energy design resources

design brief
AUTOMATED MONITORING AND FAULT DETECTION

Automated monitoring provides

continuous monitoring of building
energy systems and can alert a

Summary
facility manager to performance

Commissioning,

retro-commissioning,

re-commissioning,

and

automated monitoring and fault detection (also referred to as automated

or comfort issues, saving time

commissioning) are all systematic methods of ensuring that a building

and its hardware perform to the level intended by the owner and design

and money.

team. Buildings that are running properly benefit from reduced

maintenance, quality indoor environments, and lower energy costs.
Using only energy savings, the median payback for retro- and recommissioning is less than a year and approximately five years for new
construction commissioning.6

CONTENTS

As sensor technology, building control networks, and building

Introduction

Benefits of Automated
Monitoring

that may be set for out-of-range conditions and detecting critical

Fault Detection and

Diagnostics

component faults. An emerging use of these capabilities is the

FDD Detailed Example

14

application of sophisticated algorithms to detect hidden problems that

Automated Monitoring
Packages

17

The Future of Automated

Monitoring

23

offers. The automated process can be as simple as helping building

Conclusion

24

operators gather data or as powerful as actively testing the hardware and

Glossary

25

conducting reprogramming and recalibrations. This Design Brief

For More Information

26

Notes

27

supervisory software have evolved into building automation systems

(BAS), better information about building performance has become
available to building operators. Most modern BAS offer alarm filters

are usually discovered in a formal commissioning process. However,

commissioning and retro-/re-commissioning lack the advantage of
continuing to monitor and identify issues, which automated monitoring

discusses developments in research and commercially available

automated monitoring systems.

Introduction
Building commissioning is the systematic process of ensuring that a
buildings systems are designed, installed, and tested to perform
according to the design intent and the building owners operational
needs. The commissioning process can be applied to new and existing
buildings and covers the building envelope, plumbing, and all energized
systems (lighting, HVAC, refrigeration, life-safety, occupant transport,
and specific processes). Commissioning is an iterative process of
communication, observation, actively testing components and systems,
and recording results. Traditionally, it has been conducted over a set
time period by a team of specialists who understand the design,
installation, and operation of these systems. If applied to existing
buildings, it is often called retro-commissioning (first application) or recommissioning (second and subsequent applications).
The commissioning of new buildings is most effective when considered
throughout the planning, design, construction, and post-occupancy
stages. Integrating commissioning into a new building project provides
the opportunity for the best initial performance, which the owner can
use as a guideline throughout the life of the building.
Post-occupancy commissioning (including retro-commissioning and recommissioning) usually are performed because some aspect of building
performance, such as occupant comfort or energy use, has exceeded the
baseline performance that should be achieved. Post-occupancy
commissioning is the process of systematically re-evaluating the
performance of the building systems. Simply tuning the building
controls is often a cost-effective means of returning the building to its
design performance. But commissioning of existing buildings often
identifies components or systems that should be repaired or replaced.
Repair and replacement offer the opportunity to install higher efficiency
equipment or improve operations by improving the controls for systems.
Often comfort is improved, and energy use or demand is reduced.
A key limitation to commissioning and retro-/re-commissioning is that
each one is a periodic service, and building performance usually tends to
drift away from the design baseline over time. Also, retro-/re-

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AUTOMATED MONITORING AND FAULT DETECTION

commissioning are usually not considered until a problem is significant

enough to warrant action. Over time, the slow deterioration in
equipment and changes in control systems, specifically the HVAC
system, adds up to higher energy costs and degrading comfort. Changes
in building use, including increases in occupant density, personal
computers, copiers, and other energy-consuming office equipment, may
also adversely affect performance.
Degradation in performance is often due to budget shortfalls for
equipment repair and replacement, and shortages of trained operators.
In turn, equipment life may be shorter than expected because operators
must spend a greater portion of their time addressing problems that
cause comfort complaints rather than underlying equipment problems.
They simply dont have enough time to manually analyze trend data and
inspect equipment on a routine basis. And, since its not practical to
have a commissioning team on hand at all times, an outsiders
perspective on performance degradation and how changes in building
use affect energy use and comfort is not available.
As mentioned, due to the evolution of BAS, better information about
building performance has become available to building operators. Most
modern BAS offer alarm filters for detecting critical component faults
and sophisticated algorithms for finding hidden problems that are
usually discovered in a formal commissioning process. Some in the
industry have called this auto-commissioning because it automates
some, but not all, of the processes in traditional commissioning.
Automated commissioning is continuous or periodic monitoring of
building sensor and control points, applying algorithms that detect
faults in building systems, and notifying operators that faults exist.
However, it does not necessarily involve commissioning experts and
relies on traditional commissioning functional tests.
To acknowledge these differences, this paper has adopted automated
monitoring to describe technologies that are more reliant on BAS.
Table 1 shows trends in the evolution of building automation systems
and the resulting higher quality information.

