Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
INTRODUCTION
1.1
Surface mine haul roads are used for transporting products and equipment around a
mine site, to the preparation plant, to dump areas, to and from stockpile areas, out of
pits, etc. As such all of the aspects of highway engineering, including road grades,
curve elevation, sight distance, stopping distance, adequate drainage, etc., must be
followed to facilitate construction of safe and efficient haul roads for the transport of
product and equipment to its destination.
The standards used for the design, construction and maintenance of mine haul roads
directly impact on:
Truck productivity
Truck maintenance and operating costs
Road safety
With correct management, the overall impact of the above three factors can be
optimised in order to achieve the lowest overall total haulage cost for the mine. With
too little spending, damage to trucks increases and production is lower. Excessive
expenditure however on the other hand provides diminishing benefits and will result
in an increase to the overall cost of hauling. The ideal is to find the optimum point
where the overall total benefit is the greatest.
1.2
The challenge for the engineering design of a haul road is to optimise the road
design to maximise productivity while living within the constraints of providing a safe
work environment, an overall mine design, the existing mine topography, and the
budget for haul road construction. Listed below are some of the main factors for
consideration in the search to optimise the total overall cost of haulage.
As trucks get bigger their productivity increases but the standard, size and quality
of the construction and maintenance of roads must also improve to cope with the
increased loads.
Reducing the roughness of roads will in turn reduce the damage to trucks through
fatigue, twisting and shock to the truck frame and main components.
Reducing the roughness of roads and improving the surface of the road can
provide significant benefits in the life and therefore the cost of tyres.
Reducing the number of intersections and improving the design of intersections
will provide significant benefits to not only truck maintenance but also to truck
productivity through improved cycle times.
Improving the design of road pavements will provide reductions in the rolling
resistance of the road which will lead to a reduction in fuel costs and truck
maintenance, as well as an increase in truck speed and productivity.
1-1
Improving the surface material of a road pavement will also reduce the long term
cost of watering and maintaining the road and will also produce a safer road with
shorter truck cycle times.
Perfecting curve designs, optimising road grades and improving road alignments
will lead to reduced truck maintenance and improved truck speed and
productivity.
Improving road crossfalls and road drainage will lead to improved road
pavements which will reduce truck and road maintenance costs and will lead to
improved truck speed and productivity.
Optimising the average payload of trucks while at the same time minimising
spillage.
Reducing the overloading of trucks and spillage will result in reduced road and
truck maintenance and improved tyre life.
Improving the initial standard of road construction can result in a significant
reduction in maintenance and maintenance costs. The life cycle cost of a road
being significantly influenced by the life of the road.
Even though the effects of haul road quality on productivity and costs are well known
in a general sense, there is presently very little that an engineer can do to put values
on some of these design options. This is because there are too many variables in
the cost equation and much of the information required is either not monitored or is
hard to compile.
1.3
This Manual
1-2
2.
2.1
The Aim
To provide safe, well engineered, high quality haul roads at the lowest overall
total cost to satisfy the requirements of the long term mine plan.
2.2
Design Life
This manual has adopted a distinction between in-pit haul roads and main
haul roads. As such two sets of standards will be recommended. In-pit haul
roads are of a lower standard and are recognised as generally being rougher,
less permanent, steeper, shorter and slower than main haul roads. Main haul
roads on the other hand are of a higher standard and are more permanent,
better quality and longer in length. The reason for this is that in-pit roads are
generally more temporary in nature and will therefore not be in service long
enough to provide the benefits resulting from the higher standard of
construction appropriate for a main haul road.
2-3
The main impact associated with in-pit roads is on total truck cycle time and the
fact that the rougher roads have a greater impact proportionally on truck and
tyre damage and hence costs. For this reason the standard (construction and
maintenance) of in-pit roads must not be allowed to slip too low and every effort
should be made to make more use of main haul roads.
The impact of main haul roads is more to do with a greater volume of traffic
traveling over the road for a longer life. For this reason a higher standard of
road is appropriate and factors such as rolling resistance, grade, intersection
design, speed, curve design, etc., become more critical.
