3.11 Proteins are made from amino acids linked by peptide bonds
Protein is a polymer of amino acids.
Protein diversity is based on different sequences of amino acids, monomers that contain an
amino group, a carboxyl group, an H group , and an R group, all attached to a central carbon.
Peptide bond covalent linkage
Polypeptide additional amino acids are added by the same probes to form a chain of amino
acids.
3.12 A proteins specific shape determines its function
3.13 A proteins shape depends on four levels of structure

Primary Structure is the sequence of amino acids in its polypeptide chain

Secondary Structure is the coiling or folding of the chain, stabilized by hydrogen
bonds.
Tertiary structure is the overall three-dimensional shape of polypeptide
Quaternary structure proteins made of more than one polypeptide

3.14 DNA and RNA are the two types of nucleic acids
Gene consists of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid)
DNA and RNA serve as the blueprints for proteins and thus control the life of a cell.
3.15 Nucleic acids are polymers of nucleotides
The monomers that make up nucleic acids are nucleotides
Nucleotides are composed of a sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base.
3.16 Lactose tolerance is a recent even in human evolution

Chapter 4 : A Tour of the Cell

4.1 Microscopes reveal the world of cell

Light Microscope (LM) visible light is passed through a specimen and then through glass
lenses
Electron Microscope (EM) focuses beam of electrons through a specimen

Scanning electron microscope (SEM) study the detailed architecture of cell

surfaces
Transmission electron microscope (TEM) study the details of internal cell
structure

Magnification the increase in the apparent size of an object

Paramecium single-celled protest
Cell theory All living things are composed of cells and that all cells come from other cells
4.2 The small size of cells relates to the need to exchange materials across the
plasma membrane
Plasma Membrane forms a flexible boundary between the living cell and its surroundings
4.3 Prokaryotic cells are structurally simpler then eukaryotic cells
Eukaryotic Cells membrane-enclosed nucleus, with organelles
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eukaryote means true nucleus

Animal Cell and Plant cell

Prokaryotic cells much smaller & simpler than eukaryotic cells, no nucleus or other
membrane-bound organelles
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Prokaryote means before nucleus

Domain Bacteria and Archaea

All cells have several basic features in common:

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Plasma Membrane
Chromosomes carrying genes made of DNA
Ribosomes make proteins according to instructions from the genes
Cytoplasm interior of both cells

4.4 Eukaryotic cells are partitioned into functional compartments

Organelles little organs, perform specific functions in the cell
Basic Functional Groups:
1) The nucleus & ribosomes carry out the genetic control of the cell
2) The endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi Apparatus, lysosomes, vacuoles, and
peroxisome
manufacture, distribution, and breakdown of molecules
3) Mitochondria & chloroplasts (plant cell) energy processing
4) Cytoskeleton, Plasma Membrane, & plant cell wall structural support,
movement, and communication
Cellular metabolism chemical activities of cells
Not found in animal cells: Central Vacuole, chloroplast, cell wall, plasmodesma
ANIMAL CELL
PLANT
CELL
Not
plant

found in
cells:

Lysosomes & centrioles

Cell Wall protect cells and help maintain their shape

Plasmodesma cytoplasmic channels through cells walls that connect adjacent
cells
Chloroplasts where photosynthesis occurs
Large Central vacuole a compartment that stores water & a variety of
chemicals

4.5

The
nucleus
the cells
genetic

is
control center

Nucleus contains most of the cells DNA (master plans)

- Controls the cells activities by directing protein synthesis
- Houses the cells DNA and directs protein synthesis by making messenger RNA
Chromatin complex of proteins and DNA
Nuclear Envelope a double membrane enclosing the nucleus
Endoplasmic Reticulum cells network of membranes
Nucleolus in the nucleus, where ribosomal RNA (RNA)is synthesized

4.6 Ribosomes make proteins for use in the cell and for export
Ribosomes synthesize proteins according to the instructions carried by messenger RNA from
the DNA in the nucleus

The Endomembrane System

4.7 Many cell organelles are connected through the endomembrane system
Endomembrane System many of the membranes of the eukaryotic cell are part of this
Vesicles sac made of membrane in the cytoplasm of a eukaryotic cell