AUTOMATED MONITORING AND FAULT DETECTION

PAGE

Table 1.
Level

Evolution of Building Automation Systems

Building Control
Description

Control Access
(Local, Remote)

Control System
Characteristics

Operator Interaction
With Controls

Commissioning Technology

1 Independent,
separate control of
components and/or
systems

Local

No or little data
storage

Manual control of
component and
system operations

On-site personal observation;

use of pre-functional check
lists and functional
performance tests

2 Integration of
control under
on-site supervisory
software

Local

Ability to store and

display data

Automated control of
on/off schedules and
setpoints

Level 1 plus local human

analysis of displayed data to
find operations problems

3 Level 2 plus
connection via
phone line

Local and Remote Level 2 plus ability

Computer
to apply filter ruleTerminals
sets to generate
automatic alarms

Level 2 plus simple

alarms and remote
access

Level 2 plus remote access and

automatic alarms for
equipment protection and/or
occupant comfort

4 Level 3 plus
Internet technology

Level 3 plus
alarms to remote
pagers, cell
phones, and
email

Level 3 plus
embedded
diagnostics in local
controllers and/or
diagnostics at
supervisory level

Level 3 plus
information to assess
maintenance
requirements

Level 3 plus diagnostic reports

for fault detection at
component and/or system level

5 Level 4 with
outside input for
utility demand
response (weather
and load
information)

Same as Level 4

Level 4 plus built-in

optimization based
on internal loads
and external
demand response

Level 4 plus
automatic load
management and
information to assess
predictive
maintenance

Level 4 plus predictive load

and maintenance models

Source: Architectural Energy Corporation

Faults are conditions that are outside of design intent and may include
conditions that waste energy, increase electric or natural gas demand,
and may result in comfort complaints. In addition to detecting faults,
automated monitoring systems may also diagnose faults and provide
information about possible causes.
Automated monitoring can provide operators with information that
allows them to focus on the root causes of comfort complaints and energy
waste. It also can be a very valuable adjunct to retro-/re-commissioning
projects by providing insight into equipment deficiencies at the
beginning of the project. Table 2 summarizes the key characteristics
associated with commissioning, retro-commissioning, re-commissioning,
and automated monitoring.

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AUTOMATED MONITORING AND FAULT DETECTION

Table 2.

Matrix of Commissioning Characteristics

Commissioning

Retro-Commissioning

Re-Commissioning

Auto-Monitoring

Application

New Construction

Existing buildings that have

never been previously
commissioned, or if building
age or modifications
render commissioning
plans obsolete

Existing buildings that

have been
commissioned or
retro-commissioned

All applications

Timing

As early as possible
i.e. pre-design

Occurs in response to
under-performance or
problems in the building
systems

Occurs periodically or
in scheduled intervals
as part of the O&M, or
in response to specific
operating issues

Any time after

building systems are
installed and
operational

Purpose

Ensures building
systems will perform
optimally

Solves problems that

prevents buildings from
performing optimally

Ensures building is
still performing
optimally, maintains
level of previous
commissioning

Continuously
maintains optimal
performance

Frequency

Once during the

initial design and
construction

Once, as needed due to

age; 10-15yrs

Every 3-5yrs

Once installed,
provides continual
commissioning for the
life of the building

Cost6

Varies with size and

complexity of systems:
$0.50 to $3.00/ft2,
median is $1.00/ft2

$0.05-$0.40/ft2,
median is $0.27/ft2

Costs will be similar

to retro-commissioning

Too large a range of

functions and costs to
currently compare. Has
potential to be most
cost effective method.

Benefit6

$1.00/ft2 energy
saving with a median
payback of 4.8 yrs.
One time non-energy
benefit = $1.24/ft2

$0.27/ft2 for 15% energy

savings and payback of
0.7 yrs, one time nonenergy benefits = $0.18/ft2

Similar to retro-,
depending on
frequency

Similar to retro- and

re-commissioning with
continuous benefits for
the length of operation.
Source: Architectural Energy Corporation

Benefits of Automated Monitoring

Automated monitoring systems can provide information that benefit
building performance in the areas of indoor air quality, thermal
comfort, energy cost savings, labor savings, and risk mitigation.
Incorporating automated monitoring features in a building also may
qualify for credits under the U.S. Green Building Councils (USGBC)
Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) Green
Building Rating System.

Indoor Air Quality and Thermal Comfort

When a component fails in the HVAC system, often the building
operators and occupants are not aware that anything has changed. For

AUTOMATED MONITORING AND FAULT DETECTION

PAGE

Retro-Commissioning
Cost Savings
Retro-commissioning of existing

example, if an outdoor supply air (OSA) damper seized in the closed

position or was closed by a technician to address an occupancy

buildings reduces energy use by

complaint, fresh air would not be delivered to occupied spaces. This

anywhere from a few percent to

condition may reduce energy costs because the proper amount of outside

more than 60 percent of pre-retro-

air would have not been heated or cooled, but this is clearly at the

commissioning consumption, with

most savings falling into the range
of 10 percent to 30 percent.1
In 2004, Lawrence Berkeley National
Laboratory, Portland Energy
Conservation Inc., and the Energy
Systems Laboratory at Texas A&M
University developed the largest survey
to date on the costs associated with
commissioning on commercial buildings.
The reseachers reported, For existing

expense of good indoor air quality. Also, during periods when the outside
air temperature is within the economizer range, free cooling would not
be available. Automated monitoring can detect this problem quickly and,
in some cases, provide a diagnosis of what caused the problem.

Energy Cost Savings

Automated monitoring can expose a problem long before a serious
malfunction occurs. If an outdoor supply air (OSA) damper seized in
the open position, during cooler weather the boiler or heater would

buildings, we found median

compensate for the added cold air and the indoor air temperature would

commissioning costs of $0.27/ft2,

remain within setpoint limits. During winter months, however, the

whole-building energy savings of

ambient temperature would drop and the hot water coil or heater might

15 percent, and payback times of

0.7 years.

not have enough capacity to maintain the set point, creating

uncomfortable room temperatures. At this point, occupants would

These results are conservative insofar

as the scope of commissioning rarely

complain and building maintenance staff would eventually become

spans all fuels and building systems in

aware of the problem. During extremely cold temperature conditions, it

which savings may be found, not all

is possible that coils might even freeze. Significant energy waste can

recommendations are implemented, and

occur for months without automated monitoring.

significant first-cost and ongoing nonenergy benefits are rarely quantified.6

For existing buildings, retro- or re-commissioning typically results in a

reduction in energy use of 10 percent to 30 percent (see retrocommissioning sidebar) with payback periods that are often less than
one year. The energy saved using automated monitoring is predicted to
be similar to retro- or re-commissioning. The initial hardware, software,
and setup costs for an automated monitoring system may be equivalent
to that of a retro- or re-commissioning project.
An automated monitoring system, if used properly, enables building
operators to create persistence in savings for energy, labor, and
maintenance during the life of the facility. Finally, indoor environments
for building occupants can be more reliably maintained, which help
mitigate indoor air quality (IAQ) issues and associated costs.

