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Disadvantages:
1) Not all plants may be sprayed
2) Some spray may wash of plants
3) Pest may become resistant (grow immune to pesticide)
4) Bioaccumulation
5) Kills beneficial organisms
6) Enters food chain
7) Residue is left on crop
How a pest becomes resistant:
1) There is variation in the pest population
2) Mutation occurs
3) This produces the allele giving resistance
4) There is a selection pressure for this gene
5) Therefore pests with this gene breed
6) This leads to an increased frequency of surviving allele
Although pest plants are not wanted, they do increase the diversity of the environment as they attract
new species
Plants with large surface area to volume ratio are easily affected by pesticides as there is a shorter
diffusion pathway
SYSTEMIC INSECTICIDE: Insecticides absorbed by plants allowing plant tissues to kill insects feeding
on them
Advantages of Systemic Insecticide:
1) Only affects an insect that eats plant (specific)
2) Insecticide is not diluted which reduces the amount needed
3) Insecticide does not cause eutrophication
Some plants can be made as a pesticide by incorporating the pesticide into genome of plant to allow
plant to produce toxin, this called genetically modifying crops.
Advantages of making Genetically Modified Crops against pests:
1) More effective than other methods
2) Poisons may harm other
3) Prevent spread of disease
4) Economic benefit to farmer
Disadvantages of making Genetically Modified Crops against pests:
1) Plasmid may enter another species
2) May sterilise other species
3) Disruption of food chain
Why there may be Chemical Pesticides in bodies of other organisms other than the pest:
1) Insect may eat a high number of pests which have been affected by the Chemical Pesticide
2) The insect cannot break down the chemical, therefore it remains in the insects body
Why resistant pests increase in number:
They can survive the chemical; they then reproduce to allow the genes to be passed on
BIOLOGICAL CONTROL (using a predator to control pest organism/ sometimes you can
release sterile males of the pest):
Advantages:
1) If well trained, it will only attack the pests, i.e. specific
2) Only one application is required and is therefore cheaper
3) Safer as it does leave chemical residue
4) Pests do not become resistant
5) Application linked to life cycle of pest
6) Maintains low level of pest
7) Can be used in organic farming
Disadvantages:
1) You do not completely remove pest
2) Can only be used for glasshouse crops
3) There is a cost of researching
4) It may become a pest itself
5) May attack non-target species
6) It is slower than chemical control
7) It is more subject to environmental factors
8) Difficulty in maintaining population of predator
9) Cost of predator
In Biological Control you must:
1) Look for predator of same origin as pest; predator can survive in similar climate
2) Study effect of predator on other organisms in laboratory; may outcompete native species or
may attack them
3) Release large number of predators; increases chance of successful introduction so that damage
to crops is little
4) Ensure stable coexistence of predator and pest at low population densities; no further
introduction required
In Biological Control, the pests cannot be completely wiped out because:
1) Predator may die out
2) Predator may become a pest itself
Lethal Concentration: concentration which kills 50%
Benefits of an Integrated Pest Management Scheme:
1) If one method fails, the other is still partially effective
2) Reduced amounts of pesticides needed
3) Increases yield
4) Less chance of resistance
5) Less effect on food webs
6) Chemical controls initial surges in pest numbers whilst biological gives longer term control of
pests
How you would know that a pesticide was working:
Pest numbers decrease and REMAIN low
INVESTIGATION
In all these investigations, we will be measuring the BIOTIC factors as biotic factors are
living organisms.
We can measure the biotic factors in 5 ways:
1) Abundance of population: counting the number of organisms in the sample
2) Richness of population: number of different species found in a sample
3) Diversity of population: Simpson Diversity index which takes into account the richness and
abundance
4) Growth of population: comparison of growth with between species
5) Biomass of population: used when studying productivity of an organism
Abundance of the population:
1) Frequency: the likelihood of the species occurring in a quadrat
2) Percentage Cover: Estimate of the area within a quadrat that a species covers
How Percentage Cover of an organism of an area may be measured:
1) Use of quadrats that are randomly placed
2) Use a large number of quadrats so as to reduce sampling error
3) Estimate percentage of area covered by organism (by counting all the squares occupies by the
species)
Why Percentage Cover is better to use than Frequency:
1) Frequency is too large
2) Plants are too small
Sometimes, you may even lay quadrats every 10 metres rather than use random sampling, this is
because:
1) It is systematic sampling
2) To establish a pattern
How to place quadrats at random:
1) Split area into squares and number them
2) Draw numbers from a hat
Why quadrats must be placed at random:
Transect: lines that allow us to sample along a changing habitat (usually used to measure
distribution of a species from one habitat to another)
Interrupted-Belt Transect:
Quadrats are placed at intervals along the line
Continuous-Belt Transect:
Quadrats are place along the entire line
A Point Transect:
You record plants touching certain points along the line
Line Transect:
You record all plants touching the line
Point Transects and Line Transects are done without quadrats
Characteristics of a Line Transect: it is quick but can be unrepresentative
Characteristics of a Belt Transect: it involves more work but can generate more complete data
Transects are usually used in environments such as down a rocky shore, into a forest or down a
mountain side.
