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LECTURENOTES
for
UrbanStructureandFunctions(Spring2003)
basedon
Kostof,Spiro.1991.TheCityShaped.London:ThamesandHudson.
Kostof,Sprio.1992.TheCityAssembled.London:ThamesandHudson.
ByEmilyTalen,UniversityofIllinoisatUrbanaChampaign
AlsoavailableattheUIUCwebsite:
http://www.urban.uiuc.edu/Courses/up404/index.htm

LECTURE NOTES
Kostof,Spiro.1991.TheCityShaped.London:ThamesandHudson.
Introduction,TheCityShaped
Chapter1,TheCityShaped,OrganicPatterns
Chapter2,TheCityShaped,TheGrid
Chapter3,TheCityShaped,CityasDiagram
Chapter4,Part1,TheCityShaped,TheGrandManner
Chapter4,Part2,TheCityShaped,TheGrandManner
Chapter5,TheCityShaped,TheUrbanSkyline
Kostof,Sprio.1992.TheCityAssembled.London:ThamesandHudson.
Chapter1,TheCityAssembled,TheCityEdge
Chapter2,TheCityAssembled,UrbanDivisions
Chapter3,TheCityAssembled,PublicPlaces
Chapter4,TheCityAssembled,TheStreet

LECTURENOTES
TheCityShaped

Introduction
TheCityasArtifact
Urbanformandprocess
Inthetraditionof:
CamilloSitte
JosephStubben
GordonCullen
KevinLynch
RobandLeonKrier
Dimensions:
1.Theoriesandactualtownmaking
2.Socioeconomicchangevisvisthepersistenceoftheartifact(buildings)
Howandwhydidcitiestaketheirshape?
Formasareceptacleofmeaning
Citiesareconsciouslyshaped
Needunderstandingofculturalconditions
WhatismeantbyPROCESS2senses
1.people,forces,institutions
Whodesignscities?
Whatproceduresandlawsdotheyuse?
2.Physicalchangethroughtime
physicaltraitsoftheurbanlandscape
howdocertainformscomeabout?
AffiliatesofMethod
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LewisMumford,TheCityinHistoryasequentialnarrative
KevinLynch,GoodCityFormcityselfperception
Cosmic
Monumentalaxis
Enclosureandprotectedgates
Dominantlandmarks
Relianceontheregulargrid
Spatialorganizationbyhierarchy
Practicalmodel
Colonialtownsandcompanytowns
Speculativegridtowns
Organicmodel
Boundaryandoptimumsize
Cohesive
Balancedstate
Olmsted,EbenezerHoward,PatrickGeddes,LewisMumford
Urbanmorphology
M.R.G..Conzen
1.thetownplanitself
streetsystem
plotpattern
buildingarrangement
EdmundBacon,DesignofCities
2.thelandusepattern
usesofgroundandspace
3.thebuildingfabric
threedimensionalmarkofphysicalstructures
Preindustrial
Smallsize100,000maxpopulation
Nolandusespecialization
Twosocialclasses
Centerisgovernment,religion,andhousesoftheelite
Industrialcity
Prefiguredbycapitalism
Landassourceofincome
Socialistcity
Nocapitalistownershipofland
Dominanceofcentralplanning
Neolithicsettlements:
Jericho,CatalHuyuk
Mesopotamia(betweenTigrisandEuphrates):
About3500B.C.
Nilevalleyabout3000B.C.
MillenniumlaterIndusValleyNewWorld
Mainpoints:
notadiffusion
unevenoverspaceandtime
Chickenvs.eggproblem
JaneJacobs
Defense

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Nosinglecausativefactor
EarlyCityForm
1.cityas"art"
2.cityas"civitas"
Greekpolis
WhatisaCity?
1.Wirth,Mumford
2.Kostof:
a.Energizedcrowding
b.Clusters
c.Physicaldelineation
d.Specializedworkdifferentiation
e.Sourceofincome
f.Writtenrecords
g.Connectedwithcountryside
h.Monumentalism
i.Buildingsandpeople