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AUTOMATED MONITORING AND FAULT DETECTION

Labor Savings and Risk Mitigation

The most tangible benefit of automated monitoring is energy cost
savings, but there are other benefits that are not as obvious. One such
benefit is labor cost savings, in the form of more efficient diagnosis and
maintenance. Automated monitoring systems have the potential to not
only find a problem with minimal or no human intervention, but to also
detect problems earlier. When problems are detected early, maintenance
staff are able to directly address faults before they have existed for long
periods, which results in better performing systems.
Constantly monitoring the energy systems also may mitigate the risk
that a major failure will occur, because some catastrophic failures result
from malfunctions going unnoticed. In some cases, major equipment
failures can be completely avoided, or downtime can be scheduled for
repairs or replacements instead of being forced into emergency outage
situations. Long term equipment condition can be tracked by an
automated monitoring system, allowing equipment replacements and
maintenance work to be forecasted.

LEED Accreditation
For building owners pursuing accreditation under the USGBC LEED
rating systems, automated monitoring systems may help qualify projects
for credits under the Energy and Atmosphere (EA) and Indoor
Environmental Quality (EQ) categories. For the New Construction
(LEED-NC) rating system, automated monitoring systems could apply
to the following.
I

EA prerequisite #1: Fundamental Commissioning of Building

Energy Systems and EA credit #3: Enhanced Commissioning designing and implementing an automated monitoring system
should support the commissioning activities for a new facility and
help qualify for this prerequisite and credit.

EA credit #5: Measurement and Verification - an automated

monitoring system may support on-going accountability of energy
consumption (required for at least one year) under this credit.

AUTOMATED MONITORING AND FAULT DETECTION

PAGE

EQ credit #1: Outdoor Air Delivery Monitoring - if carbon dioxide

and air flow data points are permanently monitored and provide
continual feedback into the automated system, a credit is achievable.
A visual or audible alert is required when conditions vary by more
than 10 percent.

The Existing Buildings (LEED-EB) rating system has similar credits

under the EA and EQ categories.
I

EA prerequisite #1: Existing Building Commissioning - designing

and implementing an automated monitoring system as part of retrocommissioning an existing facility supports this prerequisite.

EA credit #3.3: Building Operations and Maintenance - Building

Systems Monitoring this requires continuous monitoring, alarms
that identify issues, and a system for responding to repairs. These
requirements align with the primary goals of automated monitoring
systems.

EA credit #5.1-5.3: Performance Measurement - Enhanced Metering

this requires continuous metering during a selected performance
period of various building energy and water consumption with
measures in place to show improved performance. Automated
monitoring systems can be designed to monitor the performance of
most systems listed in the checklist including cooling loads, chilled
water system efficiency, air volume, air and water economizers, and
variable frequency drive operation.

EA credit #6: Documenting Sustainable Building Cost Impact information from automated monitoring systems also can be used to
meet the requirements listed for this credit.

EQ credit #1: Outdoor Air Delivery Monitoring - if carbon dioxide

and air flow data points are permanently monitored and provide
continual feedback into the automated system, credit under the EQ
credit #1 is achievable.

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AUTOMATED MONITORING AND FAULT DETECTION

EQ credit #7.2: Thermal Comfort: Permanent Monitoring System this credit requires measurement and trending of temperatures,
relative humidity, and CO2 or air speed at locations selected
according to the impact on occupant comfort. Automated
monitoring systems can be designed to handle these tasks.

Fault Detection and Diagnostics

Considered the cornerstone of automated monitoring, fault detection
and diagnostics (FDD) is the process by which malfunctions,
degradations, and broken equipment is recognized and diagnosed by
software. A system that has chronically high supply air temperatures
during the summer might have a stuck damper. In the absence of FDD,
a technician must visually inspect the outside air dampers or review the
time series plots of the outside, return, mixed, and supply air
temperatures and reach a correct diagnosis. FDD software can run the
same data through an algorithm and reach the same conclusion quicker.
Unlike traditional commissioning where a building is monitored for a
discrete amount of time, automated FDD is continuous and can ensure
the proper function of building systems as long as it is in place. Human
intervention is still needed to carry out repairs and maintenance.
However, once a repair is completed, the FDD system will automatically
verify that it is functioning correctly.
Although not yet commercially available, FDD tools with active control
could further react to the fault by taking action. Most malfunctions are
minor and either reduce efficiency or cause poor IAQ. If the problem
can be fixed through the BAS, such as an out-of-calibration sensor, the
FDD controller could recalibrate the sensor and report the adjustment.
If a fix through the BAS is not possible, an alternative may be to bypass
the malfunctioning sensor and run the system at a slightly reduced
efficiency until the problem is corrected. The last scenario would occur
when either safety is compromised or the HVAC system could suffer
catastrophic failure. In this case, the FDD controller would take the
appropriate action and issue an alarm to the building operator. Figure 1
shows a generic FDD process decision tree.

AUTOMATED MONITORING AND FAULT DETECTION

PAGE

Figure 1. Generic Automated FDD Process Tree

Building System/Component

Decision

Fault Detection
Measurements

No Fault

Fault

Passive Fault
Diagnosis/
Isolation

No Action
Required

Tolerate

Proactive
Diagnosis

Pro-Active
Diatnosis for
Fault Isolation

Request a Repair
and Continue
Tolerate?

