Project Report

ON

FOOTFALL GENERATOR
Submitted for partial fulfillment of award of
POLYTECHNIC
DIPLOMA
In
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
FROM
BOARD OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION UNIVERSITY, LUCKNOW

2014-2015

SUBMITTED BY
SHISHUPAL SINGH

HEAD OF DEPARTMENT
Er. B. P. SINGH

UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF

MR.HARISH CHANDRA
NAMDEV

KUNAL PROFESSIONAL EDUCATIONAL ACADEMY

TEHRA (AGRA)

Certificate
Certified that Abhishek Kumar has carried out
the research work presented in this project
entitled FOOTFALL GENERATOR for the
award of POLYTECHNIC from BOARD OF
TECHNICAL EDUCATION University, Lucknow
under my supervision. The project
embodies result of original work and
studies carried out by Student himself and
the contents of the project do not form the
basis for the award of any other degree to
the candidate or to anybody else.

H.O.D
Er. B. P. SINGH

(Name of Supervisor)
MR.HARISH CHANDRA
NAMDEV

ABSTRACT
This project developed a new alternative energy system that harvests
mechanical energy imparted to roadways, railways and runways from
passing vehicles and trains and converts it into green electricity.
The objective of this project is to generate energy from the moving traffic on
the road. Horizontal roller is connected with the dynamo. Whenever vehicles
passes through the road, horizontal roller will move, dynamo will convert
mechanical energy into electrical energy. Generated electrical energy is used
to charge DC battery. During the night time street lights are run through the
charged DC Battery. Photovoltaic cells have been used to sense the light of
the surroundings. During the night time it gives signal to turn on Street
Light.
Moving roller is connected to the dynamo. Dynamo converts mechanical
energy produced by the roller into the electrical energy. DC dynamo has
been connected to the DC battery which stores generated energy.
Infrared sensors are placed on the roadside. These sensors detect the
presence of vehicles. During night time, when there is no traffic half of the
street lights are turned on. Whenever there is significant traffic, all the traffic
lights are turned on. Photovoltaic cells have been used to sense light of the
surrounding. During the night time it turns on the traffic light.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
I am highly grateful to the MR. B. P. SINGH SIR HOD ME, KUNAL
PROFESSIONAL EDUCATIONAL ACADEMY COLLEGE for
providing this opportunity to carry out the Major Project at FOOTFALL
GENERATOR. I would like to expresses my gratitude to other faculty
members of Mechanical Engineering department , providing academic
inputs, guidance & encouragement throughout this period.
The author would like to express a deep sense of gratitude and thank _
The help rendered by Mr. HARISH CHANDRA NAMDEV Guide for
experimentation is greatly acknowledged.

Finally, I express my

indebtedness to all who have directly or indirectly contributed to the

successful completion of my major project.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Titles

Page nos.

Certificate

ii

Abstract

iii

Acknowledgment

List of figures

viii

Chapter 1: Introduction

1-4

1.1General

1.2Alternative method

Chapter 2: Overview

5-10

2.1 Working Principle

2.1.1 Mechanical to Electrical Energy

2.2 Construction & Operation

2.3 Materials Required

2.4 Components Used

10

Chapter 3: Construction Details

11-45
3.1.1Dynamo

11

3.1.2 Faraday Principle

12

3.1.3 Jedliks Dynamo

14

3.1.4 Gramme Dynamo

15

3.5 Terminology

16

3.2 Gear

17

3.2.1 Type of Gear

18

(a) External Vs Internal Gear

18

(b) Spur Gear

19

(c) Helical Gear

19

(d) Skew Gear

20

(e) Double Helical Gear

21

(f) Bevel Gear

23

(g) Spiral Bevel Gear

23

(h) Hypoid Gear

24

(i) Crowm Gear

25

(j) Worm Gear

25

3.2.2 Gear Parameters

27

3.2.3 Gear Terminology

28

3.3 Freewheel

30

3.4 Lever

31

3.5 Battery

34

3.5.1 Usage and Apllication

34

3.5.2 Charging and Dischaging

35

3.6 Spring

38

3.6.1 Type of Spring

39

(a) Tension / Extension Spring

39

(b) Compression Spring

39

(c) Torsion Spring

39

(d) Constant Spring

40

3.7 LED

43

3.8 PCB

44

Chapter 4: Future Scope

46-52

4.1 Stepper Motor

47
4.2 Types

48

Advantage

49
7

Chapter 5: Conclusion

50-53

References

51

LIST OF FIGURE
Title

Page no.

1. Fig 1.1 Roller Mechanisms during Electricity

GENERATOR from Speed Breaker

2. Fig 1.2 Rack And Pinion Mechanism for

Electricity GENERATOR from Speed Breaker

3. Fig 2.1 General Idea of Installation of Dynamo Motor

4. Fig 2.2 Rechargeable Battery

5. Fig 2.3 General Block Diagram

6. Fig 3.1
7. Fig 3.2

Right Hand Rule

Left Hand Rule

12
12

8. Fig 3.3

Jedlils Dynamo

14

9. Fig 3.4

Internal Gear

18

10. Fig 3.5

Spur Gear

19

11. Fig 3.6

Helical Gear

20

12. Fig 3.7

Double Helical Gear

22

13. Fig 3.8

Bevel Gear

23

14. Fig 3.9 Spiral Bevel Gear

23

15. Fig 3.10 Hypoid Gear

24

16. Fig 3.11 Crown Gear

25

17. Fig 3.12 Worm Gear

18. Fig 3.13 Gear Terminology
19. Fig 3.14 Freewheel

27
28
30

20. Fig 3.15 Charging of Secondry Cell

37

21. Fig 3.16 Tension Spring

39

22. Fig 3.17 Compression Spring

39
8

23. Fig 3.18 Torsion Spring

40

24. Fig 3.19 Light Emitting Diode

44

25. Fig 3.20 Printed Circuit Board

45

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

1.1 GENERAL
In this model we show that how we can generate a voltage from the
busy traffic. Conversion of the mechanical energy into electrical
energy is widely used concept. Its a mechanism to generate power by
converting the potential energy generated by a vehicle going up on a
speed breaker into rotational energy. We have used that simple
concept to the project. We connect one mechanical rod with the
dynamo and fit this rod on the surface of the road. When any vehicle
moves from this roller then due to friction, vehicle Rotate the rod or
roller and roller then move the dynamo. When dynamo move then it
generates a voltage and this voltage now connects to the bulbs. In
actual practice with the help of this voltage we will charge the battery
and then we use this voltage to light the small bulb. If we install this
unit to the any small flyover then with the help of this voltage we
generate a small voltage, and with the help of this voltage we light the
bulb. The second part of that project is an efficient use of energy by
using simple electronics. We always see that road light continuously
glow whether vehicle on path or not. We have introduced a concept to
avoid a waste of light. We have used two sensors between some
distances. When vehicle pass through first sensor it sends the signal to
9