Chapter1
TheCityShaped
OrganicPatterns
Plannedvs.unplannedcities
Planned
Premeditated
overseeingauthority
Spontaneous
determinedbyhistory
geography
lifeofcitizens
Canalsohavethe"plannedorganic"
"Disintegration"ofrationalorder
1.Freeingofmovementfromgeometricorder
2.Reorganizationoftheblocks
3.Newpublicspaces
Evolutionoforganicpatterns
Physicaldeterminantsofirregularcityforms
vs.
Socialdeterminants
Physicaldeterminants:
Citiesasorganisms
Topography
Landdivision
Synoecism
Socialdeterminants:
Thelawandsocialorder
Ordervs.disorder
Originsoftheplannedpicturesque
Alberti,earlyRenaissancearchitecturaltheorist,DereAedificatoria:
WeretheirregulareffectsofsomecitiesPLANNED?
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Englandstarting1750:
picturesquegardens
JohnNash'sRegentStreet
GothicRevival
Asocialagenda
recoveryofvillagelife
Earlyindustrialmodelvillages:
PortSunlight,1887
Bourneville,1890's
Picturesquesuburb:
BournemouthatDorset,1830s
InU.S.,plannedpicturesque=nonurban
AndrewJacksonDowningcottages
Glendale,Ohio,1851
F.L.Olmsted
Riverside,IL,1869
GardenCityparadigm
Howard,1898,ToMorrow,APeacefulPathtoSocialReform
1902,GardenCitiesofToMorrow
GardenCities=plannedpicturesque
RaymondUnwinandBarryParker,Letchworth,begun1902
Rejectionofblocksystemoflanddivision
BeauxArtsurbanism(townsquare)andorganic
Gardencities
Unwin/Parker:
Letchworth,firstgardencity,begun1902
LouisdeSoissons:
WelwynGardenCity
BarryParker:
Wythenshawe,outsideManchester,1930
InfluenceofRadburn(Stein/Wright),neighborhoodunit,parkway
LessacceptanceinU.S.:
communalownershipnotpossible
trafficissue
Gardensuburbs
Unwin/Parker:
HampsteadGardenSuburb,1907
NewEarswick,outsideYork
EalingTenants'gardensuburb,190610
HenriSellier
16citesjardinsaroundParis,19161939
Kruppfamily/GeorgMetzendorf
Margarethenhohe,nearEssen,1912
InU.S.:
CountryClubDistrict,KansasCity
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ForestHillsGardens,Queens
Bothstartedbefore1915
Bothearlyexamplesofrestrictionsbyconsent
YorkshipVillage,Camden,NJ
Radburn,1928
AmericanParkerandUnwin:ClarenceSteinandHenryWright
EffectofRadburnafterWWII:
FHA,organizedin1934,officialpamphlets:
"planningprofitableneighborhoods"
favoredcurvilinearadaptationsofstreetgrid
Conservation
GrandMannervs.preservation
CamilloSitte(18431903):TheArtofBuildingCities:Citybuildingaccordingtoartisticprinciples
Urbanspace
Theoutdoorroom
PatrickGeddes
ModernismandthePlannedPicturesque
ErnstMay,Romerstadt,nearFrankfurt,192729
MartinWagner(18851957)fromBerlin
AfterWWII,rejectionof:
historicpicturesqueofEuropean(continent)cities
Gardencitiesandtheiroffshoots
Counterreactiontomodernistahistoricism
HistoricPreservation
"Townscape"ofGordonCullen,1961
NewUrbanism
RobKrier,UrbanSpace(1975)
ColinRowe,CollageCity(1978)

