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Dyslexia and Thinking Skills
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"How can current research into thinking skills enlighten practical
approaches to teaching people with dyslexia or literacy difficulties?"

Phil Wain 2014

isthisdyslexia.com

"How can current research into thinking

skills enlighten practical approaches to
teaching people with dyslexia or
literacy difficulties?"
Abstract
Dyslexia is a condition affecting a large percentage of the population the British
Dyslexia Association estimates that it affects 10% of the population. Those
affected have difficulty with spelling, reading fluency and accuracy and often
with handwriting, arithmetic, mental mathematics, sequencing, organisation and
rote memory. However, current research is uncovering the possibility that those
same dyslexic individuals may have certain advantages conferred by those same
brain differences that cause dyslexia. Bearing in mind the self-esteem issues
affecting many dyslexics and current research on teaching thinking skills and
motivation, dyslexic students need carefully managed programmes of individual
support making use of techniques that maximise the impact of their cognitive
strengths on developing their learning. Such techniques include Philosophy for
Children, Mediated Learning and multi-sensory and visual strategies. In this
essay I aim to explore how current research into thinking skills can inform
practice in the education of dyslexic learners.

What is dyslexia?
The Rose Report definition of dyslexia is generally accepted as a good definition
currently.
Dyslexia is a learning difficulty that primarily affects the
skills involved in accurate and fluent word reading and
spelling.
Characteristic features of dyslexia are difficulties in
phonological awareness, verbal memory and verbal
processing speed.
Dyslexia occurs across the range of intellectual
abilities.
It is best thought of as a continuum, not a distinct
category, and there are no clear cut-off points.
Co-occurring difficulties may be seen in aspects of
language, motor co-ordination, mental calculation,
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concentration and personal organisation, but these are

not, by themselves, markers of dyslexia.
A good indication of the severity and persistence of
dyslexic difficulties can be gained by examining how the
individual responds or has responded to well founded
intervention.
Sir Jim Rose (2009). P10
Students with dyslexia tend to display difficulties in the three areas of
phonological awareness, verbal processing speed and working memory. As
contemporary education puts great emphasis on spelling, writing, reading
fluently and rote memorisation of facts, these emphases can make life at school
a difficult experience for many dyslexic students. In contrast, students with
dyslexia often show relative strengths in material and spatial reasoning,
understanding of interconnections, narrative reasoning, understanding of
dynamic relationships and creativity in the visual and other arts. A large
proportion of architects, entrepreneurs, inventors and artists have a diagnosis of
dyslexia (Bannatyne, 1971) and there is an emerging science researching the
brain differences which underlie dyslexia and the mechanisms of the effects of
these brain differences.

Current theories
Genetic and environmental factors have an impact on the development of
dyslexia. It is known to run in families. Several theories have been developed to
look into the cognitive causes of dyslexia.

Phonological defi cit

Many associate dyslexia with phonological deficit (where historically it was seen
primarily as a visual disorder) impairments in storage, retrieval or
representation of speech sounds. Most dyslexic people have difficulties in this
area. Snowling Stackhouse, Frith and others postulate that genetic differences in
the left hemisphere affect the ability to sequence, identify and produce sounds.
This has been backed up by fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging)
showing that specific areas of the brain light up when engaged in phonological
activities and that these are less likely to light up with dyslexic subjects. These
areas are named the Wernickes and Brocas areas and Frith and Paulesus
research suggested that these areas (the former involved in whole word
recognition, the latter in word breakdown into sound segments) work more in
isolation in dyslexic people

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Phonological processing difficulties cause difficulties with sound blending, rhyme,

verbal processing and non-word repetition. The implication of this theory is that
teaching should develop phonological skills.

Magnocellular Theory
A different approach was brought by Stein and others, returning in a way to the
earlier visual models the Magnocellular theory. This associated dyslexia with
dysfunction of magnocellular pathways (Stein and Walsh 1997). Magnocells are
responsible for the timing of sensory and motor signalling. They are specialised
for fast processing of temporal information. Reading puts stress on magnocells
and any weakness in the pathway leads to confusions of letter order and poor
visual memory. It may also result in weak phonological skills because there is an
auditory subsystem to the magnocellular pathways large neurones responsible
for sound discrimination.
Indeed Stein does not confine the magnocellular theory to effects of visual
processing. He postulates that temporal processing involved in phonological
and/or visual and/or motor systems may be impaired. Stein and Walsh do beg the
question whether all the diversity of dyslexics with all the diversity of symptoms
can be put down to an individual explanation. However they put forward a
mechanism of how temporal impairments might lay under phonological, visual
and motor difficulties.