Purpose of a Chi-Squared test:
To compare different numbers collected from the two sites and show whether the differences are
significant enough to confirm or reject the null hypothesis
RANDOM SAMPLING:
1) Divide study area into grid of numbered line
2) Using random numbers, from a table or generated by computer, obtain a series of coordinates
3) Take samples at the intersection of each coordinates of number of individuals and number of
species
4) Repeat many times and take a mean
Reasons why sample may not represent of whole population:
1) Sampling Bias: investigators may make unrepresentative choices
2) Chance: Even if sampling bias has been avoided you may still get a bias sample by chance
How Mark-Release-Recapture can be used to estimate the number of a population that is MOBILE:
1) Capture sample, mark and release
2) The harming must not harm the animal, (mention method of marking)
3) Take second sample and count marked organisms
4) Use the LINCOLN INDEX which is (Number in sample 1 x Number in sample 2)
Number marked in sample 2
Things to ensure when using Mark-Release-Recapture:
1) Animals are not harmed
2) Animals must not be made less mobile or more visible to predators due to the mark; one way to
do this is to mark the animal using an ultra-violet marking pen which can only be seen under
ultra-violet light
3) Leave enough time for the marked individuals to redistribute themselves and mix with the
population
4) Ensure it is not breeding season of the animal, as breeding season increases the population
size
5) The mark must not be rubbed of or lost during investigation
6) The population has a definite boundary so there is no migration
7) The proportion of marked to unmarked in second sample is the same as the proportion of this in
whole population
8) Sampling method is the same
VERY IMPORTANT: sometimes, instead of marking the animal, they take the animals DNA, this is fine
because finding the animals base sequence is like marking the animal, therefore finding the same
base sequence again would show that the animal has been recorded before.
Along with measuring the population size, the scientists are also recommended to measure the biotic
and abiotic factors.
Why population size may change during a year:
1) Breeding
2) Availability of food source
3) Predator presence
4) Variation in disease
5) Temperature variation
6) Availability of water
Animals that use snow as a camouflage against predators will be affected by global warming as global
warming melts snow
Population Growth:
1) Lag Phase; small number of individuals reproduce slowly
2) Rapid Growth Phase; increasing number of individuals reproducing
3) Stable Phase; population GROWTH declines and population size remains stable
4) Carrying Capacity is established
Population Growth: (Births + Immigration)-(deaths + emigration), to work out just GROWTH RATE, you
need birth rate and death rate,
If a population stays the same size, then B + I = D + E, if a population is increasing in size, B + I > D
+E
If a population is decreasing in size, B + I < D + E
(Immigration increases genetic variability as migrants bring in new alleles, therefore small populations
have small genetic variability as their gene pool is small)
Percentage Growth Rate: (Population change during period x 100) Population at start of period
Birth Rate: (Number of births per year x 1000) Total population that year
Death Rate: (Number of deaths per year x 1000) Total population that year
Increase in population size: (Birth Rate Death Rate) x current population, therefore overall
population after increase will be:
Increase in population + current population
Average Life Expectancy: age at which 50% of the population in the sample used are still alive
How to work out average life expectancy from a graph of number of survivors against age as a % of
maximum:
1) Divide the maximum number of survivors by 2
2) Go across this value and see what age it produces on the x-axis
3) Divide the produced age by the maximum age, then multiply by 100
A womans life expectancy can be longer than a mans because:
1) Men have a higher risk of cardiovascular disease
2) Men drink more and smoke more
3) Men are involved in war
Demographic Transition: Change in the population structure
Examples of demographic transition: Increase in average life expectancy, lower death rates, higher