No

Reconfigure
the Controls

No

Reconfigure
Controls?

Fault Diagnosed

Reconfigure

Fault Evaluation

Operate

Safety
Availability
Energy/Cost Impact
Comfort
Environmental
Impact

Alarm/
Shutdown
Continue to
Operate?

No

Source: Portland Energy Conservation, Inc.

Detecting Faults
Regardless of the fault detection method used, faults are detected when
the comparison residual (actual value minus predicted value), exceeds a
predefined threshold. Not all values come directly from readings, some
variables are either calculated or characteristic values, such as outside air
quantity or coefficient of performance for an air conditioner. Regardless
of the source of the variable, it is important to use a dynamic model for
predicted values. HVAC systems are inherently dynamic due to
changing indoor and outdoor conditions. Using a fixed value as a
comparison will result in either too many or too few faults being
reported. For example, if facility staff were measuring efficiency and
comparing it to a fixed minimum value, the result would not be accurate
because efficiency changes with input conditions. For this reason, the
detection algorithm should run a dynamic model. This could be as
simple as using a formula to change the threshold based on inputs or a
real time simulation of the whole system.

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10

AUTOMATED MONITORING AND FAULT DETECTION

Diagnosing Faults
Diagnosing faults is a much more sophisticated process than detection.
Detection is as simple as fault or no fault, diagnosis may require an
analysis of multiple faults (passive diagnosis), or require manipulation of
the system itself (active diagnosis). Many times a fault is detected but its
cause cannot be determined without observing the system through a
wide range of conditions or modes. Using the proactive measure, modes
can be forced and a conclusion reached in a relatively short amount of
time. Passive diagnostics may take considerable time for the system to
cycle through the required conditions or modes on its own.
The cause of some faults can be determined as soon as they are
discovered. For example, if a large pressure drop is found across the air
filter, the diagnosis would be a clogged air filter (assuming the sensor is
functioning properly). On the other hand, triggered faults that are a
result of calculated values typically need further testing to determine
their origin. For example, the monitoring system might detect a
potential sensor error, but is unable to pin point the error among three
different sensors return air, mixed air, and outside air. A proactive
system could wait until the building is unoccupied to force modes that
reveal the diagnosis. Through the BAS, the diagnostics program could
initiate 100 percent outside air and compare both mixed air and outside
air, then switch the dampers for 100 percent return air, and compare the
return air and mixed air. By isolating the different sensors and
comparing them, the faulty sensor should reveal itself. Figure 2 shows a
proactive FDD decision tree for a faulty sensor.

AUTOMATED MONITORING AND FAULT DETECTION

PAGE

11

Figure 2. Possible Decision Tree to Isolate Faulty Temperature Sensor

Temperature
Sensor
Problem

Proactive Diagnostics
Temperature Sensor Problem

Sequential
Operation

Close Outdoor-Air
Damper Completely
Shut (100%
Recirculation)

Close Return-Air
Damper Completely
Shut (100%
Outdoor Air)

Wait for Conditions

to Reach
Steady-State

Wait for Conditions

to Reach
Steady-State

Is Mixed-Air Temperature =
Return-Air Temperature

Is Mixed-Air Temperature =
Outdoor-Air Temperature
Equal

Equal

Mixed-Air and
Return-Air
Temperature
Sensors OK

No

No

Mixed-Air and
Outdoor-Air
Temperature
Sensors OK

If Both
Tests Fail
Problem: Return-Air
Temperature Sensor
Problem

Problem: Outdoor-Air
Temperature Sensor
Problem

Problem: Mixed-Air
Temperature Sensor
Problem

Source: Portland Energy Conservation, Inc.

A malfunctioning sensor does not always need to be replaced. Sensors

may be un-calibrated, drifting, or installed incorrectly. By reviewing the
backlog of data on the sensor, the actual issue can sometimes be
determined and the appropriate action taken. A fully automated
monitoring system may be able to recalibrate the sensor and give a
report without ever needing the assistance of a technician.

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12

AUTOMATED MONITORING AND FAULT DETECTION

Verifying HVAC Programming and Schedules

Automated tools can monitor system schedules over long periods of
time and detect changes that waste energy. It is not uncommon for
operational schedules to be manually overridden for special events or
maintenance. If the BAS does not have a function to return the schedule
to normal operation, the over-ride condition may persist for weeks or
months. Simply reporting each over-ride condition may save significant
amounts of energy by allowing a supervisor to see and correct changes
that could be overlooked.

Data Handling and Documentation

Apart from the labor saving benefits that fault detection and diagnosis
provides, valuable time is also saved on data management. Part of the
automation process involves the management and conversion of data into
a comprehensible format. This can be as simple as interpreting and
exporting into a spreadsheet or as complex as a graphical interface capable
of performing many advanced functions with the data. Data storage and
data mining are key features that allow for easy review of historical trends.
Additionally, many of the current automated monitoring systems provide
access to building information via the Internet, which produces time
savings for facility managers and staff, especially when multiple building
locations or campus-wide sites are involved.
Automated documentation is another advantage of automated
monitoring. Automated tools are capable of creating performance and
maintenance reports as well as managing some types of commissioning
documents. Performance reports can track deficiencies and report
improvements. A major survey of commissioning providers suggested
that key aspects for automated monitoring systems were tracking and
creating standardized commissioning reports through automation.8