the microcontroller that the vehicle is passing along that particular

distance then light will glow for that particular time and when vehicle
goes out from the second sensor 2
then the second sensor sends a signal to a microcontroller that vehicle has
been passed through that particular path then light gets off automatically.
Different types of basic electronics components has been used to get the
desired output like capacitor, resister etc. We have also used a light diode
resistance(LDR) when LDR senses a light around it all the road lights
gets off and when LDR senses there is a dark around it then LDR sends a
signal to microcontroller then all the road lights gets on. By using a LDR
we can avoid a waste of light that glow in a day time. The two sensors are
made from the concept of electronics. These sensors are called an
infrared sensor which is made from photo diode and light emitting diode
each. When any vehicle pass from first sensor then first sensor becomes
on, for that time the road lights gets on and when it pass from second
sensor the second sensor become on and the first sensor gets off then the
road light gets off.
1.2 .ALTERNATIVE METHOD
In power GENERATOR using footfall, we can use different mechanism to
convert the mechanical energy into the electrical energy from the speed
breaker. The GENERATOR of electricity using the vehicle weight and
human weight can considers as an input. The possible three different
mechanisms are given below:
Crank-shaft mechanism
10

 Roller mechanism
Rack and pinion mechanism
In that project we have introduced a roller mechanism to convert the
mechanical energy into the electrical energy. We have connected a roller to
the shaft of a dynamo when roller moves it rotates the shaft of the dynamo
by that process electricity is generated. In a roller mechanism the
maintenance is required of the high level. Material selection is also an
important task for the roller type mechanism. The below figure 1.1 shows
the basic mechanism of roller type. In that one roller is linked with chain to
the shaft of a dynamo, when vehicle moves over a speed breaker then
potential energy is converted into a rotational energy which rotates the shaft
of a dynamo due to that electricity is generated.

Fig 1.1

Roller mechanism during electricity GENERATOR from footfall

By using a crank shaft mechanism we can also generate an electrical

power from mechanical power. But the problem of vibration often occurs.
Crank shaft are required to be mounted on bearings which creates a
balancing problems in that mechanism which leads a problem of mechanical
vibration which in turn can damage a bearings.
The third and last mechanism is a rack and pinion mechanism. This
mechanism is most efficient mechanism in comparison of the other two.
11

Rack and pinion gives good mounting convenience. Maximum gear losses
which occur in that mechanism can lie between three to five percent and
efficiency of that mechanism can lie between ninety to ninety five percent.

Fig 1.2 shows the basic concept of rack and pinion mechanis

12

CHAPTER 2
OVERVIEW
2.1 WORKING PRINCIPLE
2.1.1 MECHANICAL TO ELECTRICAL ENERGY

One rod with the dynamo is placed like a speed breaker. Dynamo
means a generator that produces direct current with the use of a commutator.
The dynamo uses rotating coils of wire and magnetic fields to convert
mechanical rotation into a pulsing direct electric current through Faraday's
law. A dynamo machine consists of a stationary structure, called the stator,
which provides a constant magnetic field, and a set of rotating windings
called the armature which turn within that field. Movement of vehicle just
rotates the dynamo shaft and electricity is generated. This voltage is to be
stored in the chargeable battery.
In the night lights are automatic on with the help of photovoltaic
switch logic. But all lights are not on, only half light are on. Other half lights
switch on automatically when any vehicle move on the bridge, when there is
no vehicle on the bridge then lights are off automatically. We use two
infrared sensors to check the movement of vehicle. When first infra red
sensor is on then lights are on and when second sensor is interrupting then
lights are off. A Street light, lamppost, street lamp, light standard, or lamp
standard is a raised source of light on the edge of a road, which is turned on
or lit at a certain time every night. Modern lamps may also have lightsensitive photocells to turn them on at dusk, off at dawn, or activate
13

automatically in dark weather. In older lighting this function would have

been performed with the aid of a solar dial. Here we used some electronics
for that purpose. It is not uncommon for street lights to be on posts which
have wires strung between them, such as on telephone poles or utility poles.
Major advantages of street lighting includes: prevention of accidents
and increase in safety. Studies have shown that darkness results in a large
number of crashes and fatalities, especially those involving pedestrians;
pedestrian fatalities are 3 to 6.75 times more vulnerable in the dark than in
daylight. Street lighting has been found to reduce pedestrian crashes by
approximately half percent.
2.2 CONSTRUCTION & OPERATION:

Fig 2.1 General idea of installation of dynamo motor

14

In this model we show that how we generate a voltage from the busy
road traffic. In all the citys traffic is very much high and on some road,
traffic move like a tortoise. If we employ a speed breaker type generator on
the road then we utilize the friction of vehicle into mechanical energy and
then this mechanical energy is further converted into electrical energy with
the help of the powerful dynamo. So we install a one powerful dynamo on
the road.Output of the dynamo is connected to the L.E.D. in this project.
When we move the shaft of the dynamo then dynamo generate a voltage and
this voltage is sufficient to drive the L.E.D.
In actual practice we use this dynamo to generate a voltage and after
generating a voltage we charge the battery. When battery is fully charged
then we use this battery as a storage device. We use this storage device to
run the lights of the road. A rechargeable battery (also known as a storage
battery) is a group of one or more electrochemical cells. They are known
as secondary cells because their electrochemical reactions are electrically
reversible. Rechargeable batteries come in many different sizes and use
different

combinations

of

chemicals;

common

types

include: lead

acid, nickel cadmium (NiCd), nickel metal hydride (NiMH), lithium ion (Liion), and lithium ion polymer (Li-ion polymer).

Fig 2.2

Rechargeable battery
15

Fig 2.3 general block diagram

In this project we show that how we use IC 555 as a automatic street
light function. Here in this project IC 555 work as a monostable timer. Pin
no 4 and 8 of the IC is connected to the positive supply. Pin no 1 of the IC is
connected to the ground pin. Pin no 3 is the output pin. On this pin we
connect a output L.E.D. LDR is connected to the pin no 2 of the IC via 100
k ohm resistor. When light fall on the LDR then LDR offers a low resistance.
When LDR is in dark then LDR offers a high resistance. When we convert
the LDR by hand then LDR resistance become high and so pin no 2 become
more negative. When pin no 2 become negative then IC 555 triggers itself
and output is on. This is the function of the monostable timer.

