UN Women Asia-Pacific Regional Expert Group

Meeting on Gender and Macroeconomics

Asian Development Banks

Gender and Economics Policy Research

Yesim Elhan-Kayalar
Bangkok, 15 December 2014
The views expressed in this presentation are the views of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the Asian
Development Bank (ADB), or its Board of Governors, or the governments they represent. ADB does not guarantee the accuracy of the
data included in this paper and accepts no responsibility for any consequence of their use. The countries listed in this paper do not
imply any view on ADB's part as to sovereignty or independent status or necessarily conform to ADB's terminology.

Introduction
Ongoing and planned research on gender
and economic policy by ADBs Economics
and Research Department
Current research on gender and economic
policy
Preliminary findings, policy recommendations
to improve female labor force participation
(FLFP)
Upcoming work on gender wage gap, quality
of growth, job ladder in developing economy
context

Applications through operational sector

work
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Variations in FLFP

Source: Max Fisher, Washington Post, 13 Feb 2014, using World Bank Development Indicators.

0
Developed
Economies &
European Union

North Africa

Middle East

Sub-Saharan Africa

ADB DMCs: Average

Latin America & the

Caribbean

Regional Variations in FLFP

80

60

40

20

Male
Female

Why does Female Labor Force

Participation (FLFP) differ?

Source: WEF Global Gender Gap Report, October 2014

5

Source: WEF Global Gender Gap Report, October 2014

Gender parity index for gross enrollment

ratios
PRIMARY EDUCATION
SSA
Oceania
Western Asia
Northern Africa
LANIC
Southeast Asia
Caucasus and Central Asia
East Asia
South Asia
SECONDARY EDUCATION
SSA
Oceania
Western Asia
South Asia
Caucasus and Central Asia
Northern Africa
Southeast Asia
East Asia
LANIC
TERTIARY EDUCATION
SSA
South Asia
Western Asia
Caucasus and Central Asia
East Asia
Northern Africa
Southeast Asia
LANIC

Although there
has been
progress
towards gender
equality in
education

0.2

0.4

0.6

Source: United Nations, Millennium Development Goals Report 2014

0.8

1.2

1.4

Transition from School to Workforce

Girls lose out on education

Women left further behind

Average years of
schooling, 2000-2012

Labor Force Participation

Rate, 2012 (%)

10
8
6
4
2
0

90
60

Male

Female

Source: ILO. 2013. Key Indicators of the Labor Market, 8th edition.

Male

Female

Philippines

Indonesia

India

Afghanistan

Papua New
Guinea

PRC

0
Kyrgyzstan

Philippines

Indonesia

India

Afghanistan

Papua New
Guinea

PRC

Kyrgyzstan

30

Current ADB Research on

Gender and Development
Technical Assistance on Economic Analysis for
Gender and Development, approved in February
2014
Goal:
Improved economic analysis of gender
inequality issues in selected developing
member countries - PRC, India, Indonesia,
Korea, and Pakistan - to develop effective
gender policies and strategies
9

Technical Assistance - II
Scope of the TA:
Quantify the economic cost to society due to gender inequality
using both macro- and micro-level analyses; and
Identify gender issues and economic development that are
common across countries, as well as those that are specific to
a country, a subregion, a region.
Outputs:
Gender inequality measured and analyzedSimulation to
estimate the impact of improved FLFP on potential growth and
analysis of opportunity or forgone costs of gender inequality
Priority gender issues identified for selected DMCs for design of
appropriate gender policies and strategies
Sharing knowledge on economic analysis for gender
development dissemination workshops, publications

Factors that Contribute to Low FLFP

Factors that deter women from entering work force
Supply-side constraints:
Limits on mobility, frictional unemployment
Access to networks
Domestic responsibilities, part time work opportunities
Demand-side Constraints:
Perceptions, discrimination
Shortage of female role models

Factors that contribute to women leaving work force

Supply-side constraints:
Lack of flexibility, domestic responsibilities
Social norms around marriage and childbearing
Safety concerns

11

Challenge of Endogeneity: Multidimensional Issue

Labor Supply
Opportunity cost of
work, including:
Housework
Child care
Foregone leisure
Other household
income
Earned (by other
household
members)
Unearned
Social costs (stigma,
mobility, norms)

Social
Social
Norms
Norms

FLFP

Labor
Labor
Market
Market
Policies
Policies

Labor Demand
Female wages and
male-female wage
gaps
Discrimination
Comparative
advantage
Work environment
Flexibility
Discrimination &
harassment
Opportunities for
growth and
advancement
Location

Source: Schaner & Das. 2014. Female Labor Force Participation in Asia: Indonesia Country Study. Unpublished manuscript.