AUTOMATED MONITORING AND FAULT DETECTION

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13

FDD Detailed Example

Diagnose Faulty Outside Air Damper
Faulty dampers and valves in air-handling units (AHU) are difficult to
identify. A leaky hot water valve will increase the temperature of the air
entering the cooling coil, but this is compensated for by increased
mechanical cooling. The same thing occurs with damper problems: an
incorrect mixed air temperature due to excessive or inadequate outside
air can most times be compensated for by increased heating or cooling.
Since IAQ is generally not affected, faults in these components can go
unnoticed for years. Valves and dampers consist of many different
components and it is beyond the capabilities of current software to
distinguish what type of malfunctions occurred. Simply identifying a
fault will alert users to a damper or valve malfunction.
One way to diagnose a faulty outside air damper is to monitor either the
fan power or pressure drop across the damper. The pressure drop and fan
power will be different for every AHU, so an initial training period is
required to characterize the operation. Using this method, a simple lookup table could be created that relates outside air fraction, damper position,
and fan power or pressure drop across the damper. Data for this table
would be collected by first setting the system to normal operation mode
with the outside air damper (OSAD) fully closed. Then, allow the return
air and exhaust air dampers to operate normally and the system to reach
equilibrium, and record the three inputs. The next step is to record the
measurement again, this time with the damper open 10 percent and repeat
the process in 10 percent increments until the damper is 100 percent open.
The next stage is to characterize the system for a stuck open and stuck
closed damper. To do this, the process is repeated as before with the system
operating normally except the damper is forced open or shut. The return
air and exhaust air dampers should operate as if the OSAD was in the
correct position. For instance, if the system was calling for full outside air,
the return damper would be shut and the fan would be working against a
large pressure drop causing more power to be drawn. If the damper was
stuck open, then the power draw would be lower. The system must be
characterized first to be able to determine the exact meaning of the power
differences. A typical look-up table might look like Table 3.

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14

AUTOMATED MONITORING AND FAULT DETECTION

Table 3: Lookup Table for Diagnosing Damper Faults, Created by Actively Calibrating the Damper System8

Outdoor Air
Damper
Signal

Normal Operation

Outdoor Air Damper

Stuck Fully Closed

Outdoor Air Damper

Stuck Fully Open

(% Open)

Outdoor Air
Fraction

Supply Fan
Power
Consumption
(Watts)

Outdoor Air
Fraction

Supply Fan
Power
Consumption
(Watts)

Outdoor Air
Fraction

Supply Fan
Power
Consumption
(Watts)

10

0.15

1,550

0.05

1,560

0.15

1,500

20

0.25

1,450

0.08

1,600

0.25

1,400

30

0.40

1,350

0.15

1,625

0.40

1,300

50

0.60

1,250

0.20

1,650

0.60

1,200

70

0.75

1,150

0.40

1,750

0.75

1,100

100

1.00

1,000

0.70

1,800

1.00

1,000

Source: Portland Energy Conservation, Inc.

As shown in Figure 3, the first step in diagnosing a potential damper

problem is to validate the sensors to ensure they are reading correctly.
Then, confirm that the damper position is correct by comparing it to
the expected damper position. The expected damper position can be
determined based on outside air temperature and the mode of the AHU.
If the system is operating appropriately, the next step is to use the look
up table to confirm that the fan power corresponds to normal operation.
If it is not, a higher power draw in this example corresponds to a stuck
closed damper, and a lower draw corresponds to an open damper.
Once the FDD system has made a diagnosis, it can react in different
ways depending on how sophisticated and well integrated it is with the
HVAC system. If the FDD system is capable of being active, it can make
changes, such as changing schedules or recalibrating sensors. Some
faults, like the damper example, cannot be fixed through the controller
and require a physical repair. In a system where the FDD cannot make
changes, creating a fault alarm is the only response.

AUTOMATED MONITORING AND FAULT DETECTION

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15

Figure 3. Decision Tree to Detect and Diagnose Outdoor Air Damper Faults

Validate Sensor
Measurements

Problem: Sensor Problem

No

Are Sensor
Measurements
Good?

Good

Is Outdoor-Air
Damper Signal
Correct?

Problem: Control or
Control Code

Correct

Is Actual
Pressure
Drop and Power
Consumption = Expected
Pressure Drop
and Power
Consumption?
Lookup Table for
Normal Operation

No

Yes

OK: OA Damper
Operation OK

No

Is Actual OAF =
Expected OAF?

OAF is OK,
but not the
Pressure Drop
and Power
Consumption

Equal

No
Problem: Damper Problem

Lookup Table for

Faulty Operation

Is Actual
Pressure
Drop and Power
Consumption = Expected
Pressure Drop
and Power
Consumption?

Yes

Problem: Unknown Damper

Problem

No

Source: Portland Energy Conservation, Inc.

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16

AUTOMATED MONITORING AND FAULT DETECTION

Automated Monitoring Packages

A number of public and private organizations have been actively
working to develop semi- and fully automated monitoring packages.
Summaries of several programs are provided. It is important to note that
some are available commercially, some are under development, and
others are under research. Additional information about the
organizations is shown in the For More Information section or by
footnote references provided in the Notes section.

ABCAT
The Automated Building Commissioning Analysis Tool (ABCAT),
developed by the Energy System Laboratory at Texas A&M University,
uses existing hardware in a fully commissioned building to achieve a
baseline measurement for operational energy use. During the calibration
period, the program is running its own simulation model; at the end of
that period, the mean error is subtracted to further calibrate the model.
It then monitors the building and compares the actual inside air quality
and energy use to the calibrated model. When the two values are not
synchronized, a fault is reported by the system.4

ACRx Sentinel
Field Diagnostics Services Inc. created the ACRx Sentinel package to
diagnose faults in small commercial air-conditioning units. The Sentinel
uses custom hardware installed in packaged-HVAC units to monitor
and transmit data to a web server via a wireless modem. The software
analyzes refrigeration and air-side data on a daily basis and reports faults
on a web page, including estimated wasted energy costs.9 The Sentinel
is available for retrofit applications and is likely to be available as an
OEM (original equipment manufacturer) feature that is sold to HVAC
companies within the next few years.