16

2.3 MATERIAL REQUIRED

After the general layout of the speed breaker system has been made of
successful working it is necessary to select proper material for the system of
refrigeration. This involves the consideration of many facts about available
material such as dynamo weight, size shape of the component material cost,
fabrication cost, overhead charges and many other properties peculiar to the
use of which to member is to be fitted.
The following four types of principle properties of material effect their
selection.
1.

Mechanical

2.

Physical

3.

Chemical

4.

Form manufacturing point of view

It is important that the material to be used in such a way as to take full

advantage of their natural characteristics following material is selected for
the fabrication of speed breaker by road. The roller which is extensively
used in speed breaker to generate a electricity are made from a materials like
synthetic rubber, rumble strips etc for a low weight vehicles and medium
weight vehicles like bikes, scooters, bicycles, auto rickshaw, cabs etc

17

2.4 COMPONENTS USED

DC Dynamo
1. Gear Arrangement
2. Free Wheel
3. Batteries
4. Lever
5. Spring
6. Charging Circuit
7. LEDs
8. PCB

18

CHAPTER 3

CONSTRCTION DETAILS
Power GENERATOR using speed breaker and efficient use of energy has
been constructed from different components, some of the important
components details are given below
3.1

DYANAMO

A dynamo is an electrical generator that produces A dynamo is an electrical

generator that produces direct current with the use of a commutator.
Dynamos were the first electrical generators capable of delivering power for
industry, and the foundation upon which many other later electric-power
conversion devices were based, including the electric motor, the alternatingcurrent alternator, and the rotary converter. Today, the simpler alternator
dominates large scale power GENERATOR, for efficiency, reliability and
cost reasons. A dynamo has the disadvantages of a mechanical commutator.
Also, converting alternating to direct current using power rectification
devices (vacuum tube or more recently solid state) is effective and usually
economic.
Dynamo uses rotating coils of wire and magnetic fields to convert
mechanical rotation into a pulsing direct electric current through Faraday's
law. A dynamo machine consists of a stationary structure, called the stator,
which provides a constant magnetic field, and a set of rotating windings
called the armature which turn within that field. On small machines the
constant magnetic field may be provided by one or more permanent
magnets; larger machines have the constant magnetic field provided by one
or more electromagnets, which are usually called field current.
19

The commutator was needed to produce direct current. When a loop of wire
rotates in a magnetic field, the potential induced in it reverses with each half
turn, generating an alternating current. However, in the early days of electric
experimentation, alternating current generally had no known use. The few
uses for electricity, such as electroplating, used direct current provided by
messy liquid batteries. Dynamos were invented as a replacement for
batteries. The commutator is a set of contacts mounted on the machine's
shaft, which reverses the connection of the windings to the external circuit
when the potential reverses, so instead of alternating current, a pulsing direct
current is produced.
3.1.1 FARADAY PRINCIPLE:

Fig 3.1 Left-hand rule for generators.

20

Fig 3.2 Right-hand rule for motor

In 1831-1832 Michael Faraday discovered that a potential difference is

generated between the ends of an electrical conductor that moves
perpendicular to a magnetic field. He also built the first electromagnetic
generator called the 'Faraday disc', a type of homopolar generator, using a
copper disc rotating between the poles of a horseshoe magnet. It produced a
small DC voltage, and large amounts of current. The first dynamo based on
Faraday's principles was built in 1832 by Hippolyte Pixii, a French
instrument maker. It used a permanent magnet which was rotated by a crank.
The spinning magnet was positioned so that its north and south poles passed
by a piece of iron wrapped with wire. Pixii found that the spinning magnet
produced a pulse of current in the wire each time a pole passed the coil.
Furthermore, the north and south poles of the magnet induced currents

21

in opposite directions. By adding a commutator, Pixii was able to convert the

alternating current to direct current. Unlike the Faraday disc, many turns of
wire connected in series can be used in the moving windings of a dynamo.
This allows the terminal voltage of the machine to be higher than a disc can
produce, so that electrical energy can be delivered at a convenient voltage.
The relationship between mechanical rotation and electric current in a
dynamo is reversible; the principles of the electric motor were discovered
when it was found that one dynamo could cause a second interconnected
dynamo to rotate if current was fed through it.
3.1.2 JEDLIKS DYMAMO:

Fig 3.3 Jedlik's dynamo

In 1827, Anyos Jedlik started experimenting with electromagnetic rotating
devices which he called electromagnetic self-rotors. In the prototype of the
single-pole electric starter (finished between 1852 and 1854) both the
22

stationary and the revolving parts were electromagnetic. He formulated the

concept of the dynamo at least 6 years before Siemens and Wheatstone. In
essence the concept is that instead of permanent magnets, two
electromagnets opposite to each other induce the magnetic field around the
rotor.
3.1.4 GRAMME DYNAMO:
Both of these designs suffered from a similar problem: they induced "spikes"
of current followed by none at all. Antonio Pacinotti, an Italian scientist,
fixed this by replacing the spinning coil with a toroidal one, which he
created by wrapping an iron ring. This meant that some part of the coil was
continually passing by the magnets, smoothing out the current. Znobe
Gramme reinvented this design a few years later when designing the first
commercial power plants, which operated in Paris in the 1870s. His design is
now known as the Gramme dynamo. Various versions and improvements
have been made since then, but the basic concept of a spinning endless loop
of wire remains at the heart of all modern dynamos. The generator moves an
electric current, but does not create electric charge, which is already present
in the conductive wire of its windings. It is somewhat analogous to a water
pump, which creates a flow of water but does not create the water itself.
Other types of electrical generator exist, based on other electrical
phenomena such as piezoelectricity, and magneto hydro-dynamics. The
construction of a dynamo is similar to that of an electric motor, and all
common types of dynamos could work as motors.

23

3.1.2 TERMINOLOGY
The parts of a dynamo or related equipment can be expressed in
either mechanical terms or electrical terms. Although distinctly separate,
these two sets of terminology are frequently used interchangeably or in
combinations that include one mechanical term and one electrical term. This
causes great confusion when working with compound machines such as a
brushless alternator or when conversing with people who are used to
working on a machine that is configured differently than the machines that
the speaker is used to.

Mechanical

Rotor: The rotating part of an alternator, generator, dynamo or motor.

Stator: The stationary part of an alternator, generator, dynamo or

motor.

Electrical

Armature: The power-producing component of an alternator,

generator, dynamo or motor. The armature can be on either the rotor
or the stator.

Field: The magnetic field component of an alternator, generator,

dynamo or motor. The field can be on either the rotor or the stator and
can be either an electromagnet or a permanent magnet.