Processing and Double Defi cit

Dr Maryanne Wolf encourages us to look beyond phonological issues to the
processing difficulties most dyslexic are affected by. She examines the effect of
the retrieval of information stored by the brain and the speed with which the
brain organises information. Her term double-deficit describes people affected by
both phonological difficulties and processing difficulties. Wolf claims that around
50% of dyslexics have the double deficit with just less than a quarter of dyselxics
affected predominately by one of the two issues. She has developed the RAVE-O
intervention programme. The programme is focussed on developing reading
fluency both word recognition and comprehension and underlying
factors
such as visual scanning, orthographic pattern recognition, semantic and
syntactic development and lexical retrieval. It focuses on developing
automaticity and on making connections in learning.

Left-hemisphere processing diffi culties

Galaburda had studied brains in 1985 and associated this phonological difficulty
and slow processing of speech sounds with brain-cortical malformations.
Generally left-hemispheric functioning is described as a relative weakness in
Dyslexics who tend to think in terms of the big picture; rather than detail. This
also implies right-hemisphere strengths which we often see in Dyslexics
prediction and search for meaning using context, creativity, spatial awareness.
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These can all be built on in education using techniques such as mind mapping
and a valuing of individual strengths.
Geschwind and Galaburda did not view dyslexia entirely as a disorder though:
The pattern of cortical development may well reflect a
mechanism that is advantageous to the population as a
whole, since it leads to a greater diversity of patterns of
patterns of talent
Geschwind and Galaburda 1987 p 143
They argue that context determines whether dyslexia is an advantage or
disadvantage. The very condition which makes most mainstream school
experience difficult also gives the advantage that means a high proportion of
entrepreneurs, artists, inventors and architects are dyslexic. I will discuss at
length later in this essay the advantages that have been described as being
attributed to the dyslexic mind and ways education can adapt and get the best
of dyslexic students, both in terms of their talents and making education an
inspirational and positive experience for all. It should be added however that
more recent fMRA scans have not showed the predicted right brain emphasis this
theory would expect although similar cognitive styles could be produced by other
causes. Additionally, neuroscience has now discredited the left and right brain
personality type concept which underlay many of the right brain emphasis
theories.

Cerebellar Impairment
This relatively recent theory proposes to explain why dyslexia is a more wide
ranging condition than merely a phonological one. The cerebellum, according to
recent research, plays a major role in language acquisition from birth on. The
cerebellum helps control phonology, speech processing, motor control, coordination, balance, handwriting, organisation etc and a deficit would explain
many features of dyslexia. Studies by Fawcett and Nicolson (2001) identified a
significant number of dyslexics with symptoms typical of cerebellar impairment.
However the sample size was small and more research is needed in this area.
Additionally, not all dyslexics have symptoms typical of cerebellar impairment
and Fawcett and Nicolson did write that there may be several sub-types
One learning implication is that dyslexics may need to repeat a procedure many,
many more times for it to become automatic than non-dyslexics even though
they may appear to quickly understand a concept. This difficulty with procedural
learning means that often procedures have to be undertaken more mindfully.
Some have argued that this mindfulness in following procedures makes
dyslexics more likely to produce innovations in the procedures. Another
implication of cerebellar impairment would be the importance of kinaesthetic
learning.
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Comorbidity
No discussion of contemporary theories on dyslexia would be complete without
considering the great value in recent years in understanding the prevalence of
comorbidity of conditions on understanding dyslexia. Comorbidity with dyspraxia,
dyscalculia, dysgraphia, ADHD or autism is very common and one reason for the
great variance of dyslexic symptoms. In addition, each of these conditions can be
affected by protective and environmental factors. Valerie Muter gives the figure
of 75% for the incidence of comorbidity with other conditions in dyslexics. The
incidence of dyslexia alone is much less common and the pattern of strength and
weaknesses for each dyslexic individual will be relatively unique.

Sub-types
Many researchers, from Stein to Fawcett and Nicolson have suggested that the
overall picture may be far more complex than an individual biological or
cognitive explanation for dyslexia. Many propose that there are subtypes of
dyslexia such as the phonological subtypes or the cerebellar subtypes.