The final design standard of a road or section of road will ultimately be
determined by the estimated length of time that the road will be in use, and by
what type and volume of traffic will travel on the road. In all aspects of the
design, one should endeavor to allow for the possibility of future expansion and
larger equipment.
At KPC it is recommended that an in-pit road shall be a high volume pit or
dump road that will be required for up to six months; or a low volume in pit or
dump road required for up to twelve months.
A main road shall be high volume pit, dump, or ex pit road that will remain in
place for in excess of six months; or a low volume pit, dump or ex pit road that
will remain in place for over twelve months.
2.4
Design Speed
Drivers in general travel a road at the speed at which they feel to be safe at the
level of risk which they are prepared to accept. Drivers also tend to match their
speed to the perceived radius of horizontal curves as determined by the
apparent rate of movement of objects on or near the curve. Usually drivers
maintain their speed over crests unaware of what may lie beyond their field of
view and few anticipate hazards. Most must see a hazard to be aware of its
presence.
Where a design speed is cited it means that a vehicle can travel at that speed
without being exposed to hazards arising from curtailed sight distance,
inappropriately superelevated curves, severe grades or pavements too narrow
to accommodate the design traffic volume. The selection of the design speed
for a haul road is significantly affected by the type of haul truck being used and
anticipated to be used. For economic consideration the trucks should be able
to travel at their maximum unloaded speed to reduce cycle times and thus
increase productivity.
It is generally accepted and recommended that the 85 percentile speed be
adopted as the design speed based on the unloaded top speed of the present
and known future haul equipment.
2-4
It is recommended that at KPC the design speed for trucks for in-pit roads be
40 kph while the design speed for trucks on main roads be 60 kph. It should
be noted that this is quite different to the KPC mine site speed limit for trucks or
light vehicles.
2.5
Like other vehicles, trucks must slow down to drive around curves, bends or
corners.
This generally requires deceleration and gearing down followed by
acceleration and gearing up once the corner is passed. This adds to the wear
and tear on a truck and perhaps more importantly reduces the cycle time for the
haul, thereby lowering productivity.
The fastest speed at which a truck can navigate a corner with safety depends
on many things, including the traction available from the road surface and the
superelevation of the road.
Generally drivers are also less comfortable with
tight bends and high superelevation. There is also an increased likelihood of a
driver losing control of a truck in wet conditions if the bend or superelevation is
too tight.
The superelevation or banking of a road at a curve allows the use of higher
speed. In theory a truck approaching a correctly designed superelevated curve
at the correct design speed can maintain the same speed throughout the curve,
with safety, even in poor traction conditions.
On ascending grades, and in slippery areas however superelevation will need to
be reduced; otherwise slow moving vehicles may slide crossways down the
superelevation. For this reason a superelevated curve needs to be designed to
suit both the radius of the curve as well as the range of vehicle speeds using
the curve. Refer to section 3.8 and Table 1.
Accordingly at KPC curves should be constructed to the maximum radius
permissible under the conditions and at an appropriate superelevation. Refer
to section 3.8 and Table 2
2.6
In general terms all haul routes should be planned in order to minimise the truck
haul road cycle time.
Generally this will be where the shortest possible distance between the pit and
the dumping location, and return, can be used. This however is not always
possible and may in some instances result in a slightly longer distance being
traveled in order to avoid or minimise the impact of a particular incline.
2-5
2.7
Engineering Input
If in doubt about any aspect of haul road design or construction during and
following the planning stage of the road, an engineers assistance should be
sought to help in surveying, determining grades, constructing profiles, and
solving drainage problems. When the final layout of the road is selected, soil
samples may need to be obtained to determine road base conditions. Field
work should also include investigation of existing availability of materials for
sub-base and surface construction. Whenever possible, suitable local materials
should be used.
2.8
In summary the following steps are necessary in the design of a haul road:
1.
2.
3.
4.
2-6
3.
ROAD GEOMETRY
3.1
Introduction
Haul road geometry and layout depends largely on pit life, terrain, nature of
resource, pit depth, the length of time the road will be used, and the
economic limits of the haul road excavation. These factors most often
determine the characteristics of mine haul roads. Haul roads should
conform to good engineering practices within economic limitations and
should have the following characteristics:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
3-7
Although some tested vehicles were able to exceed this limitation and still
execute a safe, controlled stop, statistics indicate that a 61 metres restriction
permits a reasonable margin of safety. Each stopping-distance graph
illustrates this 61 metres maximum braking distance as a near vertical line
increasing with velocity. Increases of distance for speed reflect distance
consumed by driver perception and reaction time. Inclusion of this stoppingdistance restriction completes the stopping-distance graphs.