High FLFP for Welfare and Growth

Structural transformation and FLFP
Traditionally FLFP concentrated in informal and
agricultural sector
With economic development, new business processes
require higher FLFP

FLFP and Economic Growth

Hsieh (2013) - misallocation of talent among white and
black men and women reduced productivity in the US
since 1960
Kim, Lee, Shin (2014) - the hypothetical removal of
gender bias would increase per capita income by more
than 30% over one generation

Country Case Studies Preliminary Findings

China: M/F ratio at birth = 1.2; high FLFP with internal migration, low
fertility; lower paid positions; womens wages 63% of men; limited
access to education
India: FLFP 27%; cultural norms limit FLFP especially among upper caste
Hindus, Muslims
Indonesia: Wage gap reduced but FLFP stagnant for 30 years at about
60%; labor market discrimination
Korea: FLFP 55%, below the OECD average of 65% for women; men and
women enter the labor force at same rates but at ages 30-34, 14% of
women drop out while 19% of men join; reentry at much lower rates for
women
Pakistan: Low FLFP outside home; mobility restrictions by men; social,
cultural, religious norms; safety; and poor transport facilities

Country Case Studies - II

Certain patterns in data have emerged
Social norms limit whether and where women work, with
housework and child care perceived as prime
responsibilities
Womens presence in public spaces limited by social norms
and perceptions of safety; limited mobility inhibit education
and work opportunities for women
In China, more educated women and in India, Pakistan,
Indonesia women with intermediate levels of education
less likely to work. In Korea and China, more educated
women are more likely to exit labor force

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Country Case Studies - III

Women earn 50-70% of men for same work, men
considered more productive in perception surveys
In India, Pakistan, and Indonesia, women enter the
labor force at lower rates. There are high instances of
family and self-employment.
In all five countries, women retire earlier than men
Policy recommendations considered vocational
training; job matching; facilitating mobility, trade, safe
migration

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ADBs Planned Policy Research

Building on these case studies, the following will
also be explored within the Asian Development
Outlook framework:
Determinants of the gender wage gap at
Macro level - Asia vs other regions
Micro level - country studies on the
Philippines and Taipei, China

17

ADBs Planned Policy Research -II

Cross country analyses of the 'quality of growth in Asia vis-vis other regions:
How gender inequality affects the quality of growth, apart
from growth enhancing factors (such as infrastructure
investment and productivity), and social indicators (e.g.,
health and education)?
Which policy variables can improve the quality of growth?

Moving up the job ladder in export-oriented services:

Macro level analyses - cross-country analysis of the relation
between structural transformation (size of service sector) and
gender inequality in employment in global value chains
Micro level analyses - country studies on Bangladesh and PRC
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Translating Analyses to
Relevant Development Support
ADBs Policy on the Role of Women in
Development (WID), 1985
Policy on Gender and Development, 1998
ADB strategy 2020 (2008) and its Midterm Review
Gender equity is one of the 5 drivers of change

ADB Guidelines for Gender Mainstreaming (2012);

project classification system
Gender Equality and Womens Empowerment
Operational Plan (2013-2020)
Sector diversification of gender mainstreaming
Staff capacity development

ADB Projects With Gender Equity Components

90%

86%

80%

76%

76%

76%
68%

70%
65%

Percent of Projects

60%

55%

55%
50%

50%
42%

40%
30%

31%
27%

20%
10%
0%
2008
GEN

2009
EGM

2010
SGE

2011
NGE

2012

Gender Mainstreaming

2013
Gender Concerns

*Category 1: Gender Equity (GEN); Category 2: Effective Gender Mainstreaming (EGM); Category 3: Some Gender
Elements (SGE); Caterogry 4: No Gender Elements (NGE)
Gender Mainstreaming = GEN + EGM

Gender Concerns = GEN + EGM + SGE

20

Gender Mainstreaming in all ADB Projects

by region, 2011-2013
100%

100%
90%
80%

73%

70%

64%

62%

56%

60%
50%

50%

43%

55%

57%

55%
50%

50%

43%

40%
30%

32%

30%
20%
7
10%

10

14

11

18

14

16

13

17

0%
CWRD (35%)

EARD (72%)
2011

PARD (58%)
2012

SARD (54%)

SERD (54%)

2013

Note: The number of projects with gender mainstreaming (GEN and EGM projects) are indicated inside the bar while the percentage
equivalent appears on top. The numbers in parentheses pertain to the 3-year averages for the 2011-2013 period.

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10

Other
Areas

Core Sectors

Gender Mainstreaming in ADB Projects

% of total number, 2013
Education
Energy
Finance sector development
Others
Transportation
Water
Agriculture and natural resources
Health and social protection
Industry and trade
Public sector management

100
24
55
82
52
90
83
100
40
40
0

Projects with Gender Mainstreaming

20

40 60
Percent

80 100

Rest of ADB projects

22

Going forward
Strong analytical foundation with these flagship
publications
Sector diversification of gender mainstreaming
work
While continuing the work on:
Economic empowerment
Skilling and employment generation programs
Public sector reform and inclusive national
planning
Governance
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Thank you
For more information
yelhan@adb.org
Email:
Website: http://www.adb.org/themes/gender/main

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