Impacts of dyslexia
Dyslexia has been said by various researchers to affect between 4 and 20% of
the population. However, Peck (1985) found that 50% of children under age 15
who committed suicide in Los Angeles County over a 3-year period had been
diagnosed as learning disabled. In the US dyslexia falls under this umbrella term.
There is a real threat to the well-being of dyslexic children. Many hold
themselves in low regard because of their relative weaknesses in the skills
valued in school: fact memorisation, fluent reading and spelling.
There is an increasing body of evidence to show that
children with difficulties of a dyslexic nature are at
particular risk of developing distorted or damaged selfconcepts as a result of their marginalized status,
particularly if the specific nature of their difficulties is
not recognised at an early stage in their school careers.

Robert Burden (2005) p2

A multitude of studies have linked dyslexia with low self esteem, depression,
Examples include Gjessing and Karlsen (1985) linking dyslexia and low selfesteem, Gerber (1990), Fairhurst and Pumfrey (1992), Riddick (1999) finding
poor readers feel lower self-esteem, more anxious and less confident, and Lerner
(2000) finding that dyslexic students suffer socio-emotional problems, struggle to
make and keep friends, can develop learned helplessness, low motivation, and
maladaptive behaviour. Glazzard (2010) found that the most significant factor
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that contributed to students' self-esteem was a positive diagnosis of 'dyslexia'

and ownership of the label.
Similarly with adult dyslexics, Bynner and Ekynsmith (1994) found significantly
links between perceived literacy difficulties and adult depression in a longitudinal
study.
In Dyslexia & self-Concept (Seeking a Dyslexic Identity (2005), Dr Robert
Burden summarised research on the relationship between self concept and
educational achievement. He examined theoretical frameworks underlying selfconcept and motivation; Interviewed fifty dyslexic boys in depth at a private
residential dyslexia school giving case studies and data; gave some voice to the
boys feelings as dyslexics (at length); and recommended some ways forward.
Although Burdens research sample was small and fairly unrepresentative of the
whole population, the findings are still fascinating given the length of the
interviews and the extent to which Burden uncovered how the students viewed
their dyslexia. Given this sample was from pupils at a private dyslexia boarding
school, 34% wished they werent dyslexic, 14% often felt depressed and 12%
viewed dyslexia as a curse. Most newer boys to the school expressed negative
feelings about themselves than those who had attended the school for a while.
So given this, we can assume this specialist school experience generally
improved pupil self- esteem. Given that, such a high proportion expressing
feelings of depression about dyslexia is alarming as it suggests that the figure
might be much higher for dyslexics in society at large.
What Burden found in the boys who were newer to the school was higher levels
of learned helplessness and lower levels of self-efficacy following their
experiences in mainstream education. They did not view themselves as learners
and needed a programme to encourage their own reliance on themselves. In this
context we should consider the psychological term locus of control which
expresses the degree with which the learner feels able to take charge of their
own learning (internal locus of control) or the degree they are dependent on
others (external locus of control). What is important for dyslexic learners is we
develop programmes that not only reframe their dyslexia in a positive sense and
reclaim the students skills for them but that actively develop their own ability to
make the most of their own abilities.

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The Dyslexia Advantage

Dr Brock Eide and Dr Fernette Eide published The Dyslexic Advantage in 2011.
It sought to bring a different perspective to the subject and reframe dyslexia in
terms of advantage rather than deficit. It examined research finding that a high
proportion of entrepreneurs, inventors and architects are dyslexic and tried to
counter the idea that they succeeded in spite of their dyslexia, rather, it
considers the proposal that they might have been successful partly because of
other strengths owing to dyslexia.
At length, they describe four types of thinking which are more highly developed
in many dyslexics constructing the acrostic MIND as a suitable mnemonic.

