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A method of analysing interview transcripts in
qualitative research
Philip Burnard
A method
Assumptions
INTRODUCTION
Qualitative
research
increasingly
cation.
Often,
unstructured
principle
methods
to explore
aspects
such methods
of nurse
interviews
Sometimes,
as a
the inter-
enough
edu-
or semi-structured
methodology.
(though,
always the
No one method
types of interview
here assumes
data. The
interviews
interviews
assumed
been transcribed.
version
data
of this method
arising
from
interview transcripts
essentially,
method of thematic
adapted
from
content
Glaser
theory
approach
content
analysis (Babbie
and
and
as a
The method
The
described
method
in the
Strauss
literature
from
various
1979;
Berg
works
1989;
on
Fox
1967).
on
Couchman
of other
qualitative
clearly
structured
is best described
through
analysis
1990;
concerned
data (Bryman
out of those
theory
1967; Strauss
& Dawson
though the
by the resear-
was developed
grounded
content
sources
has
that an adapted
used to categorise
in full. It is also
more
It is suggested
interviews.
described
open-ended
method
that semi-structured,
literature
1979;
1988;
1985).
Philip Burnard PhD MSc RMN RGN DipN Cert Ed RNT
Director of Postgraduate Nursing Studies, University
of Wales College of Medicine, Heath Park, Cardiff,
Wales
(Requests for offprints to Pl3)
Manuscript accepted 3 July 1991
a detailed
and systematic
461
462
NURSE EDUCATION
recording
the interviews
views together
category
under
system.
a reasonably
Herein
TODAY
of another?
must remain
sons world
themes
Can we assume
the researcher
involved
to
However,
accurate
in interviews
complications
seems to be emerging
to
aware of. To
and
A major category
exhaustive
Are common
really common?
is it reasonable
the utterances
in
and inter-
thing
described
in a doing by numbers
to do.
and not
sort of way.
Stage three
Transcripts
headings
describe
necessary
all aspects
dross.
dross
Field
and
to denote
are
of the content,
Morse
the
(1985)
unusable
should
The
headings
account
in an
to the topic
or category
for almost
to
down
excluding
system
categories
stage. An example
in Table
are freely
generated
at this
1.
Stage one
Notes are made after each interview
regarding
the research
project,
the researcher
the
1985) about
These
serve
as
the data.
At times
may record
researchers
anything
attention
during
that attracts
the
initial
interview transcript
Open coding
Open coding
Most people need
counselling . . .
Some nurses are good at
it. . .
They have the skills . . .
Not sure about
counselling training in
nurse education..
.
need counselling at
some point in their lives.
I would think that some
nurses are quite good at
it. They have the skills.
Although Im not sure if
many nurses get
~tin~f~~~~r,l~~~g as
training.
Stage four
Stage two
Transcripts
throughout
within
the
reading,
transcripts.
on
The
here,
themes
is to
The list of categories is surveyed by the researcher and grouped together under higher-order
headings.
numbers
The
aim,
of categories
here,
is to
by collapsing
reduce
the
some of the
example,
categories
are all collapsed into one category
entitled Counselling Training for Nurses:
There are lots of different sorts of counselling being described in these interviews,
it may be decided
categories.
For
training.
NLJRSE EDUCATION
Table 2
Stage five
The
worked
through
headings
and sub-headings
and repetitious
are removed
is
or very similar
to produce
a final list.
Stage six
Two colleagues
systems,
independently
researchers
The
category
seeing
the
are
then discussed
sary.
and without
and adjustments
to
method
Stage seven
Transcripts
agreed
are
re-read
list of categories
establish
the
degree
alongside
and
the
to which
the
Transcript
Categories
Definition of counselling
Definition of counselling
Counselling
training
Definition of counselling
to
categories
Adjustments
Everything
context.
Stage eight
is worked through
and sub-headings
a category
Coloured
allocated
Examples
to
of the
Definitions
Patients
Counselling
of counselling:
Alternatively,
fied on a computer,
coding scheme
cher (Table
blue,
clearly means
red,
which,
different
on its own,
than it does
a lot. . .]
multiple
copies
allow for
sections
the
can be identiand a
resear-
2).
sounded
here.
Once
sections
sections
to be cut out
green.
using a wordprocessor
something
of this might be
words have been
either
of words,
Each transcript
and nurse
finally
sub-headings
categories
463
TODAY
must be
of interviews
are
of
conversation.
plete
possible
a particular
to appreciate
remark
transcript
must
be
kept
or
piece
a second
for
is
the
of
com-
reference
purposes.
Stage nine
Each coded section of the interviews is cut out of
the transcript
and all items of each code are
collected
transcripts
context of
together.
Multiple
photocopies
of the
Stage ten
The cut out sections are pasted onto sheets,
headed up with the appropriate
headings and
sub-headings.
464
Stage eleven
Selected respondents are asked to check the
appropriateness or otherwise of the category
system. They are asked: Does this quotation
from your interview fit t%zScategory? . . . Does
this? . . . Adjustments are made as necessary.