Chapter2
TheCityShaped
TheGrid
Thenatureofrectilinearplanning
equaldistributionofland
easyparceling
defense
surveillanceofpopulation
Basicissues
1.sizeandshapeofblocks
2.openspacesandtheirdistribution
3.accommodationofpublicbuildings
4.natureofthestreetgrid
5.terminationofgrid
6.relationbetweengridandtopography
7.effectofgridin3dimensions
hybridversionsofthegrid:
looseapproximations
griddedextensions
gridscombinedwithothergeometricprinciples
curvilineargridofthemodernresidentialdevelopment
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Egalitarianismisnotnaturaltogrids
Notintrinsicallydemocratic
Butthereareexamples
2mainpurposesofgrid:
1.facilitateorderlysettlementorcolonization
2.tomodernize
Differentmotivations
1.military
2.religiousideas
3.capitalism
4.industrialplanning
critics:
gridistootimid
gridisdry,mathematical
Thegridintheancientworld
Preclassicalantiquity:
MohenjoDaroandHarappa
Babylon
5thc.,HippodamusofMiletus
RomanGrids:
Large,squareblocks
Standardizedfortplan
Newtownsinthemiddleages
Gridreemerges1100
newtowns
extensions
1,000newtownsin3areas:
SouthernFrance
TheBastides
Switzerland,Austria,Germany
CitystatesofItalySiena,Florence
RiseofBastides
defense
economicpolicies
religion
TheRenaissanceinEurope
Around1600:
Bastions
Baroqueurbanism
PassagetoAmerica
LEnfantvs.grid
LawsoftheIndies
L.A.,SanAntonio
pueblos
Classicalinspiration(Vitruvius)
Continuationofbastides:
twomainaxesintersecting
publicsquareatintersection
Theplazaisthekey
EnglandintheNewWorld
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Williamsburg(settledin1633)
Jamestown,1607
CharlestonandSavannah,18thcentury
1785,NationalLandOrdinance
establishesgridasstandard
1811,CommissionersPlanofNewYork
newmeaningofgrid
Closedgridvs.Opengrid
GriddominatesinWesternU.S.
Spanishvs.Americansystem
Thespeculativegrid
Railroadcompaniesadoptgrid
Layingoutthegrid
Roleoftopography
Surveyorsandtheorists
Gromausedtodeterminerightangles
HippodamusofMiletus
rationalarrangementofbuildingsandcirculation
Theoreticalgeometry,ratherthanempiricismofsurveyors
Romansurveyors
Usedarithmetic,geometry,law
TheTownPlannerasArtist
Florentinetownsof14thcentury
trigonometry
Beyondpracticalsurveying
Virtruvius,1stc.B.C.
AlbertisDeReAedificatoria,published1485
CataneoandScamozzistreatisesalso
Alberti,EarlyRenaissance
Ichnographicplan
2dimensionalrecordofsolidsandvoids
Citiesindiagram
PietroCataneosIQuattroprimilibridiarchitettura,1554
VincenzoScamozzisLideadellaarchitetturauniversale,1615
CoordinatedSystemsofTownandCountry
Columbus,OH
DavidRuskCitieswithoutsuburbs
Romanlandsurvey(centuriation)
SpanishintheNewWorld
Towninthemiddle
Commonlandsreservedaroundthetown
EnglishinNorthAmerica
TheJeffersoniangriddingofAmerica:
TheNationalSurvey:1785
Determinedtheplacementofmanytowns
Thesquaretownshipsystem
Freeholdvs.Leasehold
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Griddedextensions
Amsterdam
Creativeextensionplan
Comparewithotherextensions
Uncoordinatedpatchworks
TheClosedGrid:Frame,Accent,andOpenSpaces
TheWalledFrame
Spindleformplan
Thewalledgrid:
Romanfoursquarecastrum
Bastions
StreetRhythms
arrangementofstreets
creationofstrongcenter
openspacesinterspersed
creatingafocus:
2axescrossatmiddle
TheDistributionofSquares
French,English,Spanishbastides:
1.singleblockinthemiddle
2.marketsitsatthecrossroads
Americancourthousesquaretypes
Thegridcouldalsobemulticentered
Centrality/hierarchyvs.provisionofpublicopenspace
Savannah
PhiladelphiaPlan(1683)
Whencontrolislost:
Encroachingonparks
Crowdingofblocks
BlockOrganization
gridvs.modernurbandensities
3dimensionalform
sizeanddensityofblocks
sizeandshapeofblocks
TheburgageplotinEurope:
deepparcel
narrowstreetfrontage
outbuildings
becomeseitherslumhousing
ormonotonousrowsofidenticalhouses
parallelsinU.S.
Philadelphia:
Fromgreencountrytowntorowhouses
NewYorkCity:
2,000blockscreatedin1811
by1850,tenementhousingcovered90%ofsite
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TenementHouseActof1879
dumbbelltenement
Newlawin1901requiredbuildingon2citylots