M-strengths mechanical ability and three dimensional spatial reasoning

material reasoning
I strengths ability to perceive relationships such as analogies, metaphors,
paradoxes, similarities, differences, and implications interconnected reasoning
N- strengths ability to recall important personal experiences and to understand
abstract material in terms of specific examples narrative reasoning
D- strengths ability to perceive subtle patterns in complex and constantly shifting
data dynamic reasoning
The theoretical basis for these strengths lie in suggested differences in brain
structure.
Ever since Roger Sperry discovered in the 1970s and 1980s that the different
hemispheres of brain had different functions, there has been much research into
this. Generally it has been presented that the right hemisphere is associated with
the large scale, the global, the big picture and the gist; and the left hemisphere
with fine details and logic. As mentioned before, dyslexics tend to have more of
what has been regarded historically as a right brain approach although such
simplistic concepts have since been discredited.
In 2005, Dr Mark Beeman found differences in the ways the hemispheres process
language finding the right hemisphere more involved in distant connections,
different views of meanings of one sentence, synonyms, antonyms, ironic
meanings and a broader rather than a narrower field.
Dr Manuel Casanova at the University of Kentucky (2010) saw similar results to
right brain cognitive style of dyslexia but typified not by use of one hemisphere
over another rather by differences by broad spacing of functional cluster
minicolumns of neurons in brains cortex. Tightly spaced minicolumns tend to
make connections nearby neurons, wider spaced more distant connections. This
bias might explain bias toward detail tasks or big picture. Shorter connections
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match right brain cognitive style model and vice versa What Casanova
describes is a different model to left/right brain differences but another model
that can explain the same differences especially where fMRA scans have not
necessarily indicated the right brain emphasis proposed by the earlier theories.

According to Dr Casanova, the dyslexic bias towards

long-distance connections leads to the emergence of the
big picture processing skills weve mentioned and to
weaknesses in fine detail processing. One fine detail
task that Dr Casanova cited as often being particularly
hard for individuals with dyslexia is phonological
processing, which as we described in the last chapter,
involves distinguishing highly similar sounds.

Eide and Eide 2011 p40

This difference means that while non-dyslexic brains might excel at precision,
accuracy, automaticity, focus and detailed expertise, dyslexic brains might excel
at seeing the gist or essence, understanding of variety of perspective, seeing
new or unusual connections, inference and general inventiveness. Of course this
is a massive generalisation.
The issue is does school make use of these advantages? Given the many
anecdotal stories in The Dyslexia Advantage of inventors, entrepreneurs,
novelists and artists who found school an ordeal but excelled in working life, how
could we ensure that firstly dyslexic students potential is tapped, secondly that
they are not so damaged and depressed by the experience of schooling.

Mindset
Considering improving the self-esteem, learning ability and self-reliance of
dyslexic students, its important to consider the work of Dr Carol Dweck at
Stanford University. Studying the psychology of learners in the US, Dr Dweck
discovered the importance of the concept she calls Mindset. Essentially this
describes your view of yourself in terms of whether you view your
talent/intelligence as a fixed gift or a measure which could develop or change
over time. She shows how ones view of oneself in terms of intelligence seen as
fixed or growth model is the biggest factor in future success and has
demonstrated this repeatedly in research.
Having a fixed or growth mindset will determine how you view success and
failure, whether you see problems as challenges or more negatively, how much
you rely on affirmation and whether you value critical advice. It will influence
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how you view competition and whether you view mistakes as positive or
negative in learning. Also, a person with a fixed mindset might see working hard
as a sign they are not good enough to coast where a person with growth mindset
may see it as a sign they are working towards something new and worthwhile.
If we are to equip dyslexics with the resilience to cope with mistake making,
setbacks and difficulties it is vital we help them develop a growth mindset. They
need positive examples of dyslexic success and classroom environments where
having a go at something difficult is valued more than showing what you already
know. If we are to achieve this, we have to engender a focus on process as more
important than product in education. Some might see this as contrary in a world
of league tables and exams but how are we to achieve in these measures if we
do not develop the learning potential to the maximum rather than rewarding
what the students can already do. Personally I have had some success, teaching
the concept of mindset explicitly to Primary school students and having them
discuss and debate these theories in communities of enquiry set up using the
Philosophy 4 Children model.
One other aspect of this to consider is what Dweck discovered about the effect of
praise on learning. An experiment was set up where two groups of students were
given identical tests consisting of a set of straightforward questions. Both groups
performed similarly. Afterwards one group was praised for being intelligent You
must have been intelligent to do so well. The second group was praised for
effort. Both groups were then given a choice of a more difficult test or one of a
similar level. The group praised for effort were far more likely to choose the
latter. Then the students were given an impossible test. The group initially
praised for intelligence were more likely to become frustrated and give up but
the group praised for effort tended to enjoy it and view it as a challenge. Finally,
the two groups were given tests of a similar level to that of the first challenge.
This time, the group initially praised for effort now scored significantly higher. It
is important to remember here that this is merely a subtle change of a few words
of praise, but it achieved dramatically different results.
So what does a fixed mindset do? It forces us to live up to an expectation of a
certain level of intelligence and we can then be embarrassed about not living up
to them. Dweck even found students with fixed mindset more likely to be
deceptive about their scores. Whereas, what does a growth mindset do? It allows
us to respond to challenge, to view setbacks as challenges to overcome, it also
fits neatly with what we are learning about the brains ability to make new
connections of neurones throughout our lives. What better model to teach
dyslexic students that they can overcome their own difficulties and achieve
whatever they want to achieve?