24

3.2 GEAR
A gear or cogwheel is a rotating machine part having cut teeth, or cogs,
which mesh with another toothed part in order to transmit torque, in most
cases with teeth on the one gear being of identical shape, and often also with
that shape on the other gear. Two or more gears working in tandem are
called a transmission and can produce a mechanical advantage through a
gear ratio and thus may be considered a simple machine. Geared devices can
change the speed, torque, and direction of a power source. The most
common situation is for a gear to mesh with another gear; however, a gear
can also mesh with a non-rotating toothed part, called a rack, thereby
producing translation instead of rotation. The gears in a transmission are
analogous to the wheels in a crossed belt pulley system. An advantage of
gears is that the teeth of a gear prevent slippage.When two gears mesh, and
one gear is bigger than the other (even though the size of the teeth must
match), a mechanical advantage is produced, with the rotational speeds and
the torques of the two gears differing in an inverse relationship.In
transmissions which offer multiple gear ratios, such as bicycles,
motorcycles, and cars, the term gear, as in first gear, refers to a gear ratio
rather than an actual physical gear. The term is used to describe similar
devices even when the gear ratio is continuous rather than discrete, or when
the device does not actually contain any gears, as in a continuously variable
transmission.The earliest known reference to gears was circa A.D. 50 by
Hero of Alexandria,but they can be traced back to the Greek mechanics of
the Alexandrian school in the 3rd century B.C. and were greatly developed
by the Greek polymath Archimedes (287212 B.C.). The Antikythera
mechanism is an example of a very early and intricate geared device,
25

designed to calculate astronomical positions. Its time of construction is now

estimated between 150 and 100 BC Gears are the most common means used
for power Transmission They can be applied between two shafts which are
Parallel Collinear Perpendicular and intersecting Perpendicular and
nonintersecting Inclined at any arbitrary angle Gears are wheels with teeth.
Gears mesh together and make things turn. Gears are used to transfer motion
or power from one moving part to another. Gears are made to high precision
Purchased from gear manufacturers rather than made in house However it is
necessary to design for a specific application so that proper selection can be
made Used to be called toothed wheels dating back to 2600 b.c
3.5 TYPE OF GEAR:
(a) External vs internal gears:
An external gear is one with the teeth formed on the outer surface of a
cylinder or cone. Conversely, an internal gear is one with the teeth formed
on the inner surface of a cylinder or cone. For bevel gears, an internal gear is
one with the pitch angle exceeding 90 degrees. Internal gears do not cause
output shaft direction reversal.

Fig.3.4 Internal Gear

26

(b) SPUR GEAR

Spur gears or straight-cut gears are the simplest type of gear. They consist of
a cylinder or disk with the teeth projecting radially, and although they are
not straight-sided in form (they are usually of special form to achieve
constant drive ratio, mainly involute), the edge of each tooth is straight and
aligned parallel to the axis of rotation. These gears can be meshed together
correctly only if they are fitted to parallel shafts.

Fig. 3.5 Spur Gear

(c) HELICAL GEAR:

Helical or "dry fixed" gears offer a refinement over spur gears. The leading
edges of the teeth are not parallel to the axis of rotation, but are set at an
angle. Since the gear is curved, this angling causes the tooth shape to be a
segment of a helix.
Helical gears can be meshe in parallel or crossed orientations. The former
refers to when the shafts are parallel to each other; this is the most common
orientation. In the latter, the shafts are non-parallel, and in this configuration
the gears are sometimes known as "skew gears". The angled teeth engage
more gradually than do spur gear teeth, causing them to run more smoothly
and quietly.[6] With parallel helical gears, each pair of teeth first make
contact at a single point at one side of the gear wheel; a moving curve of
contact then grows gradually across the tooth face to a maximum then
27

recedes until the teeth break contact at a single point on the opposite side. In
skew gears, teeth suddenly meet at a line contact across their entire width
causing stress and noise. Skew gears make a characteristic whine at high
speeds. Whereas spur gears are used for low speed applications and those
situations where noise control is not a problem, the use of helical gears is
indicated when the application involves high speeds, large power
transmission, or where noise abatement is important.[ The speed is
considered to be high when the pitch line velocity exceeds 25 m/s. A
disadvantage of helical gears is a resultant thrust along the axis of the gear,
which needs to be accommodated by appropriate thrust bearings, and a
greater degree of sliding friction between the meshing teeth, often addressed
with additives in the lubricant.

Fig. 3.6 Helical Gear

(d) SKEW GEAR :
For a 'crossed' or 'skew' configuration, the gears must have the same
pressure angle and normal pitch; however, the helix angle and
handedness can be different. The relationship between the two shafts
is actually defined by the helix angle(s) of the two shafts and the
handedness, as defined:
28

for gears of the same handedness

for gears of opposite handedness
Where

is the helix angle for the gear. The crossed

configuration is less mechanically sound because there is only

a point contact between the gears, whereas in the parallel
configuration there is a line contact. Quite commonly, helical
gears are used with the helix angle of one having the negative
of the helix angle of the other; such a pair might also be
referred to as having a right-handed helix and a left-handed
helix of equal angles. The two equal but opposite angles add to
zero: the angle between shafts is zero that is, the shafts
are parallel. Where the sum or the difference (as described in
the equations above) is not zero the shafts are crossed. For
shafts crossed at right angles, the helix angles are of the same
hand because they must add to 90 degrees.
(e) DOUBLE HELICAL GEAR :

Double helical gears, or herringbone gears, overcome the problem of

axial thrust presented by "single" helical gears, by having two sets of
teeth that are set in a V shape. A double helical gear can be thought of
as two mirrored helical gears joined together. This arrangement
cancels out the net axial thrust, since each half of the gear thrusts in
the opposite direction resulting in a net axial force of zero. This
arrangement can remove the need for thrust bearings. However,
double helical gears are more difficult to manufacture due to their
more complicated shape. For both possible rotational directions, there
exist two possible arrangements for the oppositely-oriented helical
29

gears or gear faces. One arrangement is stable, and the other is

unstable. In a stable orientation, the helical gear faces are oriented so
that each axial force is directed toward the center of the gear. In an
unstable orientation, both axial forces are directed away from the
center of the gear. In both arrangements, the total (or net) axial force
on each gear is zero when the gears are aligned correctly. If the gears
become misaligned in the axial direction, the unstable arrangement
will generate a net force that may lead to disassembly of the gear
train, while the stable arrangement generates a net corrective force. If
the direction of rotation is reversed, the direction of the axial thrusts
is also reversed, so a stable configuration becomes unstable, and vice
versa.Stable double helical gears can be directly interchanged with
spur gears without any need for different bearings.