Gridseasetransitiontolargerbuildingtypes
InParis,radicalsurgery
Lesstraumaticatcityedge
OttoWagnersschemeforedgeofVienna,1910
JamesHobrechtplanofBerlin,1860
Mietskasernen(tenenmentsblocks)
IldefonsoCerdasBarcelonaplan
TheGridinthe20thCentury
From1880sto1920,theperimeterblock
BerlagesAmsterdamplan,1915
Earlyreformerstrytotransformgrid
Traditionalgridseenasoppressive
Solution
inturnedsuperblock
surroundedbymajortrafficarterials
ChicagoCityClub,1915
Then,superblockplanningbecomesalignedwithmodernism:
C.I.A.M.,1933,AthensCharter
maxigrid
Thecompletelymoderncity:
ChandigarhandBrasilia
LeCorbusier(18871965)
Chandigarh,founded1951:
InfluenceofVilleRadieuseplan(TheRadiantCity,1933)
analogyofhumanbody
fragmentation
plannedclasssegregation
Problemswiththemodernistcity:
Oversimplification
Aboutreplacement,notmodification
Decontextualization
LeCorbusier
Reductionofsocietytoclockworkorder
MiltonKeynes,founded1967
Modernistgrid
LastoftheEnglishNewTowns
Keypointaboutmodernistgrid:
Thetrafficarteriesdelimittheboundariesofurbandistricts
Ratherthandefineblocks
Finalassessmentofgrid(byKostof):
Ceaselessusefulness
Freeofideologicalposturing
Thegridiswhatyoumakeit
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Chapter3
TheCityShaped
CityasDiagram
Theinflexiblecity
contrasttotheorganicandthegrid
CirclesandPolygons
Arcosanti
Soleri'sinterpretationofthecityofthefuture
5,000peopleinasolarpoweredmegastructure
Palmanova
Laidout1593,completed1623
militarytown
Incenter,ahexagonwith6streetsradiatingout
Scamozzi
Idealcitieschange:
"squaringofCircleville"
UtopiasandIdealCities
geometricshapescirclesandsquares
rigidcentralityradialconvergence
Utopias:
ThomasMore'sAmaurot,thecapitalofUtopia
Idealcities:
specificphysicalcontext
Othersourcesofgeometricorder:
Terpen
Cosmology
SpecializedEnvironments
TheDesignofRegimentation
Militarycamps
Romancastrum
Spanishpresidio
Monasteries
communitariansocialism,19thc.
Industrialvillages
Saltaire,YorkshirecreationofSirTitusSalt
Nadelburg,Vienna
Pullman,Chicago
PortSunlight,Liverpool
Kruppworks,Essen
3partstoindustrialtown:
factoryorplant
church
worker'shousing
Saltaire,1851,completed1860
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HolyCities
religioussymbolism:
AngkorThomandAngkorWat(Cambodia)
spatialstructureofheaven
ThePoliticalDiagram
Centralitymonocentric
Linearsystems
Beijing
NewDelhi
LaidoutbyEdwardLutyens
BritishsymbolismKing'sway,Queen'sway,GovernmentHouse
spatialstructurebasedon:
Race
Occupationalrank
SES
Modernismandthepowerdiagram
Brasilia
Dedicatedin1960
quintessentialmoderncity
Corbusianinfluence
LucioCostaandOscarNiemeyer
Monumentalaxis
Uniformsuperblocks
Centralizedsystems
Concentricorganization
Tokyo
Townplanningmandalas
Progressivesocialdeclension
Radialorganization
Concentricspaceandstreetraysthatjoincentertoedge
UnknowntoGreeksandRomans
Renaissancebegantoseeradialdesign
Humanisticperfection
LeonardodaVincidiagram
Sforzinda'sExample
ByFilarete,designed146064
significance:
archetypeforhumanistcityofHighRenaissance
Versailles
Radialconcentrictogetherwithanaxis
Widespreadin17thand18thcenturies
TheFunctionalDiagram
TheLogicofDefenseTrafficandradialconcentricity
Canberra
WalterBurleyandMarionMahoneyGriffin
1912
constellationofstars
EbenezerHoward
ToMorrow:Apeacefulpathtosocialreform,1898(laterGardenCitiesofToMorrow)TheReality:
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Suburbandecentralization
Edgecities
Newcirculationsystems
Lossofmonocentricitydueto:
Automobile
Cheapersuburbanland
highwayinterchanges
Suburbanlaborpools
TheSecular/SocialistDiagram
Citydesignandidealsocialrelations
Panopticonextremeexampleofsurveillance
Socialclassesinharmony
Betterbondwithnature
Communitariansocialism
3leadingfigures:
EbenezerHoward
CharlesFourier(17721837)
RobertOwen(17711858)
FinalassessmentbyKostof:
"Intheend,allidealcityformsarealittledehumanizing"
"Thecityasdiagram,intheend,isthestoryofdreamerswhowantthecomplexityandrichnessofurban
structurewithouttheproblems,tensions,volatility."