4.8 The endoplasmic reticulum is a biosynthetic factory

Endoplasmic reticulum extensive network of flattened tubes and sacs

Endoplasmic means within the cytoplasm, reticulum mean little net

Smooth ER lacks attached ribosomes

- synthesizes lipids and processes toxins
Rough ER has ribosomes that stud the outer surface of the membrane
- manufactures membranes, and ribosomes on its surface produce membrane and
secretory proteins

4.9 Golgi apparatus finishes, sorts, and ships cell products

Golgi apparatus consists of stacks of sacs that modify ER products and ship them to other
organelles

4.10 Lysosomes are digestive compartments within a cell

Lysosomes membranous sac of digestive enzymes
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house enzymes that function in digestion and recycling within the cell

4.11 Vacuoles function in the general maintenance of the cell

Plant cell contain a large central vacuole that stores molecules and wastes and facilitates
growth
4.12 A review of the structures involved in manufacturing and breakdown
The organelles of the endomembrane system are interconnected structurally and functionally
Peroxisomes are metabolic compartments that do not originate from the endomembrane
system

Energy-Converting Organelles
4.13 Mitochondria harvest chemical energy for food
Mitochondria (singular, mitochondrion), carry out cellular respiration
- converts chemical energy of foods (sugar) to the chemical energy of the molecule ATP
- power house of the cell

*ATP (adenosine triphosphate) main energy source for cellular work

4.14 Chloroplasts convert solar energy to chemical energy
Chloroplast where photosynthesis takes place

Stroma contains chloroplast DNA and ribosomes as well as many enzymes

Thylakoid network of interconnected sacs
Granum stacks of thylakoids

4.15 Mitochondria and chloroplasts evolved by endosymbiosis

Endosymbiont Theory states that mitochondria and chloroplasts were formerly small
prokaryotes

The Cytoskeleton and Cell Surfaces

4.16 The cells internal skeleton helps organize its structure and activities
Cytoskeleton network of protein fibers
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Microfilaments enable cells to change shape and move

Intermediate filaments reinforce the cell and anchor certain organelles
Microtubules give the cell rigidity and act as track for organelle movement

4.17 Cilia and Flagella move when microtubules bend

4.19 The extracellular matrix of animal cells function in support and regulation
4.20 Three types of cell junction are found in animal tissues

 Tight junction bind cells to form leakproof sheets

Anchoring junctions - rivet cells into strong tissues
Gap junctions allow substances to flow from cell to cell

4.21 Cell walls enclose and support plant cells

Chapter 5 : The Working Cell

Membrane Structure and Function
5.1 Membranes are fluid mosaics of lipids and proteins with many functions
Fluid Mosaic - Membranes are composed of a bilayer of phospholipids with embedded &
attached proteins
5.2 Membranes form spontaneously, a critical step in the origin of life
5.3 Passive transport is diffusion across a membrane with no energy investment
Diffusion spontaneous movement of a substance down its concentration gradient
Passive Transport the diffusion of a substance across a biological membrane, with no
expenditure in energy
5.4 Osmosis is the diffusion of water across a membrane
5.5 Water balance between cells and their surroundings is crucial to organisms
Tonicity the ability of a surrounding solution to cause a cell to gain or lose water
Cells shrink in hypertonic solution, and swell in a hypotonic solution.
5.6 Transport proteins can facilitate diffusion across membranes
Facilitated diffusion polar substances can move across a membrane with the help of specific
transport proteins
5.7 Research on another membrane protein led to the discovery of aquaporins
Aquaporin protein channel
5.8 Cells expend energy in the active transport of a solute
5.9 Exocytosis and endocytosis transport large molecules across membranes
Exocytosis a vesicle may fuse with the membrane and expel its contents
Endocytosis the membrane may fold inward, enclosing material from the outside

Energy and the Cell

5.10 Cells transform energy as they perform work
Energy capacity to cause change or to perform work

Kinetic energy energy of motion

Potential energy energy stored in the location or structure of matter
Chemical energy available for release in a chemical reaction

Law of thermodynamics:
1. Law of energy conservation energy can change form but cannot be created or
destroyed
2. Energy transformation increase disorder (entropy)

5.11 Chemical reaction either release or store energy

Exergonic reaction release energy
Endergonic reactions require energy and yield products rich in potential enery
Metabolism cells chemical reactions
5.12 ATP drives cellular work by coupling exergonic and endergonic reacions
ATP Adenosine Triphosphate
Phosphorylation phosphate transfer
3 main types of cellular work: chemical, mechanical, and transport work