Using these graphs the maximum operating speed and descent grade can
be found for a known truck weight category by reading vertically along the
maximum permissible stopping-distance limitation line. At grade curve
intersections, read left to find velocity. An example is given on each of the
Figures 1 to 4.
Figures 1 through 4 have been based primarily on mathematical derivations.
They do not depict results of actual field tests, but are presented simply to
offer an indication of the speed and grade limitations that must be
considered in designing a haul road for a general truck size. Actual fieldtesting has proven that many haul trucks can and do exceed these
theoretical capabilities. This empirical data, however, does not encompass a
wide range of speed, weight and grade situations.
While haul truck manufacturers may equip their products with brake systems
that meet or exceed these criteria, there is no indication of how brake
performance may vary with changes in service, grade, road surface, or initial
speed. However, the stopping-distance limitations set forth provide the basic
data from which performance under different conditions may be deduced.
Before detail road layout begins, it is recommended that manufacturers of
the trucks that will ultimately use the road should be contacted to verify the
service brake performance capabilities of their products. In all cases,
verification should reflect the capabilities of wheel brake components without
the assistance of dynamic or hydraulic retardation. In the absence of such
information Figures 1 to 4 need to be used.
It is recommended that at KPC, in the absence of other more specific braking
information, stopping distance determinations for both in-pit and main haul
roads will be based on Figures 1 to 4 of this manual.
Table 1 sets out details of the loaded and unloaded weights of the main
trucks in the current KPC truck fleet. Generally for all considerations the
loaded truck weight of the largest vehicle the CAT 789 should be used. In
some cases though there may be a justification to adopt a lower standard for
where smaller trucks only will use a road or where unloaded trucks only are
expected to travel:
3-8
Figures 1& 2
3-9
3-10
Loaded Weight
kg
318,000
250,000
161,000
?
?
Unloaded Weight
Kg
122,000
97,000
65,000
?
?
Sight Distance
Vertical Alignment
3-11
3-12
3.5
Vertical Curves
Vertical curves are used to provide smooth transitions from one grade to
another. Their lengths should be adequate to drive comfortably and provide
ample sight distances at the design speed. Generally, vertical curve lengths
greater than the minimum are desirable, and result in longer sight distance
and hence improved safety. However, excessive lengths can result in long
relatively flat sections, a feature that discourages good drainage and
frequently leads to "soft spots" and potholes. The absolute minimum length
of vertical curves should not be less than 30 meters.
3-13
Figure 6
3-14
3-15
Figures 7& 8
3-16
Figures 9 & 10
3-17
Figure 11& 12
3-18
Figure 13 & 14
3-19
Figure 15
3-20
Figure 16
3-21
3.7
Horizontal Alignment
Superelevation
V2
e+ f =
125 R
Where:
And
e
f
v
R
=
=
=
=
There are practical limits to the rate of superelevation; these being governed
by weather conditions, the speed of slowly moving vehicles and the higher
wheel loads carried by the inner wheels of the vehicle not travelling at the
design speed.
Extensive testing has been conducted by several authorities in an attempt to
quantify the friction factor that should be adopted. Generally this factor
ranges from 0.1 to 0.32. Depending on the speed, the friction factor also
increases as the speed decreases.
3-22
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
50m
0.06
0.10
--
--
--
--
--
--
75m
0.04
0.07
0.09
--
--
--
--
--
100m
0.03
0.05
0.07
0.10
--
--
--
--
200m**
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.08
0.10
--
300m
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.07
0.08
400m
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.03
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.06
This table serves two purposes. It indicates superelevation rates, and recommends
proper curve and speed relationship. For example, a vehicle travelling at 35km per hour
approaching a 100m curve superelevated at 0.03 should be advised to slow to 20km
per hour.