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APAR and VPACC

The Air-handling unit Performance Assessment Rules (APAR) is an
expert set of rules for fault detection in air handling units developed and
published by National Institute for Standards and Technology (NIST)
(ASHRAE, 2001). The rules apply to single duct, variable- or constantvolume air-handlers with hydronic heating and cooling and economizers.
APAR uses control signals and occupancy schedules to identify the mode
of AHU operation. Each mode has a subset of performance rules that are
evaluated using BAS sensor data. These modes of operation include
heating, cooling with outdoor air, mechanical cooling with 100 percent
outdoor air, mechanical cooling with minimum outdoor air, and
unknown, where the condition of the valves and dampers do not
correspond to an identified mode. The rules are suitable for
incorporation into AHU-controller hardware or use in a BAS supervisory
computer. The rules have been tested in hardware manufactured by
Alerton, Automated Logic, Johnson Controls, Delta Controls, and
others. An expanded version of the rules is used in the ENFORMA
Building Diagnostics software, which is referenced in this section.
The VAV-box Performance Assessment Control Chart (VPACC) method
was also developed and published by NIST. This method is based on a
widely used statistical method used in manufacturing to detect anomalies
in manufacturing processes. The VPACC algorithms are compact and
may be embedded in VAV-box controllers or used in supervisory control
software. The rules have been tested in hardware manufactured by
Alerton, Automated Logic, Johnson Controls, Delta Controls, and others.

CITE-AHU
CITE-AHU is a retro-commissioning tool developed from a joint effort
between NIST and CSTB, the French Scientific and Technical Centre
for Building. Designed specifically for AHUs, the program uses APAR
algorithms. CITE-AHU depends on the existing hardware in a building
and taps into the BAS for its interface. By connecting directly to the BAS,
CITE-AHU can perform active tests to force different modes. This
allows the program to more aggressively pursue faults without waiting for
them to happen.3

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AUTOMATED MONITORING AND FAULT DETECTION

DABO
Diagnostic Agent for Building Operators (DABO) was developed at the
CANMET Energy Technology Centre-Varennes in Canada. DABO
requires a BAS because it actively monitors and controls the HVAC
system with four different modules.
Currently, the Diagnostic Agent module is the only part available for
commercialization. The Diagnostic Agent uses expert systems and
pattern recognition to monitor, diagnose, and report faults. The
Adaptive Controller monitors and controls the sub-systems of the
HVAC system, such as VAV boxes and AHUs at optimal levels. The
Building Energy Agent uses inputs from the Diagnostic Agent and the
Adaptive Controller to predict performance and optimize set points.
The Building Maintenance Agent uses outputs from the Diagnostics
Agent to create a maintenance schedule report. The last module in the
circle is the Building Commissioning Agent, which is the active part of
DABO. Using the information from the Diagnostic Agent, it runs a
series of tests and actively changes settings based on the results.5

EffTrack
EffTrack, developed by Efficiency Technologies, Inc. is an automated
efficiency and diagnostic web-based service focused on chiller, boiler,
and plate exchanger efficiency and trending. EffTrack uploads data from
an existing BAS and/or additional monitoring equipment to its servers
and processes the data to provide facility managers the ability to
document, monitor, evaluate, and manage chiller system performance.
Efficiency Technologies has announced plans for future enhancements
that will include advanced chiller charting, internationalization (metric
units), diagnostics, and automated data collection for boilers and plate
exchangers, water treatment analysis, screw chillers, steam driven
chillers, evaporator condensers, air-cooled and rooftop units, air
handling units, and tower systems.

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ENFORMA Building Diagnostics

ENFORMA Building Diagnostics (BD), developed by Architectural
Energy Corporation, is automated fault detection and diagnostics
software that runs on Tridiums NiagaraAX BAS platform. The
ENFORMA software uses trend data from the underlying BAS,
processes it once a day, and stores and reports the faults for air-handlers,
chillers, cooling towers, and related equipment. The results can be
accessed using commonly available web browsers. ENFORMA BD
capabilities include a customizable graphical display of the data to
confirm faults detected by the system. Based on the duration of the
faults, the urgency level is displayed as red, yellow, or green in a graphic
maxtrix with days of the week in columns and building components in
rows. The program can be installed on a local or remote NiagaraAX
system, allowing managers and service personnel to remotely track
multiple building locations.

Information Monitoring and Diagnostic System (IMDS)

IMDS is a research system developed by Lawrence Berkeley National
Laboratory. The IMDS archives measurements from high-quality
sensors every minute. It includes a powerful data-visualization tool,
which can be used on-site or accessed via the Internet. The IMDS has
been used to identify and correct a series of control problems in a
demonstration building. It has also allowed the operators to make more
effective use of the building control system, freeing up time to take care
of other tenant needs. The operators believe they have significantly
increased building comfort, potentially improving tenant health and
productivity. The reduction in the time required to operate the building
is worth about $20,000 per year. A control system retrofit based on
findings from the IMDS is expected to reduce annual energy use by 20
percent, saving more than $30,000 per year. The project has also
evaluated simple chiller models for fault detection, concluding that they
can be used as references to monitor operation and detect faults. The
ability of the IMDS to measure cooling load and chiller power to within
one percent accuracy and with a one-minute sampling interval permits
the detection of faults that would otherwise be missed.

