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PHYSICS 2
CHAPTER 1: OPTICS
REVISION
1.1
Measurements and Units
Quantities that can be measured are called ______________ quantities. Examples of physical
quantities are like length, time, weight, current and many more.
Two things need to be mentioned while stating a physical quantity. First is the
______________value, second, is the ______________
According to the Systeme International (S.I.), seven physical quantities has been selected to be the
base quantity. The units for base quantities are called base units.
Each fundamental quantity in the metric system is defined in terms of a naturally-occurring
phenomenon, except for the mass standard.
Base Quantity
Name
Base Units
Symbol
Name
Symbol
Time
Length
Mass
Temperature
Electric current
Amount of substance
Luminous Intensity
Other physical quantities other than the base quantities are called the _________________. All
derived quantities are a combination of the base quantities.
Physical
Quantities
Density
Defined as
Unit
Special Name
Momentum
Force
Pressure
Work (Energy)
Power
Electrical Charge
Potential difference
Resistance
1.2
Prefixes
For very large or very small numbers of quantities, we can use standard prefixes with the base
units.
Prefix
Multiplying Factor
Symbol
Pico
Nano
Micro
Mili
Centi
Deci
Kilo
Mega
Giga
Tera
Example
Energy stored in a bowl of ice cream = 12 000 000J
= 12 x 106
= 12 MJ
1.3
Significant Figures
To count the number of significant figures, you must count up the total number of digits starting
at the first non zero digit, reading from the left to the right.
2 s.f
1 s.f.
Always give your answers to the lowest significant figures found in the question.
Scientific Notation.
Express your value so that it has one digit to the left of the decimal and all other significant digits to the
right of the decimal. It should then be multiplied by an appropriate power of 10.
(1) When the absolute value of the original number is greater than one, then moving the decimal point
will require the resulting number to be multiplied by 10 raised to a positive exponent.
(2) When the absolute value of the original number is less than one, then moving the decimal point will
require the resulting number to be multiplied by 10 raised to a negative exponent.
OPTICS
Definitions
Luminous
Illuminated
illuminated.
Transparent
: An object that ______________ its own light is said to be luminous eg. Stars
: An object becomes ______________t when light falls on it is said to be
: An object that ______________ light to pass through it is said to be transparent.
Eg Glass
: Objects that ______________ light/ do not allow light to pass through are called
opaque. Eg Wooden Shutters
: An object that allows light to pass through although you cannot see
______________ them eg ______________
Opaque
Translucent
a) Specular reflection
When parallel light is incident upon a
smooth surface (eg. Mirror) the reflected
rays are parallel to each other.
b) Diffused Reflection
When parallel light is incident upon a
rough surface, the reflected rays are in
various direction.
Spectrum
A range of colours produced when white light is dispersed through a prism.
Shadow- shadows mostly tell us about the nature of light. Light tends to travel in straight
lines and can be blocked by material objects. It doesn't bend around them and fill in the
area behind, at least at the scale we are considering here.
ii)
Parallax is a displacement or difference in the apparent position of an object viewed along
two different lines of sight. Parallax creates ______________ through observed changes as you
move. Close one eye so that you are only looking through one lens. Hold out your thumb in
between you and another object, such as this Physics notes. There is some part of the notes that is
obscured by your thumb. However by moving your head, you can see around the thumb to the
pages. When your brain uses parallax, it gauges the relative movement of two objects as you
move, which will describe the relative distance between you and the two objects.
When an observer moves, the apparent relative motion of several stationary objects against a
background gives hints about their relative distance. If information about the direction and
velocity of movement is known, motion parallax can provide absolute depth information. This
effect can be seen clearly when driving in a car. Nearby things pass quickly, while far off objects
appear stationary.
A simple everyday example of parallax can be seen
in the dashboard of motor vehicles that use a needlestyle speedometer gauge. When viewed from directly
in front, the speed may show exactly 60; but when
viewed from the passenger seat the needle may
appear to show a slightly different speed, due to the
angle of viewing.
Bleaching by UV Light
Bleaching materials/soap powder will have fluorescent components in it. When fluorescent components
are exposed to UV light, it will absorb the energy and emit bright light. Thats why most soap powder can
promise shining white clothes.
Photosensitive Cells in the Eye
The very back of the eye is lined with a layer called the retina which acts very much like the film of the
camera. The retina is a membrane containing photoreceptor nerve cells that lines the inside back wall of
the eye. The photoreceptor nerve cells of the retina change the light rays into electrical impulses and send
them through the optic nerve to the brain where an image is perceived.