** At KPC the recommended minimum bend for a main haul road is 200m.
3-23
Development of Superelevation
The portion of a haul road used to transform a cross slope section into a
superelevated section is considered the runout length. The generally slower
speeds at mining sites make the positioning of the runout less critical. The
prupose of the runout however remains the same in that it assists a driver in
the manoeuvring of a vehicle through a curve. For design criteria for this
shall be that one-third of the runout length shall be in the curve and twothirds on the tangent.
Runout lengths vary with the design speed and the total cross slope change.
Recommended rates of cross slope change are shown in Table 3.
Table 3 Variation in Superelevation on Run-Out Lengths
Speed of Truck V
(kph)
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
Cross Slope
Change
(m/m/10m length)
0.025
0.025
0.025
0.021
0.018
0.016
0.014
0.013
0.011
3-24
Example :
To illustrate the use of this table assume a vehicle is travelling at 30 km per
hour with normal cross slope of 0.04 m/m to the left. It encounters a curve to
the right necessitating a superelevation rate of 0.06 m/m to the right. The
total cross-slope change for 30 km/hour is 0.021 m/m per 10 metres.
Thus total run out
V(1)
V(1)
One third of this length should be placed in the curve and two thirds on the
tangent. Refer Figure 17.
Accordingly it is recommended that at KPC superelevated curves be
constructed with an appropriately designed transition into the curve.
3.10
3-25
Avoid sharp horizontal curves near the bottom of hills or after a long
sustained down grade. Trucks are normally at their highest speed at
these locations.
3-26
Figure 18
3-27
3.12
In order that specific haul road designs produced for varying haul conditions
can be categorized, two (2) different classes have been nominated for KPC.
These are : Main - The permanent main haul roads linking pits and the ROM area.
Also some of the longer term main pit ramps or dump roads.
This will
generally be the more permanent haul road network.
In-pit - The secondary or in-pit haul roads that are used either infrequently
or over a shorter period of time. These roads tend to be more temporary
and are then abandoned or dumped out. The life usage of such roads is
less and does not warrant the extra cost or effort to build them to a higher
standard.
Note:
1. These are only general classifications and before a particular class is
nominated for a new haul road a simple cost benefit analysis should be
applied to see which class provides the most suitable and cost effective
solution.
2. Variations to the above classes are always possible dependent on the
particular need.
At KPC it is recommended that an in-pit road shall be a high volume pit or
dump road that will be required for up to six months; or a low volume in pit or
dump road required for up to twelve months.
A main road shall be high volume pit, dump, or ex pit road that will remain in
place for in excess of six months; or a low volume pit, dump or ex pit road that
will remain in place for over twelve months.
3.13
Pavement Widths
The haul road designer must be very concerned about the road width.
Sufficient room for maneuvering must be allowed at all times to promote
safety and maintain continuity in the haulage cycle. Unlike passenger and
commercial vehicles which have somewhat "standarized" dimensions, truck
sizes vary considerably. Thus requirements have to be defined for particular
3-28
sizes rather than for general types. Complicating the problem is the need to
specify additional widening for curves. Refer Section 3.10
Because of the large number of influencing variables, the following
guidelines for determining width are separated into individual categories.
Recommendations presented are values for the size of traveled lane to be
provided and do not take into consideration the additional dimensions
necessary for subbase outslopes, drainage facilities berms, etc. These
items are discussed separately, and their dimensions must be added to
those of the lane to determine the total roadway widths.
Width criteria for the traveled lane of a straight haul road segment should be
based on the widest vehicle in use. Designing for anything less than this
dimension will create a safety hazard due to lack of proper clearance. In
addition narrow lanes often create an uncomfortable driving environment,
resulting in slower traffic, and thereby impeding production.
Rules of thumb for determining haul road lane dimensions vary considerably
from one reference source to another. Many of the guidelines specify a
constant width to be added to the width of the haul vehicle. This method is
sufficient for smaller vehicles, but it is not advisable for computing lane
widths to accommodate larger trucks. To compensate for the increase in
perception distance created by greater vehicle width, the space allocated for
side clearance should vary with vehicle size.