Fig. 3.7 Double Helical Gear

(f) BEVEL GEAR :

A bevel gear is shaped like a right circular cone with most of its tip cut off.
When two bevel gears mesh, their imaginary vertices must occupy the same
30

point. Their shaft axes also intersect at this point, forming an arbitrary nonstraight angle between the shafts. The angle between the shafts can be
anything except zero or 180 degrees. Bevel gears with equal numbers of
teeth and shaft axes at 90 degrees are called mitre gears.

Fig. 3.8 Bevel Gear

(g) SPIRAL BEVEL GEAR :
A bevel gear is shaped like a right circular cone with most of its tip cut off.
When two bevel gears mesh, their imaginary vertices must occupy the same
point. Their shaft axes also intersect at this point, forming an arbitrary nonstraight angle between the shafts. The angle between the shafts can be
anything except zero or 180 degrees. Bevel gears with equal numbers of
teeth and shaft axes at 90 degrees are called mitre gears.

Fig. 3.9Spiral Bevel Gear

(h) HYPOID GEAR :

Hypoid gears resemble spiral bevel gears except the shaft axes do not
intersect. The pitch surfaces appear conical but, to compensate for the offset
31

shaft, are in fact hyperboloids of revolution. Hypoid gears are almost always
designed to operate with shafts at 90 degrees. Depending on which side the
shaft is offset to, relative to the angling of the teeth, contact between hypoid
gear teeth may be even smoother and more gradual than with spiral bevel
gear teeth, but also have a sliding action along the meshing teeth as it rotates
and therefore usually require some of the most viscous types of gear oil to
avoid it being extruded from the mating tooth faces, the oil is normally
designated HP (for hypoid) followed by a number denoting the viscosity.
Also, the pinion can be designed with fewer teeth than a spiral bevel pinion,
with the result that gear ratios of 60:1 and higher are feasible using a single
set of hypoid gears.This style of gear is most commonly found driving
mechanical differentials; which are normally straight cut bevel gears; in
motor vehicle axles.

Fig.3.10 Hypoid Gear

(i)

CROWN GEAR:

Crown gears or contrate gears are a particular form of bevel gear whose
teeth project at right angles to the plane of the wheel; in their orientation the
teeth resemble the points on a crown. A crown gear can only mesh
accurately with another bevel gear, although crown gears are sometimes
32

seen meshing with spur gears. A crown gear is also sometimes meshed with
an escapement such as found in mechanical clocks.

Fig. 3.11 Crown Gear

(j) WORM GEAR :

Worm gears resemble screws. A worm gear is usually meshed with a spur
gear or a helical gear, which is called the gear, wheel, or worm wheel.
Worm-and-gear sets are a simple and compact way to achieve a high torque,
low speed gear ratio. For example, helical gears are normally limited to gear
ratios of less than 10:1 while worm-and-gear sets vary from 10:1 to 500:1. A
disadvantage is the potential for considerable sliding action, leading to low
efficiency. Worm gears can be considered a species of helical gear, but its
helix angle is usually somewhat large (close to 90 degrees) and its body is
usually fairly long in the axial direction; and it is these attributes which give
it screw like qualities. The distinction between a worm and a helical gear is
made when at least one tooth persists for a full rotation around the helix. If
this occurs, it is a 'worm'; if not, it is a 'helical gear'. A worm may have as
few as one tooth. If that tooth persists for several turns around the helix, the
worm will appear, superficially, to have more than one tooth, but what one in
fact sees is the same tooth reappearing at intervals along the length of the
worm. The usual screw nomenclature applies: a one-toothed worm is
called single thread or single start; a worm with more than one tooth is
33

called multiple thread or multiple start. The helix angle of a worm is not
usually specified. Instead, the lead angle, which is equal to 90 degrees minus
the helix angle, is given. In a worm-and-gear set, the worm can always drive
the gear. However, if the gear attempts to drive the worm, it may or may not
succeed. Particularly if the lead angle is small, the gear's teeth may simply
lock against the worm's teeth, because the force component circumferential
to the worm is not sufficient to overcome friction. Worm-and-gear sets that
do lock are called self locking, which can be used to advantage, as for
instance when it is desired to set the position of a mechanism by turning the
worm and then have the mechanism hold that position. An example is
the machine head found on some types of stringed instruments. If the gear in
a worm-and-gear set is an ordinary helical gear only a single point of contact
will be achieved.If medium to high power transmission is desired, the tooth
shape of the gear is modified to achieve more intimate contact by making
both gears partially envelop each other. This is done by making both
concave and joining them at a saddle point; this is called a cone-drive. or
"Double enveloping" Worm gears can be right or left-handed, following the
long-established practice for screw threads.

Fig. 3.12 Worm Gear

34

3.2.2 GEAR PARAMETERS

Number of teeth
Form of teeth
Size of teeth
Face Width of teeth
Style and dimensions of gear blank
Design of the hub of the gear
Degree of precision required
Means of attaching the gear to the shaft
Means of locating the gear axially on the shaft

3.2.3 GEAR TERMINOLOGY

35

Fig. 3.13Gear Terminology

Pitch surface: The surface of the imaginary rolling cylinder (cone, etc.) that
the toothed gear may be considered to replace.
Pitch circle: A right section of the pitch surface.
Addendum circle: A circle bounding the ends of the teeth, in a right section
of the gear.
Root (or dedendum) circle: The circle bounding the spaces between the
teeth, in a right section of the gear.
Addendum: The radial distance between the pitch circle and the addendum
circle.
Dedendum: The radial distance between the pitch circle and the root circle.
Clearance: The difference between the dedendum of one gear and the
addendum of the mating gear.
36

Face of a tooth: That part of the tooth surface lying outside the pitch
surface.
Flank of a tooth: The part of the tooth surface lying inside the pitch surface.
Circular thickness (also called the tooth thickness): The thickness of the
tooth measured on the pitch circle. It is the length of an arc and not the
length of a straight line.
Tooth space: pitch diameter The distance between adjacent teeth measured
on the pitch circle.
Backlash: The difference between the circle thickness of one gear and the
tooth space of the mating gear.
Circular pitch (Pc) : The width of a tooth and a space, measured on the
pitch circle.