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Philosophy for Children

Having learned about the strengths of many dyslexics, we would want to
maximise those strengths to develop learning to a full capacity; this capacity of
dyslexics for creative thought, imaginative connection, wide cognitive leaps,
interconnected and narrative reasoning leads us to consider the potential role of
Philosophy for Children (or P4C the acronym was developed in the UK as it was
felt the word children was unsuitable for Secondary School). This focus on
thinking is especially important considering we are educating students who by
definition are far more intelligent than their spelling, writing or reading might
indicate. Surely the best way to harness that ability in developing their learning
is to use their thinking skills rather than patronising them with context reduced
remedial programs designed for far younger children.
Matthew Lipman is recognised as the founder of Philosphy for Children. In the
1970s he realised the value of teaching logic and reasoning in children after
witnessing underdeveloped reasoning skills in his students at Colombia
University. Ever since, organisations such as the Institute for the Advancement of
Philosophy for Children (IAPC) and SAPERE (Society for the Advancement of
Philosophical Enquiry and Reflection in Education) in the UK have developed
philosophical enquiry and Socratic reasoning in schools. In some, for example in
Gallions Primary School in Newham, the regular implementation of P4C in all age
groups and classes led to dramatic, sustained improvements in exam results in
all subjects with students making connections between their learning and the
development of their thinking having impacts in all curriculum areas.
In 2007 in Scotland, Topping and Trickey led research into the effects of regular
P4C sessions. Children in the experimental group had a P4C session once a week.
Even this intervention led to a statistically significant increase in childrens IQ
scores over a year, compared with no increase in the scores of the control group.
The same research demonstrated significant gains in verbal and non-verbal
reasoning, improvements in communication, listening, behaviour, reasoning,
questioning, reading and understanding. One of the key impacts in schools is in
improving teacher use of questioning. Also key is the effect on self-esteem, in a
study in Canada in 1994, Sasseville found that the pupils gaining the most in
terms of self-esteem and logical reasoning from P4C were those with the lowest
self-esteem on entry.
SAPERE are developing evidence from case studies that regular involvement in a
community of enquiry helps close the gap by disproportionately benefitting the
lower achievers and children with specific learning difficulties. Using P4C can
develop critical thinking, questioning, listening, valuing of opinions and
difference, creative problem solving and collaborative learning. One of the key
aspects is that P4C emphasises community of enquiry that is classes enquire
together as everyone has an equal voice, and contributing does not depend
necessarily on spelling or literacy skill it develops inclusion more completely than
most educational strategies.
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The key concepts developed by Philosophy for Children are critical thinking,
creative thinking, caring thinking and collaborative thinking. Students respond to
a stimulus by developing philosophical questions in response to that stimulus,
voting on a question to explore and then discussing, debating and enquiring in a
process facilitated by the teacher either allowing the students to own the
discussion at times, or developing the discussion by asking probing or thought
provoking questions at key points. All participants are given opportunity to
express final thoughts on the question. During the enquiry, the facilitator can call
for others who might agree or disagree, call for distinction or clarification, for
examples or criteria, for connections or for analogies.
So how does this emphasis on thinking, embodied by a P4C approach help
dyslexic learners? In the Dyslexic Advantage, discussed earlier, Eide and Eide
listed strengths of dyslexics including interconnected reasoning (ability to
perceive relationships such as analogies, metaphors, paradoxes, similarities,
differences, and implications), narrative reasoning (ability to recall important
personal experiences and to understand abstract material in terms of specific
examples) and dynamic reasoning (ability to perceive subtle patterns in complex
and constantly shifting information).
As Eide and Eide see it, dyslexics have a possible brain structure advantage in
philosophical enquiry. Not only does it play to their potential strengths, it allows
them to excel without being dependent on literacy skills and it can help develop
their ability to make connections between different aspects of learning.
Additionally it can raise their self-esteem and build a growth mindset.