How Enzyme Function

5.13 Enzymes speed up the cells chemical reactions by lowering energy barriers
Enzymes are protein catalysts that decrease the activation energy (E A) needed to begin a
reaction
5.14 A specific enzyme catalyzes each cellular reaction
5.15 Enzyme inhibitors can regulate enzyme activity in a cell
Inhibitor a chemical that interferes with an enzymes activity
Competitive inhibitor competes with the substrate for the active site
Noncompetitive inhibitor alters and enzymes function by changing its shape
Feedback Inhibition helps regulate metabolism
5.16 Many drugs, pesticides, and poisons are enzyme inhibitors

Chapter 6 : How Cells harvest Chemical Energy

Cellular Respiration: Aerobic Harvesting of Energy

6.1 Photosynthesis and cellular respiration provide energy for life
Energy comes from the sun.
In photosynthesis (takes place in chloroplasts), the energy of sunlight is used to rearrange the
atoms of carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H20) to produce glucose and oxygen (O 2)
6 CO2 + 6 H2O -> C6H12O6 + 6 O2
In cellular respiration (takes place in mitochondria), O2 is consumed as glucose is broken down
to CO2 and H2O; the cell capture the energy released in ATP
C6H12O6 + 6 O2 -> 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + Energy (ATP + heat)
6.2 Breathing supplies O2 for use in cellular respiration and removes CO2
Respiration - breathing, exchange of gases
- Aerobic (oxygen-requiring) harvesting of energy from food molecules by cells
6.3 Cellular respiration banks energy in ATP molecules
C6H12O6 + 6 O2 -> 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + Energy (ATP + heat)
6.4 The human body uses energy from ATP for all its activities
6.5 Cells tap energy from electrons falling from organic fuels to oxygen
Redox Reaction movement of electrons from one molecule to another
Oxidation the loss of electrons from one substance
Reduction the addition of electrons to another substance
NAD+ (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) - an important player in the process of oxidizing
glucose
- which accepts electrons and becomes reduced to NADH
NADH passes electrons to an electron transport chain

Stages of Cellular Respiration

Stage 1 : Glycolysis breaking glucose into two molecules of a 3-carbon compound called
pyruvate
Stage 2 : Pyruvate oxidation and the Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs Cycle)
Stage 3 : Oxidative Phosphorylation

6.7 Glycolysis harvests chemical energy by oxidizing glucose to pyruvate

Glycolysis = splitting of sugar
Substrate-level phosphorylation an enzyme transfers a phosphate group from a substrate
molecule to ADP, forming ATP

6.8 Pyruvate is oxidized prior to the citric acid cycle

6.9 The citric acid cycle completes the oxidation of organic molecules, generating
many NADH and FADH2 molecules
- a.k.a Krebs Cycle, in honor of Hans Kreb

6.10 Most ATP production occurs by oxidative phosphorylation

In mitochondria, electrons from NADH and FADH 2 travel down the electron transport chain to O 2,
which picks up H+ to form water.

6.11 Interrupting cellular respiration can have both harmful and beneficial benefits

Poisons can block electron flow, movement of H + through ATP synthase

6.12 Each molecule of glucose yields many molecules
Substrate-level phosphorylation and oxidative phosphorylation produce up to 32 ATP molecules
for every glucose molecule oxidized in cellular respiration

Fermentation : Anaerobic harvesting of Energy

6.13 Fermentation enables cells to produce ATP without oxygen

Lactic acid fermentation NAD+ is recycled from NADH as pyruvate is reduced to

lactate
Alcohol Fermentation or in microbes, alcohol and CO2

6.14 Glycolysis evolved early in the history of life on Earth

Glycolysis - occurs in the cytoplasm of all organisms, evolved in ancient prokaryotes

Connections between Metabolic Pathways

6.15 Cells use many kinds of organic molecules as fuel for cellular respiration
Carbohydrates, fats, and proteins can all fuel cellular respiration
6.16 Food Molecules provide raw materials for biosynthesis

Chapter 7 Photosynthesis: Using Light to Make Food

7.1 Autotrophs are the producers of the biosphere

Plants are
autotrophs (self-feeders),
specifically photoautotrophs (uses light energy to make food)
Photosynthesis plants convert CO2 and H2O to their own organic molecules and release O 2 as
a by-product
Photoautotrophs producers of the biosphere