birth rates
Analysing population pyramids:
1) The wider the base of the pyramid, the faster the population growth
2) If the base of the pyramid is narrow, this indicates a falling population
3) An age pyramid with a wide base that declines quickly and has a narrow tip indicates high
infant mortality and short life expectancy
Survivorship Curves:
Type I curve: long life expectancy, low infant
mortality
Type II curve: intermediate life expectancy
Type III curve: short life expectancy, high infant
mortality
How a sample may be used as a control: Shows
results without adding the element being
experimented
Factors which could to decrease in death rate:
1)Improved medical care
2)Improved nutrition and more food
3)Improved sanitation
4)Less disease
5)Improved living conditions
6)Improved economy
7) War ends
Average Life Expectancy may increase:
1) Improved medical care
2) Improved nutrition
3) Improved sanitation
ATP IN
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Photosynthesis: 6CO2 +
6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2; carbon
dioxide reduced
(gains electrons) to form
glucose
Respiration: Glucose +
Oxygen Carbon Dioxide +
water + energy; oxidation
takes place, electrons and
energy lost
ATP:
1) Provides energy in
small, usable amounts for the
wide variety of
energy-requiring reactions
2) Is relatively small
molecule that can diffuse
around the cell
quickly
3) It is soluble
4) Mainly found in mitochondria
5) Is extremely unstable and is constantly broken down and re-synthesised to and by ADP and Pi
(free organic phosphate)
Therefore it cannot be stored
The reaction for ATP is: ATP + H2O ADP + Pi + Energy; this is a hydrolysis reaction
Energy is also used to split water via the process of PHOTOLYSIS, which produces electrons to
replace chlorophyll electrons. Photolysis also produces protons and Oxygen (2H 2O 4H+ + 4e+ O 2)
The electrons are used to make reduced NADPH (NADP)
The Oxygen is released into atmosphere
DOES NOT depend on temperature as no enzymes involved
REMEMBER: Thylakoids are a part of the GRANA in the chloroplast; therefore ATP and NADH are made
in the thylakoids of the grana
How ATP is made in the Light Dependent Reaction:
1) Light energy excites electrons in chlorophyll
2) Electrons pass down electron transfer chain
3) Electrons reduce carriers
4) This electron transfer chain takes place in the chloroplast membranes
5) Energy is released when electrons pass along the electron transfer chain
6) Energy released is used to generate ATP from ADP and Phosphate (phosphorylation)
Producers such as plants have an advantage if they have a large surface area to volume ratio, this is
because:
1) There is a larger area to absorb light
2) There is a larger area to absorb CO2
3) Shorter diffusion pathway for gases
4) Light able to penetrate all cells
The Light Independent Reaction: Takes place in the Stroma of Chloroplast
It involves the REDUCTION of Carbon Dioxide using ATP and NADPH
DOES depend on temperature as enzymes involved, therefore if temperature is too high,
enzymes denature, ending photosynthesis
Light Independent Reaction: Stages of Calvin Cycle:
1) CO2 combines with 5-carbon RuBP (Ribulose Bisphosphate) with the enzyme Rubisco as a
catalyst, Oxygen acts a competitive inhibitor with CO 2 for the active site of Rubisco
2) This produces 2 MOLECULES of 3 carbon compound GP (Glycerate 3-Phosphate)
3) ATP (provides energy) and NADPH used to reduce GP into 3 carbon compound TP (Triose
Phosphate) this process will not work in the dark, this is because ATP and NADPH cannot be
made without light
4) Some of the TP is used to make carbohydrates like GLUCOSE, but MOST of it is used to
make more RuBP for the next cycle
Therefore, if the light dependent reaction ids stopped, the Calvin Cycle will stop, therefore less RuBP
will be formed and thus there will be less CO 2 uptake.
The Light Independent Reaction depends on the ATP and NADPH made in the Light Dependent
Reaction
Why more CO2 means higher rate of photosynthesis:
1) More CO2 to convert RuBP to GP
2) Therefore more GP available to use with ATP and NADPH
When plants are submerged in water the rate of photosynthesis would decrease because:
The water would absorb light, therefore less light absorbed by plants, leading to a decreased rate of
photosynthesis.