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AUTOMATED MONITORING AND FAULT DETECTION

INFOMETRICS
Infometrics, developed by Cimetrics, is a remote monitoring service
using hardware and software that access data from the underlying BAS.
Cimetrics personnel analyze the data to find and diagnose faults.
Quarterly reports are created for the client with an energy use analysis,
mechanical system performance analysis, and a set of operational
recommendations prioritized by savings.2

PACRAT
Performance and Continuous Re-Commissioning Analysis Tool
(PACRAT) is an automated monitoring tool created by Facility
Dynamics. PACRAT taps into the existing BAS trend logs to monitor
and analyze the performance of the HVAC system. PACRAT has
three modules:
I

Bass (data collection module)

Expert (analysis and diagnosis module)

Viewer (user interface)

The Bass modules purpose is to connect to the building and to create

trend logs of appropriate data on a local server. The data are downloaded
periodically and analyzed using the Expert module. The Expert module
completes the analysis and diagnosis, and passes the processed
information on to the Viewer. The Viewer is a user-friendly interface
where the faults are categorized by importance. Faults with high
estimated energy waste are at the top of the list of suggested repairs.
Along with fault detecting and reporting, PACRAT can meter energy
use to maintain two running baselines for before and after comparison
of savings based on current utility rate schedules. Users are provided
with a real time reading of energy and unrealized energy savings.7

Rooftop Diagnostician
Developed at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL), which is
operated by Battelle for the U.S. Department of Energy, this tool allows
facility staff to determine the cause of a malfunction in a rooftop unit or
to monitor performance in order to optimize regularly scheduled
AUTOMATED MONITORING AND FAULT DETECTION

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maintenance. Rooftop Diagnostician provides fast and effective

diagnostics for HVAC units in commercial buildings, allowing staff to
better monitor the HVAC system to provide optimal performance.
The Rooftop Diagnostician attaches directly onto the HVAC unit and
provides real-time web-based performance information. The Rooftop
Diagnostician is available for licensing from Battelle and provides the
following. 10
I

Supports heat pumps and dual fuel systems

Detects low fresh air supply to prevent sick buildings

Features a web-enabled display so no special software is needed

Detects high energy use and control failures

Provides real-time information that permits service analysis

Collects performance data from three months to five years.

Whole Building Diagnostician

The Whole Building Diagnostician (WBD) was created by PNNL,
which is operated by Battelle for the U.S. Department of Energy.
WBD uses a buildings own data collection capabilities, when possible,
to funnel data into one of two modules: the Whole-Building Energy
module (WBE) and the Outside Air Economizer (OAE) diagnostics
module. The WBE monitors energy consumption and displays the
results on a graph in the form of an energy index. The index represents
the ratio of expected energy use to actual energy use. The expected
value comes from an internal empirical model that takes into account
factors such as time of day and weather. The OAE uses a limited
number of the sensor and control outputs on the air handling unit to
detect roughly 20 common errors. The errors are then color coded
based on severity and reported to the user. It is available for licensing
from Battelle.11

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AUTOMATED MONITORING AND FAULT DETECTION

The Future of Automated Monitoring

Areas for Improvement
Automated monitoring and specifically FDD are still under substantial
development. Current products have already proven to be valuable
commissioning and maintenance tools, though installed systems are
few. One of the reasons for the lack of market presence is public
awareness, although technical information and case studies on
automated monitoring are becoming more prevalent. With increased
awareness and usage, automated tools and systems will become more
sophisticated and cost effective.
In five to 10 years, it is foreseeable that FDD tools will be integral to
building energy and control systems. Similar types of self-diagnostics are
standard equipment in the aerospace industry, power plants, and most
modern vehicles. One way to accelerate market adoption of this technology
is to embed the FDD software into the HVAC component controllers or
the BAS. Since most new buildings already use some sort of BAS, including
FDD on all new systems would lower the prices considerably.
Tools also could be developed to make automated monitoring and FDD
fully comprehensive across all building systems. The current focus is on
HVAC systems because the faults are most prevalent and the hardest to
detect. Lighting also provides an opportunity for FDD, because it has a
significant impact on energy consumption and many lighting systems
rely on control strategies to ensure efficiency. A comprehensive FDD
system could monitor the HVAC, lighting, water, and other essential
building systems that depend on programs or schedules to control use.

Current Development
As noted above, many different organizations are developing automated
monitoring tools, each with a slightly different focus. Most products are
focused on one or more major HVAC components, with the intent of
expanding the scope to create a comprehensive analysis tool that can be
used to detect and diagnose faults throughout the whole HVAC system.
The details of research and development by private organizations are
closely guarded. However, public groups such as CANMET Energy
Technology centre in Canada, NIST, and Annex 40 readily announce
current progress and future development.

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Conclusion
Lack of proper commissioning, inexperienced operators incapable of
handling complicated building controls, and insufficient maintenance,
lead to reduced equipment life and increased operating costs.
Commissioning, re-commissioning, and retro-commissioning require
qualified commissioning personnel for periodically gathering, reviewing,
and documenting performance data. After traditional commissioning has
been completed, the beneficial effects often begin to dissipate.
On the other hand, automated monitoring provides continuous
feedback on building performance and affords the opportunity to
reduce labor requirements and create energy savings. Whether the
installed automated monitoring system is an active or passive FDD
system, nearly all HVAC systems will realize better performance.
Many hurdles still exist for this industry. Public awareness may be the
most significant. Many organizations are investing in this technology
with the hope that these products will be a common part of building
systems in the future. For now, only a few commercial and government
buildings utilize automated monitoring, and these few cases have shown
the concept to be viable. It is only a matter of time before automated
monitoring is installed as a common HVAC tool, and is expanded to
encompass other building systems.