Ultraviolet (UV)
Visible light
Infra-red (IR)
Radio Waves
X-Rays
- high energy waves which is dangerous to humans if they are exposed long term.
Gamma Rays
- Gamma rays were discovered by P. Villiard in 1900. These are the most energetic
photons, apart from Cosmic rays. Thanks to their penetrative ability, gamma rays is
widely used in medicine. (eg radiotherapy- to divide cancerous cells etc.)
Dangers of being exposed to high energy waves (i.e the UV, X-rays and Gamma Rays)
Medical men have been aware for half a century that X rays can be destructive to human tissue.
Overdosage of X rays for benign purposes can have malignant consequences. Example: careless
treatment may cure acne, but cause skin cancer. Despite this established knowledge, X rays are still being
incautiously used as cure-alls. In the New England Journal of Medicine, Drs. Bradford Cannon, Judson
G. Randolph and Joseph E. Murray of Boston report that "patients continue to appear with permanent
tissue destruction that has resulted from relatively recent radiation treatment of acne, plantar wart,
eczema [and] superfluous hair." Examining 165 such cases from their personal files and the records of
Massachusetts General Hospital, the doctors starkly document the dangers of unnecessary exposure to
irradiation.
Items:
Nearly half the patients suffered from persistent painful ulceration.
Cancer appeared in 36or 22%of the cases.
Of the ten patients who had been treated for acne, nine developed skin cancer.
"This appears to be an increasing problem," warn the doctors, "since twice the number were observed at
the Massachusetts General Hospital in the decade 1948 to 1957 as in the preceding decade." But the
worst may be yet to come. No one knows how many healthy people with histories of such treatment may
later develop malignancies. The interval for the appearance of cancer after treatment ranged in the study
from five to 55 years.
TIME Magazine
The Law of reflection states that the angle of incident, ______________ the angle of reflection
.
These angles are measured with respect to the normal. The incident ray, reflected ray and the normal
is on the same plane.
Lets try to draw ray diagram to show how reflection works and deduce the equation of Law of
Reflection.
10
Remember that the image is ______________ (left right reversal). If you raise a right hand, the
image will have a left hand raised. (eg. Ambulance) this is called ______________ inversion.
The distance between you and the image is ______________ where d is the distance of the object
to the mirror.
______________ lines must be used for virtual images and virtual rays.
The man is twice as tall as the distance between points X and Y. In other words, to view an image of
yourself in a plane mirror, you will need an amount of mirror equal to one-half of your height. A 6-foot
tall man needs 3-feet of mirror (positioned properly) in order to view his entire image.
11
But what if the man stood a different distance from the mirror?
It can be shown that ______________ where the man stands, it will only take a mirror ______________
his height to obtain full view of himself.
12
Multiple Reflections
Angled Mirrors
Click to enlarge
120 - Two mirrors set at any angle between 180 and 90 reflect an object 2 times. As the angle
approaches 90, you see one mirror reflected in the other, but you do not see additional reflected
objects.
Click to enlarge
90 - Two mirrors at a right angle (90) show two complete reflections and one composite reflection. An
angle less than 90 shows two straight reflections and two partial reflections.
Click to enlarge
Click to enlarge
Click to enlarge
45 - At 45 you see the object reflected 3 times in each mirror and one composite reflection for an
apparent total of ______________ reflections or 8 if you count the object itself.
Unless the mirrors are very large, it is hard to see into an opening of less than 45.
Click to enlarge
13
Parallel - When two mirrors are parallel to each other, the number of reflections is
Placing one mirror at a slight angle causes the reflections to curve.
______________.
Click to enlarge
Multi-Faceted Mirrors - Increasing the number of flat mirrored surfaces or facets increases the number
of reflections, but what you see depends on where you stand. The number of complete and partial
reflections changes as you view the mirror from different angles.
Click to enlarge
14
Periscope
Refraction
The ______________ of the light when light travels from one medium to another is called
refraction. Refraction happens because speed of light changes in different______________.
The extent to which the speed of light in a material medium differs from that in vacumn is
measured using the refraction______________.
15
Snells Law
Snells Law of refraction states that when light travels from material with refractive index n1 into a
material with refractive index, n2. The angle of refraction 2 is related to the angle of incidence 1 by
If the incident ray is from air, then the equation can be further simplified to
If it is not from air but from other materials (i.e glass to water)
The ratio
The value of the ratio is called the______________ refractive index because it depends on the
properties of two different substances.