A practical guideline for establishing the vehicle to lane width ratio is
contained in the AASHO Manual for Rural Highway Design. The AASHO
Manual recommends that each lane of travel should provide clearance, left
and right of the widest vehicle in use, that is equivalent to one half the
vehicle width. Adding credence to this recommendation is the fact that a
number of large surface mines base their haul road widths on this criterion.
By incorporating this guideline, both safety and efficiency will be enhanced.
Currently at KPC with the CAT 789 as the widest truck it is recommended
that a minimum single lane width of 15.5m is adopted and a minimum double
lane width of 27.0m is adopted.
Table 4 and Figure 19 illustrate the recommended minimum widths that
should be provided for various lane configurations.
3-29
3-30
Truck Width
W (m)
CAT789
CAT785
CAT777
Volvo
Ginaf
7.7
6.7
5.1
Recommended
Single Lane
Width 2W (m)
15.4
13.4
10.2
Recommended
Two Lane Width
3.5W (m)
27.0
23.5
17.9
Note:
Pavement widths must be increased on sharp curves, on
embankments, in cuttings, and where other special consideration must be
given to accommodate larger occasional vehicle, broken down vehicles and
safety requirements.
3.14
3-31
Cross slope - the difference in elevation between the crest and the road
edge, must be given consideration during haul road design and construction.
From the standpoint of reducing a driver'
s steering effort, a level surface
would be most beneficial. Adequate drainage, however, requires that a
cross slope be created. To accommodate both drainage and steerability, a
balance must be established between a slope that will allow a effective
removal of surface water without adversely affecting vehicle control.
Both the theoretical and practical aspects of initiating a constant drop across
the breadth of roadways have been fully studied and documented. Although
the majority of this work has been conducted in relation to urban and rural
highway design, the criteria developed are equally applicable to surface mine
haul roads. In nearly every published reference, the recommended rate of
cross slope for surfaces normally constructed on mine haul road is 1% to
4%. (See Figure 20).
Mine operators should consider 1% to 4% as the limiting criteria for design.
Special consideration must be given to determining when to use the
maximum and minimum rates since the applicability of each depends on
surface texture.
Cross slopes of 2% are applicable to relatively smooth road surfaces that
can rapidly dissipate surface water. In most cases, minimum slope is best
suited to surfaces such as asphaltic concrete. However, there are conditions
which warrant the use of the 2% minimum criteria for surfaces of lesser
quality. When mud is a constant problem, excessive cross sloping can
cause vehicles to slide. This possibility is especially pronounced at slow
operating speeds on grades of more that 5%. Therefore, where a mud
problem cannot be feasibly eliminated, cross slopes should be limited to the
minimum value. Road maintenance should insure that the road surface is
kept smooth and drains properly.
In situations where the surface is relatively rough or where mud is not a
problem, a 3 to 4% cross slope is advisable. The greater inclination permits
more rapid drainage and reduces the occurrence of puddles and a saturated
sub-base, which can weaken road stability. On well constructed gravel and
crushed rock roads, the 2% criteria is preferable.
Of equal importance to degree of slope is the direction it should take in
relation to various road configurations. Since the placement of high and low
lane edges determine slope direction, it is necessary to define the
circumstances under which the left edge should be higher that the right or
vice versa. In the case of multiple lane construction, both sides of the final
pavement may be equal, with a high point or "crown" at one of the
intermediate lane edges.
3-32
3-33
3-34
4.
4.1
Subbase
A well drained stable road base is one of the most important fundamentals of
road design. Placement of a road surface over any material that cannot
adequately support the weight of traffic will severely hamper vehicle mobility
and control. Moreover, lack of a sufficiently rigid bearing material beneath the
road surface will result in excessive rutting, sinking, and overall deterioration of
the road surface. Thus, a great deal of maintenance will be necessary in order
to keep the road serviceable.
A pit may elect to forego the use of subbase materials and accept infringements
on mobility in the interest of economics. In other words, it may be less
expensive to allow some segments of the road to hamper, but do not prohibit,
vehicle movement, rather than incur the cost of constructing a good road base.
Although this may appear economical at the onset of road construction, the
eventual results will nearly always be undesirable.