Chapter4,Part1
TheCityShaped
TheGrandManner
Washington,D.C.
MajorPierreL'Enfant,1791
BaroqueplanninginU.S.
McMillanCommittee,1901restorationofplan
ColumbianExpositionof1893
InfluenceofBurnham
Classicalcityvs.cityofcommerce
Civicpatriotismvs.povertyanddisease
ComponentsofBaroqueAesthetic:
1.focalpoints
2.topography,links
3.landscaping
4.vistas
5.publicspaces
6.dramaticeffects
7.superimposed
HistoricalReview
Antiquity
Pergamon3rdand2ndcenturies,BC
terracesandplatforms
nomasterplan
AncientRome
Avenuesandpublicopenspaces
publicbuildingsandmonuments
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EuropeanBaroque
Capitalcities
Absolutism
Rootsin:
Renaissance
14thcenturyinFlorence
CounterReformation
Authoritarianism
Astronomy
Newconceptionofspace
ContributionofBaroque:
continuousplane
uniformfacades
FirstarticulationofBaroqueurbanism:
masterplanofRomeunderSixtusV(158590)
architectDomenicoFontana
successionoflong,straightstreets
piazzasandcentralobelisks
Geometricorderforitsownsake

GrandManneroutsideItaly
Frenchbaroque:Statesponsoredurbanism
Specificcontributions:
Treelinedstreets
Residentialsquarecontinuousuniformfacades
CityBeautifulinU.S.
TotalitarianregimesHitler,Stalin
Baroqueandmodernism
PlanningintheGrandManner
Notbasedonutilitarianneed
Basedonmagnificence
Topography
Artificiality
Geometricabstractions
EdwardLutyens,NewDelhi
Expansiveness
RedesignofLondonafter1666
ChristopherWren
JohnEvelyn
GrandMannervs.CityDiagram
Visualvs.politicalsymbolism

TheGrandMannerasTheater
Progression:
perspective,Italianpaintings,early15thc.
stagescenery
gardendesign
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citysquaresandstreets
SebastianoSerlio,"L'Architettura"
Adramatizationofurbanform
Dramaservesdifferenttypesofregimes

TheGrandMannerandLandscapeDesign
Stronglinks
AndreLeNotre(LouisXIV)
Versailles,1665
Powerovernature
InU.S:
GrandManner+EnglishGarden
GrandManner+GardenCity

TheDesignofHeights
Platforms
Stairs
Ramps
devicesforsuspenseandhumanmovement

Chapter4,Part2
TheCityShaped
TheGrandManner
BaroqueElements
Thestraightstreet
1.publicorder
2.shortestpathsbetween2points
3.straightsstreetscanexpressanideology
The"Baroque"diagonal
Accidental:
1)accommodatingapriorstretchofroad
2)comingtogetherof2differentsectionsofurbanlayout