37

3.3 FREEWHEEL :
In mechanical or automotive engineering, a freewheel or overrunning
clutch is a device in a transmission that disengages the drive shaft from the
driven shaft when the driven shaft rotates faster than the driveshaft.
An overdrive is sometimes mistakenly called a freewheel, but is otherwise
unrelated. The condition of a driven shaft spinning faster than its driveshaft
exists in most bicycles when the rider holds his or her feet still, no longer
pushing the pedals. In a fixed-gear bicycle, without a freewheel, the rear
wheel would drive the pedals around. An analogous condition exists in
an automobile with a manual transmission going down hill or any situation
where the driver takes his or her foot off the gas pedal, closing the throttle;
the wheels want to drive the engine, possibly at a higher RPM. In a twostroke engine this can be a catastrophic situation: as many two stroke
engines depend on a fuel/oil mixture for lubrication, a shortage of fuel to the
engine would result in a shortage of oil in the cylinders, and
the pistons would seize after a very short time causing extensive engine
damage. Saab used a freewheel system in their two-stroke models for this
reason and maintained it in the Saab 96 V4 and early Saab 99 for better fuel
efficiency. This is a type of pulley having cone shaped metal merging out
from the circumference of the pulley. Its rotation is restricted to rotate to one
direction only. This is use because when driven pulley is stop then also it
keeps rotating with having power from the driven.

Fig 3.14 Free

Wheel
38

3.4 LEVER
Lever is a machine consisting of a beam or rigid rod pivoted at a fixed
hinge, or fulcrum. It is one of the six simple machines identified by
Renaissance scientists. The word comes from the French lever, "to raise", cf.
a levant. A lever amplifies an input force to provide a greater output force,
which is said to provide leverage. The ratio of the output force to the input
force is the ideal mechanical advantage of the lever. Levers are one of the
basic tools that were probably used in prehistoric times. Levers were first
described about 260 BC by the ancient Greek mathematician Archimedes
(287-212 BC). A lever is a simple machine that makes work easier for use; it
involves moving a load around a pivot using a force. Many of our basic tools
use levers, including scissors (2 class 1 levers), pliers (2 class 1 levers),
hammer claws (a single class 2 lever), nut crackers (2 class 2 levers), and
tongs (2 class 3 levers).
(a) FIRST CLASS LEVER:

In a Type 1 Lever, the pivot (fulcrum) is between the effort and the load. In
an off-center type one lever (like a pliers), the load is larger than the effort,
but is moved through a smaller distance Examples of common tools (and
other items) that use a type 1 lever include:
39

Number of Class 1
Levers Used

Item
see-saw

a single class 1 lever

hammer's
claws

a single class 1 lever

scissors

2 class 1 levers

pliers

2 class 1 levers

(b)SECOND CLASS LEVER

In a Type 2 Lever, the load is between the pivot (fulcrum) and the
effort.
Examples of common tools that use a type 2 lever include:

Number of Class 2
Levers Used

Item
stapler

a single class 2 lever

bottle opener

a single class 2 lever

wheelbarrow

a single class 2 lever

nail clippers

Two class 2 levers

nut cracker

Two class 2 levers

40

(c) THIRD CLASS LEVER

In a Type 3 Lever, the effort is between the pivot (fulcrum) and the
load.
Examples of common tools that use a type 3 lever include:
Number of Class 3
Levers Used

Item
fishing
rod

a single class 3 lever

tweezers

Two class 3 levers

tongs

Two class 3 levers

3.5 BATTERY
A rechargeable battery, storage battery, or accumulator is a type of electrical
battery. It comprises one or more electrochemical cells, and is a type of
energy accumulator used for electrochemical energy storage. It is technically
known as a secondary cell because its electrochemical reactions are
electrically reversible. Rechargeable batteries come in many different shapes
41

and sizes, ranging from button cells to megawatt systems connected to

stabilize an electrical distribution network. Several different combinations of
chemicals are commonly used, including: leadacid, nickel cadmium
(NiCd), nickel metal hydride (NiMH), lithium ion (Li-ion), and lithium ion
polymer (Li-ion polymer).Rechargeable batteries have a lower total cost of
use and environmental impact than disposable batteries. Some rechargeable
battery types are available in the same sizes as common consumer
disposable types. Rechargeable batteries have a higher initial cost but can be
recharged inexpensively and reused many times.
3.5.1 USAGE AND APPLICATION
Rechargeable batteries are used for automobile starters, portable consumer
devices, light vehicles (such as motorized wheelchairs, golf carts, electric
bicycles, and electric forklifts), tools, and uninterruptible power supplies.
Emerging applications in hybrid electric vehicles and electric vehicles are
driving the technology to reduce cost and weight and increase lifetime.
Traditional rechargeable batteries have to be charged before their first use;
newer low self-discharge NiMH batteries hold their charge for many
months, and are typically charged at the factory to about 70% of their rated
capacity before shipping.Grid energy storage applications use rechargeable
batteries for load leveling, where they store electric energy for use during
peak load periods, and for renewable energy uses, such as storing power
generated from photovoltaic arrays during the day to be used at night. By
charging batteries during periods of low demand and returning energy to the
grid during periods of high electrical demand, load-leveling helps eliminate
the need for expensive peaking power plants and helps amortize the cost of
generators over more hours of operation.The US National Electrical
42

Manufacturers Association has estimated that US demand for rechargeable

batteries is growing twice as fast as demand for
nonrechargeables.Rechargeable batteries are used for mobile phones ,
laptops, mobile power tools like cordless screwdrivers. They are used as
electric vehicle battery for example in electric cars, electric motorcycles and
scooters, electric buses, electric trucks. In most submarines they are used to
drive under water. In diesel-electric transmission they are used in ships, in
locomotives and huge trucks. They are also used in distributed electricity
GENERATOR and stand-alone power systems.
3.5.2 CHARGING AND DISCHARGING
During charging, the positive active material is oxidized, producing
electrons, and the negative material is reduced, consuming electrons. These
electrons constitute the current flow in the external circuit. The electrolyte
may serve as a simple buffer for internal ion flow between the electrodes, as
in lithium-ion and nickel-cadmium cells, or it may be an active participant in
the electrochemical reaction, as in leadacid cells.The energy used to charge
rechargeable batteries usually comes from a battery charger using AC mains
electricity, although some are equipped to use a vehicle's 12-volt DC power
outlet. Regardless, to store energy in a secondary cell, it has to be connected
to a DC voltage source. The negative terminal of the cell has to be connected
to the negative terminal of the voltage source and the positive terminal of the
voltage source with the positive terminal of the battery. Further, the voltage
output of the source must be higher than that of the battery, but not much
higher: the greater the difference between the power source and the battery's
voltage capacity, the faster the charging process, but also the greater the risk
of overcharging and damaging the battery.Chargers take from a few minutes
43

to several hours to charge a battery. Slow "dumb" chargers without voltage

or temperature-sensing capabilities will charge at a low rate, typically taking
14 hours or more to reach a full charge. Rapid chargers can typically charge
cells in two to five hours, depending on the model, with the fastest taking as
little as fifteen minutes. Fast chargers must have multiple ways of detecting
when a cell reaches full charge (change in terminal voltage, temperature,
etc.) to stop charging before harmful overcharging or overheating occurs.
The fastest chargers often incorporate cooling fans to keep the cells from
overheating.