If the road surface is not constantly maintained, rutting will occur and create
sections where vehicles must slow down to negotiate adverse conditions. Over
a period of time this will represent a considerable time loss to the production
cycle. More importantly, these adverse conditions pose a serious threat to
vehicle control and will create an unsafe haul road. Therefore, it is important
that stability of the haul road be guaranteed throughout its length.
In areas where the road surface is underlain by natural bedded stone
formations, it is sufficient to place only the desired road surface material directly
on the bedded stone. However, the bearing capacity of other subsurface
materials, or areas of fill, must be defined to determine if they can adequately
support the weight of vehicles intended to be used.
4.2
4-35
stable base; therefore, the designer must determine the amount of additional
material that should be placed over the subgrade to adequately support the
road surface.
Table 5 Presumptive Bearing Capacity Of Soils
(NB: Use with caution when specific test information is not available)
MATERIAL
Kpa
5,700
3,800
1,150
960
765
575
480
380
290
190
140
95
Soil Type
Subgrade material
Poorly drained (saturated) but well compacted siltstone and sandstone
Well drained, well compacted siltstone or silty sandstone fill
Well drained, well compacted sandstone fill
Surfacing material
Hard burnt red mudstone with mainly gravel size fragments (2mm to
60mm) and between 10% & 30% of silt and clay (minus 75 micron)
Hard burnt red mudstone in a distribution from coble size to a matrix
comprising sand and between 10% & 20% of minus 75 micron
Hard burnt red mudstone in a distribution from coble size to a matrix
comprising sand and between 5% & 10% of minus 75 micron
CBR
7
15
20
15
30
60
4-36
DESCRIPTION OF SUBGRADE
Extremely poor subgrade. Worst basaltic clay areas.
Old water courses. Loose or saturated sands. Heavy
clay with Plasticity Index 60 or over. Silt (unless very
highly compacted.).
Heavy clay with Plasticity Index of 50.
PROBABLE CBR
2
2.5
4.5
12 15
CBR Curves
One of the most widely used methods of making this determination is through
the use of curves commonly referred to as CBR (California Bearing Ratio)
curves. This system, although developed in 1942, continues to be used by
highway designers for evaluating subbase thickness requirements in relation to
subgrade characteristics. To be completely accurate, it necessitates CBR tests
to precisely determine the bearing capabilities of both subgrade and subbase
materials. These tests can be conducted by a soil-testing laboratory at
4-37
4-38
Figure 21
4-39
Step A. The 18 200 kg wheel-load curve intersects the vertical line for a CBR
of 5 at 700 mm. This means that the final road surface must be at least this
distance above the subgrade.
Step B.
A clean sand CBR of 15 intersects the 18 200 kg curve at 350 mm,
indicating that the top of this material must be kept 350mm below road surface.
Step C.
An intersection of the 80 CBR for gravel and the 18 200 kg wheel
load occurs at 150 mm. Since this will constitute the final surface material, it
should be placed for the remaining 150mm. Completed subbase construction
for this example is detailed by Figure 22.
Following the determination of subbase depth requirements, proper placement
procedures must be implemented. Regardless of material used, or depth, the
subbase should be compacted in layers never exceeding 200 mm. To ensure
stability of the final surface, subbase materials should exceed the final desired
surface width by a minimum of 600 mm and must always be compacted whilst
at its optimum moisture content (i.e. moist, never wet or dry). Proper
compaction equipment usually consists of heavy impact rollers. Each layer
must be subjected to repeated passes of the compacting equipment until it fails
to compress under the weight of the vehicle.
4.6
Surface Materials
Earth Roads
Earth Roads, unless thoroughly compacted and stabilized, may cause both
vehicle and road maintenance difficulties. Dust problems are frequent during
dry season and, if not controlled, the dust can contaminate air filtration
components, brakes, and other moving parts, making frequent replacement of
these items necessary. Moreover, dust represents a major safety hazard to the
vehicle operator in that it can become so dense that visibility is severely
reduced. Eliminating the dust problem requires continual wetting of the surface,
which represents yet another maintenance cost.
Mine Planning Department
4-40
Figure 22
4-41
4-42
SURFACE TYPE
ROAD
COEFFICIENT
(APPROX.)