This allows for a check on the validity of the
categorising process to be maintained. Another
method that can be used to validate the findings
is described in the next section.
Stage twelve
All of the sections are filed together for direct
reference when writing up the findings. Copies
of the complete interviews are kept to hand
during the writing up stage as are the original
tape recordings. If anything appears unclear
during the writing up stage of the project, the
researcher should refer directly back to the
transcript or the recording.
Stage thirteen
Once all of the sections are together, the writing
up process begins. The researcher starts with the
first section, selects the various examples of data
that have been filed under that section and offers
a commentary that links the examples together.
That researcher then continues on to the next
section and so on, until the whole project is
written up. All the time that this writing up
process is being undertaken, the researcher stays
open to the need to refer back to the original
tape recordings and to the complete transcripts
of the interviews. In this way, it is possible to stay
closer to original meanings and contexts.
Stage fourteen
The researcher must decide whether or not to
link the data examples and the commentary to
the literature. Two options are available here.
First, the researcher may write up the findings,
using verbatim examples of interviews to
illustrate the various sections. Then, he may
write a separate section which links those
findings to the literature on the topic and make
comparisons and contrasts. Second, the researcher may choose to write up the findings alongside references to the literature. In this way, the
findings section of the research becomes both a
presentation of the findings and a comparison of
those findings with previous work. The first
approach seems more pure but the second is
often more practical and readable.
In any analysis of qualitative data there is the
problem of what to leave out of an analysis of a
transcript. Ideally, all the data should be accounted for under a category or sub category (Glaser
& Strauss 1967). In practice there are always
elements of interviews that are unusable in an
analysis. Field and Morse (1985), as we have
noted, refer to this data as dross. In order to
illustrate what was not included in the analysis of
the interviews in a recent study, it may be helpful
to offer an example of data that were considered
not to be categorisable nor considered to add to
the general understanding of the field under
consideration.
I dont know, like they say, now they say it was
whereas
before,
perhaps,
you
alright,
wouldnt.
Whilst the person in this example was trying to
convey something it would be difficult to know
what it was. As an aside to this discussion, it is
interesting to note that such uncodable pieces
of transcript only appear to be unusable at the
analysis stage. During the interviews, all of what
was being said appeared to be quite coherent to
the researcher.
VALIDITY
The question of the validity of this categorisation
process must be considered. If, as Glaser and
Strauss (1967) suggest, the aim of ethnomethodological and phenomenological research is
to offer a glimpse of another persons perceptual
world, then the researcher should attempt to
offset his own bias and subjectivity that must
creep through any attempt at making sense of
interview data. Two methods of checking for
validity can be recommended here. First, the
researcher asks a colleague who is not involved in
NURSE EDUCATION
of category
transcripts
and
to identify
categories
discussed
generated
with the
ably complete
and
general
identified
in
and
the colleague
categories
system.
theory
Strauss.
approach
suggested
by Glaser
and
One of the difficulties in this sort of
compared
system. If the
analysis
was reason-
nature
and
thus
easily
by another
was anticipating
that
the
papers.
with aspects
of the grounded
a method
presenting
and reliable
findings
way. Arguably,
in an honest
of
corroborated
of
analysis
person,
elements
It combines
and
and accurate,
to
articles
exist:
transcripts
content
b)
and
own category
interview
three
researcher
a category
from
in the
generation
types of data -
465
TODAY
the sorts of
researcher
may have
the researcher
what he
the interview
transcripts
This, clearly,
would not
of those
trans-
here
is one
material
and
generated
report
that
The
stays
yet allows
method
suggested
close
to the
for
categories
original
to be
wanted to hear.
The last possibility can be reasonably
if the colleague
content
is unfamiliar
ruled out
CONCLUSION
The
remains
countered
one method
here encourages
categories
a funnelling
are generated
then distilled
hoped,
therefore,
described
that
parties
many
down to a smaller
process of collapsing
independent
process number
by the
above. It is to be
the agreement
over
of two
the category
system
also
issue
of how to analyse
of attempting
identified
some
method
data
of
the
qualitative
problems
data and
that
the
of the task.
nal validity.
The second
On the other
must start
returning
check
for
is that
validity
interviews
and asking
and
the transcripts
them
to jot
of
of
down
somewhere
resent
but
the researcher
attempts
the thoughts
systematic
offered
hand,
must be made
and feelings
honest
way.
to rep-
of others
This
paper
in a
has
the
headings
interview.
This
produces
a list of
with the
researchers
and the two lists can be discussed
with the respondents.
Out of these discussions,
minor adjustments
system.
This paper has offered just one way of exploring and categorising qualitative data. It is likely
that the method could be used with a range of
References
Babbie E 1979 The practice of social research, 3rd ed.
Wadsworth, Belmot, California
Berg B L 1989 Qualitative research methods for the
social sciences. Allyn and Bacon, New York
Bryman A 1988 Quantity and quality in social research.
Unwin Hyman, London
466
ed. Appleton-Century-Crofts,