For dyslexic brains, excellent function typically means

traits like the ability to see the gist or essence of things
or to spot the larger context behind a given situation or
idea; multidimensionality of perspective; the ability to
see new, unusual or distant connections; inferential
reasoning and ambiguity detection; the ability to
recombine things in novel ways; and a general
inventiveness; and greater mindfulness and
intentionality during tasks that others take for granted

Eide and Eide 2011 p42

When it comes to narrative reasoning strengths of some dyslexics, they can
make use of the episodic memory which uses fragments of memory of
experience to imagine future scenarios, solve problems, test ideas and create
imaginary stories. Interconnected reasoning ties in closely with the skills needed
in philosophical study. Moral philosopher, CEO and dyslexic Dov Seidman tells in
The Dyselxic Advantage of struggling at school until encountering philosophy. He

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found it catered to his strengths pondering one idea rather than reading
hundreds of pages.
Eide and Eie explain that philosophy is at its core a search for gist. It involves
making connections of many kinds. It primarily focuses on a big-picture rather
than fine-detail view, fitting the cognitive strengths of many dyslexics well. Of
course, there are also the material reasoning strengths of many dyslexics so we
need to ensure learning is multisensory and opportunities for kinaesthetic and
spatial orientated learning are catered for.

Ways forward
Having explored some current theories as to the biological and cognitive origins
of dyslexia, the impacts on dyslexia on self-esteem, possible advantages in types
of reasoning that might be afforded by dyslexic brain structure and current
theories on the influence of mindset on learning, it important to consider more
fully how dyslexic students might be better catered for. Philosophy for Children is
one effective strategy but what else should be considered to optimise learning
and self-esteem for dyslexics?
Clearly diagnosis and assessment in themselves make a huge difference. For
many, it is the beginning or clarification of developing more in-depth selfknowledge in terms of cognitive strengths and weaknesses and awareness of
their own effective learning style. The more clarity regarding an individuals
strengths and needs, the more effective learning can be. Of course for this to be
successful, the diagnosis also has to be framed positively in terms of relative
strengths and specific needs.
Specialist teachers need to help dyslexics develop awareness of what works for
them in terms of overcoming working memory, phonological or processing
difficulties. Its an extension of the teach a man to fish analogy but we need to
remember that students learn as much or more outside direct instruction as in.
They need to own the learning and to see their own capabilities and next steps in
terms of that learning.
This may mean carefully building students independence as their self-esteem
improves, developing their self-efficacy and locus of control within their own
capabilities. In my experience this often develops from the teacher initially taking
the lead in activities to the teacher consciously developing learning to allow the
student to take control.
Considering the relative weaknesses many dyslexics face - spelling, fluent
accurate reading and sometimes handwriting, arithmetic, mental mathematics,
sequencing, organisation and rote memory these need addressing through
programmes that build on the same individuals relative strengths: creativity,
reading and oral comprehension, material, interconnected, narrative and
dynamic reasoning. For example, a student of mine loved art and learned very
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visually so having her create humourous cartoons to help remember ideas was a
useful strategy, she also learned much more by using the senses together.
Indeed, visual strategies are often a way in to represent dyslexic students
thoughts. Mindmapping is often a way to record the sophisticated connections a
dyslexic student might make with the more flexibility of connection type and
colour coding the better. Creative ways of representing ideas have always been
developed by dyslexics and this should be encouraged. Oliver Wests Footnotes
system in his book In Search of Words is one example. Profoundly dyslexic, he
developed he system as a way of representing his thoughts and offers it to share
with others, howeverat best, students develop and refine their own systems to
match their own cognitive style.
Multisensory learning is most effective. When I have involved students sense of
taste, smell, touch, sight and hearing in an activity has been when they have
proved most memorable. Clearly these types of activities are vital for effective
learning but we must also equip our learners to learn for themselves and engage
their thinking in their learning.
Carefully targeted multisensory phonics teaching is important for many young
dyslexic learners but many times older students who have phonological, working
memory and processing difficulties and have had phonics based teaching for
years are given more of the same. Unfortunately sometimes even programmes
designed for younger children are given which can be even more damaging for
self-esteem. Often it is much better to utilise the dyslexic pupils strengths in
reasoning and teach spelling more in a morphological manner, as described in
Rescuing Spelling by Melvin Ramsden.
Reading Ramsden and Spell it Out (The Singular Story of English Spelling) by
David Crystal, one becomes aware of the huge possibility of teaching English
spelling intelligently and logically and also by breaking spelling down into
morphological rather than phonological units making use of the chunking
technique for building words. Where the phonology of English orthography is
confusing, using morphological units it is possible to build accurate spellings and
make connections logically.
By definition, dealing with dyslexic students we are working with people of
greater intelligence than spelling ability and that intelligence can be put to use,
explaining the influence of Norman scribes on English spelling, the ways English
scribes attempted to indicate short and long vowels, and how the etymology of a
word might give clues to its spelling. Teaching using a morphological approach
makes sense as it builds on the dyslexic students strengths
In Dyslexia and Self-Concept, Burden recommends a number of ways forward,
very much recommending an approach based on mediated learning experiences
(MLE) as described by Reuven Feuerstein and his colleagues. Feuerstein
identified 12 principles of effective mediated learning.