How the concentration of CO2 would fluctuate over 24 hours above ground level:
1) Higher CO2 concentration at night as photosynthesis in plants which removes CO 2 only takes
place in the light
2) Respiration takes place throughout the 24 hours, therefore high CO 2 at night
3) However, even in the dark plants DO take up CO 2, but it is just significantly less than the
amount they take up during the day
4) In light, the rate of photosynthesis will be higher than the rate of respiration
5) The higher you go above ground level, the lower the concentration of CO 2 this is because
the higher you go above ground level, the more leaves there will be, which will be carrying
out photosynthesis which removes CO2
Why it is important for plants to produce ATP during respiration as well as photosynthesis:
1) In the dark, there is not ATP production with photosynthesis, therefore we need respiration as
ATP cannot be stored
2) Some tissues are unable to photosynthesise
3) Plants use more ATP than produce in photosynthesis
4) ATP is needed for active transport
RESPIRATION
Aerobic Respiration is
1) Glycolysis
4 processes:
phosphorylated glucose
2) Link Reaction
Also called Pyruvate Oxidation
Pyruvate used to produce Acetate and Carbon Dioxide, the Acetate is picked up by co-enzyme
A forming Acetyl Co-enzyme A
No ATP is produced in the Link Reaction but 2 NADH molecules are formed as well as CO 2 and
Acetyl Co-enzyme A
Takes place in the Matrix of MITOCHONDRIA
3) Krebs Cycle
Electrons stripped from the Acetate, creating large amounts of electron carriers in the form of
NADH and FADH2
Takes place in the Matrix of MITOCHONDRIA
Each cycle produces 1 ATP, 3 NADH, 1 FADH2 and 2 CO2
The cycle turns TWICE per molecule of glucose, therefore it produces 2 ATP, 6 NADH, 2 FADH 2
and 4 CO2
The Krebs Cycle is a series of Oxidation and Reduction reactions
Without it, H+ would not be able to move into the membrane, therefore no ATP produced, the
energy being made from the oxidation/reduction reactions would then be released as heat
instead of being used to turn ADP and Pi into ATP
The mitochondria in muscle cells contain many Cristae because:
1) Provides large surface area for the Electron Transport Chain
2) This allows for more ATP to be made which is needed for muscle contraction
Difference between how ATP is produced in Electron Transport Chain and Photosynthesis:
1) In Electron Transport Chain, the energy comes from a chemical reaction whereas in
Photosynthesis it comes from light
2) In Electron Transport Chain, it is made in the dark as well as light whereas in Photosynthesis it
is only made in the light
Importance of inner membrane (middle membrane) of mitochondria in the production of ATP:
1) Allows electrons to be transferred down electron transport chain by carrying out
oxidation/reduction reactions with proteins
2) Provides energy to take H+ into space between the matrix and outer-membrane
3) Allows H+ back into matrix through ATPase
4) Provides energy gained from the oxidation/reduction reactions to combine ADP and Pi to make
ATP
In Respiration, you will get NAD and NADH, in Photosynthesis; you will get NADP and NADPH
Overall each glucose molecule produces 38 molecules of ATP
Only Link Reaction and Krebs Cycle produce CO 2
A body cell will know it needs to respire more if the levels of ADP in it are very high as this shows that
less ATP is present
A manometer which measures volume may be used to in an experiment to measure respiration.
Substances which would have a net movement into the MITOCHONDRIA:
1) Pyruvate
2) ADP
3) Phosphate (Pi)
4) Oxygen
5) NADH
Substances which would have a net movement out of the MITOCHONDRIA:
1) CO2
2) Water
3) ATP
4) NAD
Why ATP is better than glucose for cell metabolism:
1) Energy available more rapidly
2) Energy released in small quantities
Advantages of ATP as an energy-storage molecule and why it is useful in many biological processes:
1) Cannot pass out of cell
2) Easily broken down as it takes place in one step: ATP ADP + Pi, this is why ATP is called an
immediate source of energy
3) Releases energy in small amounts
4) Lowers activation energy
5) It is reformed
OVERALL, HOW ATP IS MADE IN THE MITOCHONDRIA (TRICK QUESTION: DONT MENTION
GLYCOLYSIS):
1) ATP produced in krebs cycle
2) Krebs cycle produces FADH and NADH
3) Electrons released from FADH and NADH
4) Electrons pass along proteins of the electron transport chain in a series of oxidation/reduction
reactions
5) Energy is released which is used to allow H + (protons) to enter
6) As H+ leave through ATPase, energy is used to combine ADP with Pi to make ATP
ALWAYS REMEMBER: All respiration reactions depend on temperature as they involve enzymes,
therefore if temperatures are low, respiration rates will be low as the enzymes will
have less kinetic energy
MEASURING AEROBIC RESPIRATION
This experiment is carried out by measuring Oxygen consumption
PROCESS:
CYCLES
Carbon Cycle: Involved CO2 from atmosphere or HCO3- in water - being fixed into organic molecules
by photosynthesis and then released back into the atmosphere by respiration and other
systems.
