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Contents

Matrices, Vectors, and Vector Calculus 1

1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
1.10
1.11
1.12
1.13
1.14
1.15
1.16
1.17

Introduction 1
Concept of a Scalar 2
Coordinate Transformations 3
Properties of Rotation Matrices 6
Matrix Operations 9
Further Definitions 12
Geometrical Significance of Transformation Matrices 14
Definitions of a Scalar and a Vector in Terms of
Transformation Properties 20
Elementary Scalar and Vector Operations 20
Scalar Product of Two Vectors 21
Unit Vectors 23
Vector Product of Two Vectors 25
Differentiation of a Vector with Respect to a Scalar 29
Examples of Derivatives-Velocity and Acceleration 30
Angular Velocity 34
Gradient Operator 37
Integration of Vectors 40
Problems 43

Newtonian Mechanics-Single Particle 48

2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4

Introduction 48
NewtonsLaws 49
Frames of Reference 53
The Equation of Motion for a Particle 55

xi

xii

CONTENTS

2.5
2.6
2.7

Oscillations 99
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9

Introduction 144
Nonlinear Oscillations 146
Phase Diagrams for Nonlinear Systems 150
Plane Pendulum 155
Jumps, Hysteresis, and Phase Lags 160
Chaos in a Pendulum 163
Mapping 169
Chaos Identification 174
Problems 178

Gravitation 182
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5

Introduction 99
Simple Harmonic Oscillator 100
Harmonic Oscillations in Two Dimensions 104
Phase Diagrams 106
Damped Oscillations 108
Sinusoidal Driving Forces 117
Physical Systems 123
Principle of Superposition-Fourier Series 126
The Response of Linear Oscillators to Impulsive Forcing
Functions (Optional) 129
Problems 138

Nonlinear Oscillations and Chaos 144

4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8

Conservation Theorems 76
Energy 82
Limitations of Newtonian Mechanics 88
Problems 90

Introduction 182
Gravitational Potential 184
Lines of Force and Equipotential Surfaces 194
When Is the Potential Concept Useful? 195
OceanTides 198
Problems 204

Some Methods in the calculus of Variations 207

6.1
6.2
6.3

Introduction 207
Statement of the Problem 207
Eulers Equation 210

xiii

CONTENTS

6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7

Hamiltons Principle-Lagrangian and

Hamiltonian Dynamics 228
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.7
7.8
7.9
7.10
7.11
7.12
7.13

Introduction 228
Hamiltons Principle 229
Generalized Coordinates 233
Lagranges Equations of Motion in
Generalized Coordinates 237
Lagranges Equations with Undetermined Multipliers 248
Equivalence of Lagranges and Newtons Equations 254
Essence of Lagrangian Dynamics 257
A Theorem Concerning the Kinetic Energy 258
Conservation Theorems Revisited 260
Canonical Equations of Motion-Hamiltonian Dynamics 265
Some Comments Regarding Dynamical Variables and
Variational Calculations in Physics 272
Phase Space and Liouvilles Theorem (Optional) 274
Virial Theorem (Optional) 277
Problems 280

Central-Force Motion 287

8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6
8.7
8.8
8.9
8.10

The Second Form of the Euler Equation 216

Functions with Several Dependent Variables 218
Euler Equations When Auxiliary Conditions Are Imposed 219
The8Notation 224
Problems 226

Introduction 287
Reduced Mass 287
Conservation Theorems-First Integrals of the Motion 289
Equations of Motion 291
Orbits in a Central Field 295
Centrifugal Energy and the Effective Potential 296
Planetary Motion-Keplers Problem 300
Orbital Dynamics 305
Apsidal Angles and Precession (Optional) 312
Stability of Circular Orbits (Optional) 316
Problems 323