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Intentionality and reciprocity: making intentions clear and ensuring

learners are on board
Mediating for meaning: the activity has significance and meaning for the
learner
Transcendence: learning experience should transcend beyond the here
and now
Mediation of feelings of competence: developing a sense of self efficacy
by providing informative feedback and carefully targeted, specific praise
Seeing problems as challenges: making the learner active in solving their
own problem relates directly to Dwecks growth mindset
Goal seeking, goal setting and goal achieving: motivating learners to
achieve realistic and relevant learning outcomes and to set their own
personal goals
The mediation of the need to see ones behaviour as within ones control::
the learner attributing success or failure as within their control having a
strong internal locus of control. At first many dyslexic students may
constantly seek help with their work but they need to be gradually
weaned off their dependency
Fostering awareness of change: help learners reflect on how they have
changed
Individuation: the recognition of the individual as a unique person,
dyslexics often have to be helped to feel special and that they have
talents and abilities that override their specific difficulties
Sharing with others: learners need to be encouraged to share problems
and strategies with others empowering both themselves and others,
developing pride in themselves
Mediation of a sense of belonging: here is the importance of successful
inclusion in the mainstream school.
The need to foster a belief in optimistic alternatives: developing an
optimistic learning outlook, again this fits with Dwecks growth mindset
theory well.

If we take a mediated learning approach to specialist teaching in this manner

and develop targeted teaching that is multisensory, develops students abilities
to be metacognitive and reflective learners and build in a high level of teaching
of thinking skills we can help students achieve their potential and value
themselves as learners provided we factor in an appropriate degree of success
and personalised to the interests of the students. The metacognitive aspect is
vital. If they are to know their strengths they must understand the specific nature
of their individual difficulties and the specific nature of strategies they personally
can use to learn efficiently
Eide and Eide describe internal and external supports in the Dyslexic
Advantage in terms of factors the dyslexic adults they interviewed considered
critical for their emotional, learning and professional success. Internal supports
included tenacity, confidence, positive self-image, acceptance of struggle
especially in aspects of education (resilience) and a personal focus on individual
strengths and interests. External supports included supportive home and school
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Dyslexia and Thinking Skills

environments and a supportive network of friends. As educators we can play a

role in enabling dyslexic students to develop all of these and we need to make
sure we make every use of dyslexic learners positive strengths in order to
develop their potential to the full.
Focussing on strengths of dyslexic learners allows them to develop self-esteem
and utilise their thinking skills and creativity to maximise this potential. Instead
of seeing school as an ordeal, or dyslexia as an obstacle to overcome, education
can become a more natural, positive learning experience that allows the learner
to build on their successes and thrive.

One of the most important things students with

dyslexia can do is to identify their ideal learning style,
which consists of their best methods of information
input, information output, memory and attention. By
funnelling information towards areas of cognitive
strength and away from areas of weakness, students
with dyslexia can learn and express knowledge as
efficiently and effectively as possible.
Eide and Eide 2011 p236

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