Why global warming is taking place:
Methane
Source: Fermentation of waste, Natural gas, Flatulent cows, Coal mining, Storage of manure on
farms, Anaerobic soil
These are all anthropogenic sources (caused by humans); however 76% of methane comes naturally.
How producing and using biofuels results in a negative percentage change in CO 2 production:
1) CO2 taken up in photosynthesis
2) More taken up than
produced when using
biofuels
Carbon Source: Ecosystem that releases more carbon dioxide than it accumulates in biomass over the
long term, e.g. deforestation
Carbon Neutral: Ecosystem is one where carbon fixation and carbon release are balanced over the
long term
Carbon Sink: Ecosystem is one that accumulates more carbon in biomass than it releases as carbon
dioxide over the long term
Nitrogen Cycle:
1) Plants absorb Nitrate (NO3-) using active transport which REQUIRES ATP:
Some of the Nitrate is lost to the atmosphere as Nitrogen through denitrifying bacteria
which are anaerobes and therefore thrive waterlogged soil,
Some of the Nitrate has been gained from Nitrogen in the atmosphere using Nitrogenfixing bacteria which breaks the triple bond in Nitrogen to convert it to AMMONIA using
the enzyme
Nitrogenase as a
catalyst, (to do this
nitrogen-fixing
bacteria use ATP and
organic compounds
gained from soil)
lightning can also
convert Nitrogen to
AMMONIA, ammonia
helps in amino acid
production, otherwise
ammonia is gained
through decay of
organic material
7) This could lead to an increased nitrate in drinking water which could cause human illness
Nitrate concentrations in rivers and lakes can be reduced by increase rainfall as it dilutes nitrate
which in turn stops eutrophication.
Eutrophication will be faster in warmer weathers as more heat means that bacteria will have higher
kinetic energy
In essence, there are two ways in which nitrate can be lost from the soil:
1) Leeching (eutrophication)
2) Denitrification
SUCCESSION
Succession: Change in a community over time due to change in environment
Succession is of two types:
1)
Primary Succession: starts with bare rock usually after a volcanic eruption
2)
Secondary Succession: starts with soil usually after a forest clearing
How Succession occurs:
1) Colonisation by pioneer species
2) As pioneer species increase in number, they die and are broken down by saprobionts which
increase humus content
3) Change in environment as there is an increase in organic matter and nutrients, the humus
helps maintain moisture
4) This enables other species to colonise
5) This causes a change in biodiversity
6) The environment becomes less hostile
7) New species better competitors and eventually one species outcompetes other species
8) This species is called the climax community
What the pioneer species does: Change environment via nutrients to make it less hostile
Why pioneer plants having seeds that grow in fluctuating temperatures is an advantage:
1) At the start of succession, there is only bare soil
2) Temperature in bare soil always fluctuates
The environment before succession is extremely hostile; therefore very few species are able to
tolerate the conditions.
Climax Community: Stable community after which no more succession takes place
Trees that are usually the tallest and bulkiest will be the best as they will block light, needed by other
plants for photosynthesis, therefore the climax community usually reduces plant diversity as those
plants survive which can photosynthesise with less light
Why species change during succession:
1) Pioneer species add humus to the soil making the environment less hostile
2) This allows a new species to develop which is a better competitor
Why nitrate in the soil increases during succession:
1) Increase in dead organisms
2) Leading to an increase in nitrification
3) Also nitrogen-fixation could also be taking place making ammonia, which then turns into nitrate
On bare rock, the pioneer species will usually be moss caused by the soil particles of a rock gathering
in cracks as the rock weathers.
Ecosystems develop by the process of colonisation and succession until the climax community is
reached.
Grazing stops succession at the grassland stage.