Thedeliberatediagonal
Cutthroughgridwithdiagonals
Cametobeknownasthe"Americangrid"
DanielHudsonBurnham(18461912)
trickledownurbandevelopment

Triviumandpolyvium

BoulevardsandAvenues
Startswithadefensivewall
treesplantedonramparts(late16thc.)
Notintendedastransportationarteries
Avenueoriginisrural
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Theywereaxestoanestate,afarm,avillage
gardendesign=allee
Fromalleetourbanavenue
Dutchtreelinedcanalstreet
treelinedavenueinVersailles
Urbanboulevard:
3distinctstrips
sidewalks
roadwayfortraffic
rowsoftrees
Verydifferentfromthetraditionalstreet
InU.S.,treelinedstreetswerenoturban,butresidential

Uniformityandthecontinuousfrontage
Symboloforderandspeed
Celebrationofstandardizationanduniformity
18thc.=AgeofEnlightenment,beliefinhumanreason
tallbuildings
OttoWagner's1911Grosstadt
AmodernreaffirmationoftheGrandManner
Modernistshatedthisrestraintoftheskyscraper
Whatisthedangerofuniformity?
Canbeexcessive,andthereforeboring
Purposeofthevista
Framingadistantview
Markersandmonuments
freestandingmonuments:
Accentavista
Fixthespaceofaformalsquare
Triumphalarches
Columns
Equestrianstatues
Ceremonialaxis
GrandMannerisaboutstagingpower
GrandMannertakenoverbymodernism

PostmodernBaroque
Arejectionofmodernism
RicardoBofill
everydaylifetakescenterstage
Seaside
BaroqueurbanismdomesticatedbytheGardenCitymovement

Chapter5
TheCityShaped
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TheUrbanSkyline
Skylinesareurbansignatures
Publicvs.privateskylines
Tallbuildingshaveexistedthroughouthistory
Thesewerepublic
Skyscrapers=privateenterprise
Primacyofpublicorderoverprivateinterestsismadepalpableontheskyline
Inmoderntimes,theskyscraperistheprideofcorporations,ofcapitalism
BeforeIndustrialRevolution:
Buildingsofcommunalimportance(religionorpoliticalpower)
AfterIndustrialRevolution:
Confusionofskylinepriorities

TheSkylinePortrayed
Oftentheartist'sconception
Militarymight
Civicpride
Souvenir's

Skylinefeatures
Makeimpressionby:
1.landscape(eitherflatlandsorhills)
2.preeminentbuildings
sacredheights
domesandbelltowers
Landmarksofthesecularcity
Domes,belfries
Later,secularimages

SkylinePrinciples
Height
Arelativematter
Restrictionsonhighrises
NYCzoningordinanceof1916
Shape
Abstractformsconsciouslyremovedfromhistoricisttowers
Approach
Previously,citywascomposed
Nowhardto"read"
Amatterofdensitycompactcorevs.dispersal

Themodernskyline
Thetraditionalpublicsymbolsoftheskylinewereovercome
Civicandreligiouscouldnolongerbedistinguishedbyheight
Atfirst,monumentaltowers

ForgingtheStadtkrone(crownofthecity)
Asymbolofcommunallife
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BrunoTaut,1919
DieStadtkrone
Thetraditionalcityhad:
Organiccollectivity
Skyscraper=Monumenttoselfinterest
Firstskyscrapersin1880sinNYCandChicago
1890on,steelframes
theskylineofbusiness
responseforpublicbuildings:
classicalmonumentalism
endof19thc.,inU.S.,privateenterprisevaluedatexpenseofpublicrealm
willingnesstofindcommunalprideinofficebuildings
However,earlyskyscraperswereabletohaveconnectiontothestreet
Towersofglass
Modernismtakesover
Whoshouldbeallowedtodefinetheskyline?
Privatedevelopersvs.community

Preparedforthearchiveon22September2003.

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