7.2 Photosynthesis occurs in chloroplasts in plant cells

Chlorophyll green color, light absorbing pigment, solar energy to chemical energy
Mesophyll green tissue in the interior of the leaf
Stomata tiny pores
Chloroplast surrounded by a double membrane

Stroma thick fluid

Thylakoids a system of interconnected membranous sacs
Grana stacks of thylakoids

7.3 Scientists traced the process of photosynthesis using isotopes

Basic equation for photosynthesis:
6 CO2 + 6 H2O

C6H2O6 + 6 O2

Isotopes atoms with different number of neutrons

In the 1950s, scientists confirmed Van Niels hypothesis by using a heavy isotope of oxygen

7.4 Photosynthesis is a redox process, as is cellular respiration

In photosynthesis, H2O is oxidized and CO2 is reduced
Endergonic (absorbing energy in the form of work) photosynthesis

7.5 Overview: The two stages of photosynthesis are linked by ATP & NADPH
Light reactions convert light energy to chemical energy and release oxygen
Thylakoid membranes light reaction occurs
NADP+ - electron acceptor, reducing it to NADPH
NADPH temporarily stores electrons and hydrogen ions and provides reducing power to
the Calvin cycle
Calvin cycle occurs in the stroma of the chloroplast
-

sometimes referred to as the dark reactions or light-independent reactions

Carbon fixation as CO2 entering the Calvin cycle
Photosynthesis (two stages) Photo, Greek word light, synthesis, meaning putting
together refers to the sugar construction of the Calvin cycle
For chloroplast to produce sugar from carbon dioxide in the dark, they would need to be supplied
with ATP and NADPH.

The Light Reactions: Converting Solar Energy to Chemical Energy

7.6 Visible radiation absorbed by pigments drives the light reactions

Electromagnetic Spectrum full range of electromagnetic wavelengths from the very short
gamma rays to the very long wavelengths radio waves
Wavelength distance between the crests of two adjacent waves
Photons discrete packets of energy, has a fixed quantity of energy, the shorter the wavelength
of light, the greater the energy of its photons
7.7 Photosystems capture solar energy
Photosystem consist of a number of light-harvesting complexes surrounding reaction-center
complex
Light-harvesting complex contains various pigments molecules bound to proteins
7.8 Two photosystems connected by an electron transport chain generate ATP &
NADPH
Tracing the light reactions, there is a flow of electrons from water to NADP+, which is reduced to
NADPH, the source of electrons for sugar synthesis in the Calvin cycle.
7.9 Chemiosmosis powers ATP synthesis in the light reaction
Photophosphorylation electron transport chain pumps H+ into the thylakoid space
The Calvin cycle uses the NADPH and ATP, occurs in the stroma
The Calvin Cycle: Reducing CO2 to Sugar
7.10 ATP and NADPH power sugar synthesis in the Calvin cycle
Steps of Calvin cycle: Carbon fixation, reduction, release of one molecule of G3P, and
regeneration of RuBP
To synthesize one glucose molecule, the Calvin cycle uses 6 CO2, 18 ATP, and 12 NADPH.
7.11 Other methods of carbon fixation have evolved in hot, dry climates
C3 plants first product of carbon fixation is the three-carbon compound 3-PGA, widely
distributed (hot & dry decrease crop yield)
Photorespiration as O2 builds up in a leaf, rubisco adds O 2 instead of CO2 to RuBP, a two
carbon product of this reaction is then broken down in the cell
C4 plants they first fix CO2 into a four carbon compound (hot & dry stomata mostly closed,
thus conserving water)
CAM plants adapted to very dry climates (conserves water by opening its stomata and
admitting CO2 only at night)
Photosynthesis Reviewed and Extended
7.12 Review: Photosynthesis uses light energy, carbon dioxide, and water to make
organic molecules
Photosynthesis is the ultimate source of the food for almost all organisms and the oxygen they
need for cellular respiration.
7.13 Photosynthesis may moderate global climate change
Greenhouse effect sunlight warms Earths surface, which radiates heat to the atmosphere.
CO2 and other greenhouse gases absorb and radiate some heat back to Earth.

7.14 Scientific study of Earths ozone layer has global significance

Solar radiation converts O2 high in the atmosphere to ozone (O3), which shields organisms from
damaging UV radiation.