Sometimes, the plant/forest is burnt, and succession begins on the burnt land, this is beneficial
because:
1) Younger plants have more shoots, therefore provide more food
2) Younger plants provide more cover
3) Unproductive plants are removed
Why diversity of animals increases:
1) Greater variety of food
2) Higher variety of habitats
3) More detritus
In sand-dune ecosystem, minerals enter the ecosystem by:
1) Shells
2) Flooding by seawater
3) Weathering of underlying rock
4) Nitrogen fixation
5) Excretory products
In a sand dune system, the climax community will be the furthest away from the sea and the pioneer
species will be widespread.
CONSERVATION OF HABITATS FREQUENTLY INVOLVES MANAGEMENT OF SUCCESSION.
INHERITANCE
Genotype: Genetic constitution of an organism/combination of alleles he individual posses, Example
of Genotype: IAIO
Phenotype: Expression of the genotype and its interaction with the environment
Example for Phenotype: if there is a genotype IAIO in which A is dominant, then the phenotype is: A
Gene: A length of DNA that codes for a particular protein
Gene Pool: All the alleles in a population
Chromosome: One long DNA molecules which contains genes
Locus: The position of a gene on a chromosome
Allele: Alternative version of a gene, (there may be multiple alleles of a single gene)
Dominant Allele: The allele always expressed in the phenotype
Recessive Allele: The allele that is only expressed in the phenotype in the absence of the dominant
allele
Homozygous: When both the alleles are the same: BB or bb
Heterozygous: When both alleles are different: Bb
When seeing the possible genotype
the children of two individuals may have, we
A
A
draw a genetic cross, separating the
alleles of the parents: E.g. if the parents had
A AA AA
genotype: Aa and AA, then we do
the following:
a Aa Aa
Therefore there is a 50% chance the
child has Aa and 50% chance the child has AA.
Co-dominance: When both alleles are being expressed in the phenotype
Example of Co-dominance: if the genotype is I AIB in which A and B are co-dominant, then the
phenotype will be: AB
Monohybrid Inheritance: Inheritance of a single gene with two alleles
Why Monohybrid Cross ratios may not take place in reality:
1) fusion of gametes is random
We cannot do an investigation on the frequency of certain alleles in a group of organisms if one of the
organisms is deaf, blind, etc. This is because this organism will not survive and therefore will not pass
on allele
Assumptions made when using the Hardy-Weinberg equation:
1) No selection
2) Random mating
3) Large gene pool
4) No migration
5) No mutation
6) Equally fertile genotypes
7) Generations do not overlap
When studying genetic crosses, you use an animal which:
1) Gives large number of offspring; low sampling error
2) Short life cycle; results obtained quickly
3) Male and female easily distinguished for mating
4) Small size; easy to handle and less space required
How there is genetic variation in a sexually reproducing animal:
1) Independent alignment of chromosomes which gives a new arrangement of alleles
2) Random fertilisation which gives a chance combinations of gametes
3) Mutations create new alleles
SELECTION PRESSURE
Natural Selection: process in which those organisms whose alleles give them a selective advantage
are more likely to survive, reproduce and pass on their alleles to the next generation
(Intraspecific competition is important for it)
Stabilising Selection: few organisms survive at extremes which means that is selects for the
mean which remains unchanged, it occurs in non-changing environment and is
repeated over many generations
Example: Very big animal is too slow but very small animal is too weak, therefore middle pathway is
best
Directional Selection: Organisms with a particular extreme of phenotype have a selective
advantage
Example: Bacteria which gain resistance
Disruptive Selection: Selection against middle, selection for one extreme
Example: Bird species called finches, smaller beaks helped catching insect, larger beaks helped
opening seed, middle sized beaks were useless
Animals that are large have a small surface area to volume ratio, therefore they lose less heat.
In the exam, you will only get questions regarding directional and stabilising selection.
SPECIATION
Process of Speciation:
1) Isolation between two populations (if the isolation has been due to separation of lands, then
write GEOGRAPHICAL ISOLATION between two populations)
2) No gene flow i.e. interbreeding between populations
3) Variation
4) There are different environmental factors which allow a certain characteristic to survive
5) Mutation
6) Some organisms have allele to adapt and therefore survive , for example mutation allele may
produce camouflage
7) Adaptive organisms survive and reproduce
8) There is an increase in the frequency of the surviving allele
9) Gene pool differs from original species, therefore no interbreeding can occur
10)
This occurs over a long period of time
Reproductive Isolation: Organisms cannot breed with another group
When a species is isolated: 1) Less competition
2) Less predators
Speciation is a lot less frequent these days:
1) Similar biotic and Abiotic pressures
2) Similar selection pressures
3) No isolation
REMEMBER: The larger a species, the smaller the surface area to volume ratio, therefore less heat is
lost by these species.