The bending of light always involves light travelling from one substance to another. It is not possible
to find the effect of a particular substance on the deflection of light without adopting one substance as
a reference standard. Once you have a standard, every substance can be compared with it. A natural
standard is a vacuum the absence of any substance. The absolute refractive index of a vacuum is
given the value of 1. From this, the absolute refractive index of all other substances can be
determined.
Example 1
A ray of light strikes a piece of glass (n = 1.5), making an angle of 30o with the surface. What angle does
the refracted ray make with the surface inside the glass?
16
Example 2
Using the information given in the following diagram, calculate the optical index of refraction for
medium B.
*additional notes: it is important to note that when a ray of light is directed from air to water, part of the
light is also reflected at the interface and the remainder is refracted. (refer to the diagram)
Example 3
Light travels at speeds of 2.34 x 108m/s in oil and at 2.00 x 108 m/s in glass and at 3.00 x 108m/s in a
vacuum. Calculate:
a)
b)
c)
17
What is the final angle of refraction at point X? From the calculation, explain which medium is
denser.
18
Critical angle only happens when light travels from optically ___________medium (higher index)
to a ___________medium (lower index). eg from glass to air or water to air.
TIR happens when incident angle ___________ the critical angle and the rays are traveling from a
denser medium. No refraction is observed, all rays are reflected back into the medium.
19
The jug has a pea-sized hole drilled in its side such that when the cork is removed from the top of the jug,
water begins to stream out the jug's side. The beam of laser light is then directed into the jug from the
opposite side of the hole, through the water and into the falling stream. The laser light exits the jug
through the hole but is still in the water. As the stream of water begins to fall as a projectile along a
parabolic path to the ground, the laser light becomes trapped within the water due to total internal
reflection. Being in the more dense medium (water) and heading towards a boundary with a less dense
medium (air), and being at angles of incidence greater than the critical angle, the light never leaves the
stream of water. In fact, the stream of water acts as a light pipe to pipe the laser beam along its trajectory.
20
As shown in figure above, the light ray meets the edge of the fibre at an angle of incidence greater than
the critical angle and is reflected back into the fibre. In this way, nearly all of the light that enters the fibre
emerges at the other end.
If the glass fibre is exposed to the air, the critical angle for light travelling from glass to air is
______________, which is quite small. Any angle of incidence greater than this angle will produce total
internal reflection. If the fibre is very narrow, this angle is easily achieved. However, in both medical and
telecommunication uses, fibres are joined in bundles with edges touching. The touching would enable
light rays to pass from fibre to fibre, confusing the signal. To overcome this, a plastic coating is put
around the glass to separate the glass fibres. The total internal reflection occurs between the glass and the
plastic. The critical angle for light travelling from glass to plastic is ______________. This value presents
a problem because light meeting the edge of the glass at any angle less than ______________ will pass
______________ of the fibre.
21
22
Dispersion of Light
Visible light, also known as white light, consists of a collection of component colors. These colors are
often observed as light passes through a triangular prism. Upon passage through the prism, the white light
is separated into its component colors - red, orange, yellow, green, blue and violet. The separation of
visible light into its different colors is known as dispersion.
Light bends less if the speed is ______________ thus red light bends less.
Rainbow (Dispersion of Light)
Red is directed more steeply to the ground compared to blue and hence the observer often see red is often
at the top of the rainbow
23
Lenses
There are 2 types of lenses, convex and concave lens
BICONVEX LENS/CONVERGING LENS
Principal Axis
: the line passing through the center of the lens which is _________to the lens
Principal focus : the point where all rays _______________
Focal length, f
: the distance between ________________ and ______________ of lens
Converging lens focuses parallel light.
24
Step 1: Draw principal axis and locate the focal length measure accurately (any deviation of focal
length on each side will cause image to be distorted)
Step 2: Draw ray 1, ray2 and ray3.
Step 3: Draw image.
Youll get a smaller, inverted and real image. This arrangement is used in a camera.
25
Youll get a bigger, inverted, real image. This arrangement is used in projector
Youll get a larger, upright and virtual image. Thus arrangement is used in magnifying glass
26
No matter where you place the object, diverging lens always forms a virtual image that is upright
and smaller than the object.
27
u
v
f
:
:
:
Magnification, m
Example
Describe fully the image of a 4.0 cm object 15 cm in front of a convex lens with a focal length of 10 cm.
Answers:
28
Example
Locate and describe the image formed by a 6.0 cm high object 15 cm in front of a concave lens with a
focal length of 10 cm.
Answer:
29
Visible light
Wavelength
30