Fig. 3.15 charging of a secondary cell battery.

Battery charging and discharging rates are often discussed by referencing a
"C" rate of current. The C rate is that which would theoretically fully charge
or discharge the battery in one hour. For example, trickle charging might be
performed at C/20 (or a "20 hour" rate), while typical charging and
discharging may occur at C/2 (two hours for full capacity). The available
capacity of electrochemical cells varies depending on the discharge rate.
Some energy is lost in the internal resistance of cell components (plates,
electrolyte, interconnections), and the rate of discharge is limited by the
speed at which chemicals in the cell can move about. For lead-acid cells, the
44

relationship between time and discharge rate is described by Peukert's law; a

lead-acid cell that can no longer sustain a usable terminal voltage at a high
current may still have usable capacity, if discharged at a much lower rate.
Data sheets for rechargeable cells often list the discharge capacity on 8-hour
or 20-hour or other stated time; cells for uninterruptible power supply
systems may be rated at 15 minute discharge.Battery manufacturers'
technical notes often refer to VPC; this is volts per cell, and refers to the
individual secondary cells that make up the battery. (This is typically in
reference to 12-volt lead-acid batteries.) For example, to charge a 12 V
battery (containing 6 cells of 2 V each) at 2.3 VPC requires a voltage of 13.8
V across the battery's terminals.Non-rechargeable alkaline and zinccarbon
cells output 1.5V when new, but this voltage drops with use. Most NiMH
AA and AAA cells are rated at 1.2 V, but have a flatter discharge curve than
alkalines and can usually be used in equipment designed to use alkaline
batteries.

3.6 SPRING
A spring is an elastic object used to store mechanical energy. Springs are
usually made out of spring steel. Small springs can be wound from prehardened stock, while larger ones are made from annealed steel and
hardened after fabrication. Some non-ferrous metals are also used including
phosphor bronze and titanium for parts requiring corrosion resistance and
beryllium copper for springs carrying electrical current (because of its low
electrical resistance).When a spring is compressed or stretched, the force it
45

exerts is proportional to its change in length. The rate or spring constant of a

spring is the change in the force it exerts, divided by the change in deflection
of the spring. That is, it is the gradient of the force versus deflection curve.
An extension or compression spring has units of force divided by distance,
for example lbf/in or N/m. Torsion springs have units of torque divided by
angle, such as Nm/rad or ftlbf/degree. The inverse of spring rate is
compliance, that is: if a spring has a rate of 10 N/mm, it has a compliance of
0.1 mm/N. The stiffness (or rate) of springs in parallel is additive, as is the
compliance of springs in series.Depending on the design and required
operating environment, any material can be used to construct a spring, so
long as the material has the required combination of rigidity and elasticity:
technically, a wooden bow is a form of spring.

46

3.6.1 TYPE OF SPRING

Springs can be classified depending on how the load force is applied to them
(a) Tension/Extension spring the spring is designed to operate with a
tension load, so the spring stretches as the load is applied to it.

Fig. 3.16 Tension Spring

(b) Compression spring is designed to operate with a compression load,
so the spring gets shorter as the load is applied to it.

Fig. 3.17 Compression Spring

47

(c) Torsion spring unlike the above types in which the load is an axial
force, the load applied to a torsion spring is a torque or twisting force, and
the end of the spring rotates through an angle as the load is applied.

Fig.3.18 Torsion Spring

(d) Constant spring - supported load will remain the same throughout
deflection cycle.

Fig.3.19 Constant Spring

Variable spring - resistance of the coil to load varies during compression.

48

They can also be classified based on their shape:

Coil spring this type is made of a coil or helix of wire
Flat spring this type is made of a flat or conical shaped piece of metal.
Machined spring this type of spring is manufactured by machining bar
stock with a lathe and/or milling operation rather than coiling wire. Since it
is machined, the spring may incorporate features in addition to the elastic
element. Machined springs can be made in the typical load cases of
compression/extension, torsion, etc.
The most common types of spring are:
Cantilever spring a spring which is fixed only at one end.
Coil spring or helical spring a spring (made by winding a wire around a
cylinder) and the conical spring these are types of torsion spring, because
the wire itself is twisted when the spring is compressed or stretched. These
are in turn of two types:
Compression springs are designed to become shorter when loaded. Their
turns (loops) are not touching in the unloaded position, and they need no
attachment points.A volute spring is a compression spring in the form of a
cone, designed so that under compression the coils are not forced against
each other, thus permitting longer travel.Tension or extension springs are
designed to become longer under load. Their turns (loops) are normally
touching in the unloaded position, and they have a hook, eye or some other
means of attachment at each end.

49

Hairspring or balance spring a delicate spiral torsion spring used in

watches, galvanometers, and places where electricity must be carried to
partially rotating devices such as steering wheels without hindering the
rotation.
Leaf spring a flat spring used in vehicle suspensions, electrical switches,
and bows.
V-spring used in antique firearm mechanisms such as the wheellock,
flintlock and percussion cap locks.
Other types include :
Belleville washer or Belleville spring a disc shaped spring commonly
used to apply tension to a bolt (and also in the initiation mechanism of
pressure-activated landmines).
Constant-force spring a tightly rolled ribbon that exerts a nearly
constant force as it is unrolled.
Gas spring a volume of gas which is compressed.
Ideal Spring the notional spring used in physics: it has no weight, mass,
or damping losses.
Mainspring a spiral ribbon shaped spring used as a power source in
watches, clocks, music boxes, windup toys, and mechanically powered
flashlights
Negator spring a thin metal band slightly concave in cross-section. When
coiled it adopts a flat cross-section but when unrolled it returns to its former
50

curve, thus producing a constant force throughout the displacement and

negating any tendency to re-wind. The commonest application is the
retracting steel tape rule.
Progressive rate coil springs A coil spring with a variable rate, usually
achieved by having unequal pitch so that as the spring is compressed one or
more coils rests against its neighbour.
Rubber band a tension spring where energy is stored by stretching the
material.
Spring washer used to apply a constant tensile force along the axis of a
fastener.
Torsion spring any spring designed to be twisted rather than compressed
or extended. Used in torsion bar vehicle suspension systems.
Wave spring a thin spring-washer into which waves have been pressed.
3.7 LED
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor device that emits
incoherent narrow-spectrum light when electrically biased in the
forward direction of the P-n junction. This effect is a form of
electroluminescence. LEDs are small extended sources with extra
optics added to the chip, which emit a complex intensity spatial
distribution. The color of the emitted light depends on the
composition and condition of the semi conducting material used, and
can be infrared, visible or near-ultraviolet.