Dynamics of a System of Particles 328

9.1
9.2
9.3

Introduction 328
CenterofMass 329
Linear Momentum of the System 331

CONTENTS

XiV

9.4
9.5
9.6
9.7
9.8
9.9
9.10
9.11

10

Motion in a Nonintertial Reference Frame 387

10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4

11

Angular Momentum of the System 336

Energy of the System 339
Elastic Collisions of Two Particles 345
Kinematics of Elastic Collisions 352
Inelastic Collisions 358
Scattering Cross Sections 363
Rutherford Scattering Formula 369
Rocket Motion 371
Problems 378

Introduction 387
Rotating Coordinate Systems 388
Centrifugal and Coriolis Forces 391
Motion Relative to the Earth 395
Problems 408

Dynamics of Rigid Bodies 41 1

Introduction 411
Simple Planar Motion 412
Inertia Tensor 415
Angular Momentum 419
Principal Axes of Inertia 424
Moments of Inertia for Different Body Coordinate Systems 428
11.7 Further Properties of the Inertia Tensor 433
Eulerian Angles 440
11.8
11.9
Eulers Equations for a Rigid Body 444
11.10 Force-Free Motion of a Symmetric Top 448
11.11 Motion of a Symmetric Top with One Point Fixed 454
11.12 Stability of Rigid-BodyRotations 460
Problems 463
11.1
11.2
11.3
11.4
11.5
11.6

12

Coupled Oscillations 468

12.1
12.2
12.3
12.4
12.5
12.6
12.7
12.8

Introduction 468
Two Coupled Harmonic Oscillators 469
Weak Coupling 473
General Problem of Coupled Oscillations 475
Orthogonality of the Eigenvectors (Optional) 481
Normal Coordinates 483
Molecular Vibrations 490
Three Linearly Coupled Plane Pendula-an Example of
Degeneracy 495

CONTENTS

12.9

13

Continuous Systems;Waves 512

13.1
13.2
13.3
13.4
13.5
13.6
13.7
13.8
13.9

14

The Loaded String 498

Problems 507

Introduction 512
Continuous String as a Limiting Case of the
Loaded String 513
Energy of a Vibrating String 516
Wave Equation 520
Forced and Damped Motion 522
General Solutions of the Wave Equation 524
Separation of the Wave Equation 527
Phase Velocity, Dispersion, and Attenuation 533
Group Velocity and Wave Packets 538
Problems 542

Special Theory of Relativity 546

14.1
14.2
14.3
14.4
14.5
14.6
14.7
14.8
14.9
14.10
14.11

Introduction 546
Galilean Invariance 547
Lorentz Transformation 548
Experimental Verification of the Special Theory 555
Relativistic Doppler Effect 558
Twin Paradox 561
Relativistic Momentum 562
Energy 566
Spacetime and Four-Vectors 569
Lagrangian Function in Special Relativity 578
Relativistic Kinematics 579
Problems 583

Appendices

Taylors Theorem

589

Problems 593

~lliptic~ntegra~s
594
B.l
B.2
B.3

Elliptic Integrals of the First Kind 594

Elliptic Integrals of the Second Kind 595
Elliptic Integrals of the Third Kind 595
Problems 598

xvi

CONTENTS

Ordinary Differential Equations of Second Order 599

C.l
C.2

Useful Formulas 608

D.1
D.2
D.3
D.4
D.5
D.6

Binomial Expansion 608

Trigonometric Relations 609
Trigonometric Series 610
Exponential and Logarithmic Series 610
Complex Quantities 611
Hyperbolic Functions 611
Problems 612

Useful Integrals 613

E.l
E.2
E.3

Linear Homogeneous Equations 599

Linear Inhomogeneous Equations 603
Problems 606

Algebraic Functions 613

Trigonometric Functions 614
Gamma Functions 615

Differential Relations in Different Coordinate Systems 6 17

F. 1
F.2
F.3

Rectangular Coordinates 61'7

Cylindrical Coordinates 617
Spherical Coordinates 619

A "Proof" of the Relation 2%;

= X%L2 621

Numerical Solution for Example 2.7 623

Selected References 626

Bibliography 628
Answers to Even-NumberedProblems 633
Index 643