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AUTOMATED MONITORING AND FAULT DETECTION

Glossary
ABCAT

Automated Building Commissioning and

Analysis Tool

AEC

Architectural Energy Corporation

AFDD

Automated Fault Detection and Diagnostics

AHU/RTU

Air Handler Unit/Roof Top Unit

APAR

Air handling unit Performance Assessment Rules

ASHRAE

American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and

Air-conditioning Engineers

BAS

Building Automation System

DABO

Diagnostics Agent For Building Operators

FDD

Fault Detection and Diagnostics

HVAC

Heating Ventilating and Air Conditioning

IAQ

Indoor Air Quality

LEED

Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design

NIST

National Institute of Standards and Technology

O&M

Operations and Maintenance

OSA

Outside Air

OSAD

Outside Air Damper

OAE

Outside Air Economizer

PACRAT

Performance and Continuous Re-commissioning

Analysis Tool

PECI

Portland Energy Conservation Inc.

PNNL

Pacific Northwest National Laboratory

USGBC

United States Green Building Council

VAV (box)

Variable Air Volume

VFD

Variable Frequency Drive

WBD

Whole Building Diagnostician

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FOR MORE INFORMATION

ASHRAE (American Society of Heating, Refrigeration, and Air Conditioning
Engineers) established the APAR set in 2001. www.ashrae.org
Architectural Energy Corporation developed ENFORMA diagnostic software.
www.archenergy.com
CANMET Energy Technology Centre is Canadas leading science and
technology organization with a mandate to develop and demonstrate energyefficient, alternative, and renewable energy technologies and processes.
www.nrcan.gc.ca
CTSB focuses on four major areas: research, advanced engineering, quality
assessment, and dissemination of knowledge. international.cstb.fr/default.asp
Efficiency Technologies, Inc. developed EffTrack. www.efftec.com
Energy Laboratory at Texas A&M University developed ABCAT.
esl.eslwin.tamu.edu/
Facility Dynamics created PACRAT. www.facilitydynamics.com
Field Diagnostics developed the Sentinel. www.fielddiagnostics.com
International Energy Agency Annex 40 Commissioning HVAC
Commissioning of Buildings and HVAC Systems for Improved Comfort and
Energy Savings. The objective of Annex 40 was to develop, validate, and
document tools for commissioning of buildings and building services.
These tools include guidelines on commissioning procedures and
recommendations for improving commissioning processes, as well as
prototype software that could be implemented as stand-alone tools and/or
embedded in Building Energy Management Systems (BEMS). The work
performed in the Annex is focused on HVAC systems and their associated
control systems. www.commissioning-hvac.org/default.asp
NIST is the National Institute of Standards Technology, developer of APAR
and VPACC and co-developer of CITE-AHU. www.nist.gov
Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL), operated by Battelle for the U.S.
Department of Energy, is the developer of the Whole Building Diagnostician
and the Rooftop Diagnostician. PNNLs mission is to provide basic and applied
research to deliver energy, environmental, and national security for the nation.
www.pnl.gov/
Tridium is the developer of the Niagara Framework, a software framework
that integrates diverse systems and devices into a unified platform that can
be managed and controlled in real time over the Internet. www.tridium.com/

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AUTOMATED MONITORING AND FAULT DETECTION

Notes
1. Brambley, Michael, and Srinivas Katipamula.
Beyond Commissioning. The Role of Automation. Feb. 2005.
Pacific Northwest National Laboratory.
www.automatedbuildings.com/news/feb05/articles/pnl/pnl.htm
2. Building Accountablity. Cimetrics.
www.cimetrics.com/home/infometrics/
3. Castro, Natascha S., and Hossien Vaezi-Nejad. CITE-AHU,
an Automated Commissioning Tool for Air-Handling Units.
National Conference on Building Commissioning, 2005.
4. Claridge, D.E. Engineering and Software Requirement of the
Automated Building Commissioning and Analysis Tool.
Energy Systems Laboratory (ESL) at Texas A&M University.
ESL, Texas A&M, 2005.
txspace.tamu.edu/bitstream/1969.1/2081/1/ESL-TR-05-01-02.pdf
5. Intelligent Building Operating Technologies. CANMET Energy
Centre. Varennes: CANMET Energy Technology Centre, 2004.
cetc-varennes.nrcan.gc.ca/fichier.php/codectec/En/
2004-044/2004-044e.pdf
6. Mills, Evan. Cost-Effectiveness of Commercial-Building
Commissioning. Dec. 2004. Lawrence Berkeley National
Laboratory, Portland Energy Conservation, Energy System
Laboratory.
eetd.lbl.gov/emills/PUBS/Cx-Costs-Benefits.html
7. PACRAT. Facility Dynamics.
www.facilitydynamics.com/Pacwho.pdf
8. Portland Energy Conservation, Inc. Methods for Automated and
Continuous Commissioning of Building Systems. ARTI: 21-CR.
Springfield: US Dept. Commerce, 2003.
9. Rauch, Christopher A. Field Diagnostics Services, Inc.
Acrx.Com. 2002.
www.acrx.com/FieldDiagnosticServicesIncCompanyDescription.pdf
10. Rooftop Diagnostician.
availabletechnologies.pnl.gov/technology.asp?id=58
11. Whole Building Diagnostician. Building Systems Program.
20 Oct. 2005.
www.buildingsystemsprogram.pnl.gov/fdd/wbd/index.stm

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Energy Design Resources provides information and design tools to

architects, engineers, lighting designers, and building owners and
developers. Our goal is to make it easier for designers to create
energy efficient new nonresidential buildings in California. Energy
Design Resources is funded by California utility customers and
administered by Pacific Gas and Electric Company, Sacramento
Municipal Utility District, San Diego Gas and Electric, Southern
California Edison, and Southern California Gas Company, under the
auspices of the California Public Utilities Commission. To learn more
about Energy Design Resources, please visit our Web site at
www.energydesignresources.com.
This design brief was prepared for Energy Design Resources by
Architectural Energy Corporation.

09/2007