51

Fig 3.19 Light emitting diode

The kinetic energy of the wheel gets converted in to electrical energy
by the help of generator. This electrical energy is shown by LED.
3.8 PCB
A printed circuit board (PCB) mechanically supports and electrically
connects electronic components using conductive tracks, pads and
other features etched from copper sheets laminated onto a nonconductive substrate. PCBs can be single sided (one copper layer),
double sided (two copper layers) or multi-layer. Conductors on
different layers are connected with plated-through holes called vias.
Advanced PCBs may contain components - capacitors, resistors or
active devices - embedded in the substrate. Printed circuit boards are
used in all but the simplest electronic products. Alternatives to PCBs
include wire wrap and point-to-point construction. PCBs require the
additional design effort to lay out the circuit but manufacturing and
assembly can be automated. Manufacturing circuits with PCBs is
cheaper and faster than with other wiring methods as component are
mounted and wired with one single part. Furthermore, operator wiring
errors are eliminated. When the board has only copper connections
52

and no embedded components it is more correctly called a printed

wiring board (PWB) or etched wiring board. Although more accurate,
the term printed wiring board has fallen into disuse. A PCB populated
with electronic components is called a printed circuit assembly (PCA),
printed circuit board assembly or PCB assembly (PCBA). The IPC
preferred term for assembled boards is circuit card assembly
(CCA),for assembled backplanes it is backplane assemblies. The term
PCB is used informally both for bare and assembled boards.

Fig.3.20 Printed Circuit Board

53

CHAPTER-4
FUTURE SCOPE
In a present scenario such kind of speed breaker are being used for a light
vehicles in various countries. Now in a future that technology can be used
for heavy vehicles, thus increasing input torque to various mechanism and
ultimately output of the generator or dynamo. To enhance the efficiency of
that system, engineers have to find out more compact, reliable and suitable
mechanism to produce electricity.
Future goal of that system to enhance the efficiency, so there should be rapid
rotation of the dynamo shaft; to do the same we can employ a flywheel to
the system in such a way that it would be increase the rotation per minute of
dynamo or a generator. Generally a flywheel used in machines serves as a
reservoir which stores energy during the period when supply energy more
than the requirement and releases it during the period when the requirement
of energy more than the supply. Flywheel energy storage (FES) works by
accelerating a rotor (flywheel) to a very high speed and maintaining the
energy in the system as rotational energy. When energy is extracted from the
system, the flywheel's rotational speed is reduced as a consequence of the
principle of conservation of energy; adding energy to the system
correspondingly results in an increase in the speed of the flywheel i.e.
increasing the rotational energy of the shaft. Advanced FES systems have
rotors made of high strength carbon filaments, suspended by magnetic
bearings, and spinning at speeds from 20,000 to over 50,000 rpm in a
vacuum enclosure.
Stepper motor can be replaced by the dynamo in single way traffic system
to produce electricity from speed breakers. Stepper motors operate
54

differently from normal DC motors, which rotate when voltage is applied to

their terminals. Stepper motors, on the other hand, effectively have multiple
"toothed" electromagnets arranged around a central gear-shaped piece of
iron. The electromagnets are energized by an external control circuit. To
make the motor shaft turn, first one electromagnet is given power, which
makes the gear's teeth magnetically attracted to the electromagnet's teeth.
When the gear's teeth are thus aligned to the first electromagnet, they are
slightly offset from the next electromagnet. So when the next electromagnet
is turned on and the first is turned off, the gear rotates slightly to align with
the next one, and from there the process is repeated. Each of those slight
rotations is called a "step." In that way, the motor can be turned by a precise
angle.

4.1 STEPPER MOTOR

Stepper motors are constant-power devices (power = angular velocity x
torque). As motor speed increases, torque decreases. The torque curve may
be extended by using current limiting drivers and increasing the driving
voltage.
Steppers exhibit more vibration than other motor types, as the discrete
step tends to snap the rotor from one position to another. This vibration can
become very bad at some speeds and can cause the motor to lose torque. The
effect can be mitigated by accelerating quickly through the problem speed
range, physically damping the system, or using a micro-stepping driver.
Motors with a greater number of phases also exhibit smoother operation than
those with fewer phases.
55

4.2 TYPES
There are three main types of stepper motors.

Permanent Magnet Stepper

Hybrid Synchronous Stepper

Variable Reluctance Stepper

TWO PHASE STEPPER MOTOR

There are two basic winding arrangements for the electromagnetic coils
in a two phase stepper motor: bipolar and unipolar.

UNIPOLAR MOTORS

A unipolar stepper motor has logically two windings per phase, one
for each direction of current. Since in this arrangement a magnetic pole can
be reversed without switching the direction of current, the commutation
circuit can be made very simple (e.g. a single transistor) for each winding.
Typically, given a phase, one end of each winding is made common: giving
three leads per phase and six leads for a typical two phase motor. Often,
these two phase commons are internally joined, so the motor has only five
leads.

56

4.3 ADVANTAGES
Compact System.
Easy to install.
Produce sufficient electricity to charge the batteries.
Used at footfall area as well as speed breakers.
Using non-conventional source of energy.

57

CHAPTER-5
CONCLUSION
It is a non conventional type of producing the energy. The existing source of
energy such as coal, oil etc may not be adequate to meet the ever increasing
energy demands. These conventional sources of energy are also depleting
and may be exhausted at the end of the century or beginning of the next
century. Consequently sincere and untiring efforts shall have to be made by
engineers in exploring the possibilities of harnessing energy from several
non-conventional energy sources. This project is a one step to path of that
way. The overall goal was to design the speed breaker System while keeping
the engineering, producer and customer models in check. The reason why
this feature was used more than all of the other features are because the other
features would not have as much effect on the complete system. By
changing the size and desirable price, weight and capacity can be realized.
We used a survey to find out how the price, weight and capacity were scaled.
Much was learned on how to and not to conduct a survey. A preliminary
survey should have been conducted to determine a realistic value of
variables. Also many of choices were not close enough together to get a
reasonable cut off value. Therefore the data that was produced using conjoint
analysis was most likely not as accurate as it could have been.
Future work would consist of a redesign of this model to see exactly
how much data we may be missing with the assumption that we made with
low price, weight and capacity. Despite all the assumptions, we still have
realized that this product can be very marketable and that the demand is
58

extremely large which means this is a viable design that will yield a high
return on an investment.

59