20)
Cost of drug
When taking drug trial, scientists should consider the following of volunteers:
Age
Health
Gender
Ethnicity
Genetic Factors
Lifestyle
Body Mass
21)
When scientists wish to use an animal in a test, before deciding the number of animals to
use they must consider:
Ethical Consideration
Take a large number to improve reliability
Consider cost and space available
22)
When experiment involves volunteers, they must be healthy as they will have normally
functioning bodies. Also when dividing volunteers into groups, it should be done randomly to
avoid bias.
23)
If scientists use two drugs/vaccines and both combined have higher effect, then both
must be similar i.e. they must have the same antibodies, etc.
24)
How mean can be found from a graph:
Draw line of best fit
Then find the gradient and divide it by the distance moved
25)
Any experiment wherein the words water and mention of the word partially permeable
come together, you should automatically realise that water potential will be involved somehow.
26)
Sometimes, in an experiment, they experiment on people of all the same age: this is so
that a comparison can be made.
27)
When in an experiment, people are assigned to different groups RANDOMLY; it means
everyone has an equal chance of being assigned to either group. They do this by using a
random number generator.
28)
Also remember your basics such as when you evaporate water from a substance, it
becomes more concentrated.
29)
When scientists measure something per unit of another thing it is so as to a comparison
between the two different things.
30)
If scientists wish to know the most common volume or concentration of a substance,
they take a large random sample.
31)
In a medical study, the information is useful to scientists because It allows scientists to:
Determine the most effective dose
Determine the most length of treatment
Investigate long-term effect
Find most cost-effective treatment
32)
Double Blind trials are trials wherein neither the volunteers nor the doctors know which
treatment a particular volunteer is receiving, this improves reliability because:
Prevents bias
Prevents positive/negative psychological effects
33)
When in a graph, the points are joined with straight lines rather than curves, it is
because: the intermediate values between points are unknown
34)
When something is normally distributed, it means median = mode, this is known as
continuous variation and has a bell-shaped graph
35)
In genetic research, scientists need to ensure that the environment is the same
36)
When it says the ratio of x to y was z, it means z = x y
37)
In Spearmans Rank Correlation test, positive values mean positive correlation between x
and y and negative values mean negative correlation between x and y
38)
Even if an investigation was failure, it is important for scientists to report their results
because:
1) Saves money and time for others
2) Ensures same work is not repeated
IN MOST INVESTIGATIONS INVOLVING DATA, SCIENTISTS WILL ALSO WORK OUT THE STANDARD
ERROR OF THE MEAN
When working out percentage increase: (big number-small number small number) x 100
When working out percentage decrease: (small number-big number big number) x 100
When working out volume of a chemical after dilution:
Initial volume x concentration of chemical = volume of chemical that is in that initial volume, the rest
is basically water.
Be wary of questions in which the investigator recorded results of an investigation every couple of
seconds, then he displayed the investigation on a graph and the graph increases and then levels off.
If you think about it, after the graph has levelled off, if the investigator recorded results, he would
begin to observe same results, and therefore zero changes. Examiners could ask what did he observe
when the graph levelled off? The answer is nothing, zero.
STANDARD DEVIATION: Degree of variation from the mean.
The smaller the Standard Deviation is the better.
When Standard Deviations overlap, conclusions cannot be made as effectively as results may be due
to CHANCE, if standard deviations do not overlap, we say the difference is REAL.
Why at times Standard Deviation is better than the mean:
1) Range only shows highest and lowest values
2) Also it is possible to have two very different data sets with the same range
3) Also range is affected by a single outlier
4) Standard Deviation shows spread about the mean and allows statistical use
Why a statistical test is necessary for analysis:
1) A statistical test determines the probability of results being due to chance
2) This enables us to reject or accept the null hypothesis
Purpose of a Chi-Squared Test: to compare different numbers collected from two sites and show
whether differences are significant
If it says: explain the meaning of p < 0.05 using the words probability and chance, you will write:
There is a probability of less than 5% that the results are due to chance