ROLLING
RESISTANCE
KG/TON
GROSS VEHICLE
WEIGHT (APPROX)
0.8
0.7
15 to 20
30
0.6
45
0.5
0.4
80
100 to 160
Because of the relatively high cost of asphaltic concrete surfaces, a pit must
determine if the benefits of increased speed and reduced road maintenance will
offset the investment. In most cases, the determining factors will be the length
of haul and the required life of roadway. If the roadway life is relatively short, an
asphaltic surface will be difficult to justify. If, on the other hand, the haul road is
to be considerably long and in service for a number of years, the placement of
asphaltic concrete may become feasible.
4.10
The majority of mines presently utilize gravel and crushed rock surface haul
roads. When constructed and maintained properly, both materials offer a stable
roadway that resists deformation and provides a relatively high coefficient of
road adhesion with low rolling resistance. The greatest advantage of gravel and
crushed rock surfaces is that safe and efficient roadways can be constructed
rapidly at a relatively low cost.
In some cases, the base and wearing surface may consist of the same type of
materials. For example, a fine crushed rock wearing surface may often overlay
a coarser crushed rock base. While base materials may consist of particles as
great as 100 mm in size, the surface however must be much more refined.
The following specification in Table 9 present an example of a F.C.R. wearing
surface that has proven suitable on mine haul roads. Any crushed rock or
4-43
gravel that meets or exceeds the specifications presented in the illustration will
qualify as an adequate surface material.
Table 9 Typical Grading For A Fine Crushed Rock Surface Material
SCREEN SIZE (MM)
37.5
25
98
19
92
9.5
82
4.75
65
2.36
53
425 um
33
75 um
16
Liquid Limit
25.2
Plasticity Limit
15.8
10.0
12.2%
The percentage of fines in the gravel will effect surface stability in very wet or
hot, dry weather. Therefore, roads that are subject to very wet weather should
not have more than 10% fines to prevent muddy, sloppy conditions. Those
subject to hot, dry weather should not have less than 5% fines in order to
prevent drying and loosening.
After a haul road is constructed using gravel or crushed rock materials of this
type, frequent road maintenance is required. Most of this maintenance will
consist of periodic grading to remove small ruts and potholes that will inevitably
be created by passing traffic. The exact maintenance schedule required will
depend greatly on traffic, and it must be developed to accommodate conditions
at each individual location. In some cases, traffic may be heavy enough to
realize benefits from a continuous maintenance schedule. Refer Section 8.
In most quarrying operations, it is recommended that both gravel and crushed
rock are readily available from stockpiles of finished products. It is often difficult
to derive an exact construction cost for haul road pavements. The expense of
constructing a gravel or crushed rock roadway will always be considerably less
than that of asphaltic concrete.
4-44
4.11
As KPC have their own self propelled compactors and vibrating rollers, precise
compaction of the various road pavement layers is possible. Although is not
essential it is highly desirable that some form of compaction equipment be
used, to ensure that high quality roads are constructed. At least 4 passes of a
sheepsfoot roller is required on clayey materials found in the area. However the
vibrating flat roller is more suitable for general earthworks and for locally
imported crushed rock.
Four to six passes are usually sufficient to compact these materials if wetted to
their optimum moisture content (OMC) or slightly wetter. If the material should
move under the weight of the roller, allow the material to dry out by turning it
over with a grader, and then apply the roller once again. If a proper subbase
and base are established prior to placing top material, the depth of surface
material need not exceed 150mm. To achieve a uniform layer, placement
should be accomplished with a grader or an equivalent piece of equipment.
Following placement, the material must be thoroughly compacted. It is
recommended that either rubber-tyred or steel rollers be used for compaction.
Heavy rubber-tyred vehicles can also be employed when rollers are not
available. However, rubber-tyred vehicles must be run repetitively to cover the
entire road width, and compaction will not be quite as good.
4.12
Stabilized earth is defined herein as any soil that, through special procedures or
additives, has been transformed from a naturally unconsolidated state to a
degree of stability that will accommodate the weight of haul trucks. Achieving
this level of stabilization involves incorporating soil binders such as cement,
asphalt, calcium chloride, lignosulfates, or hydrated lime.
Although these materials will not create an adequate haul road surface, they
can significantly reduce the quantity of base material required. In fact, often the
various soil binders can be mixed directly with subgrade soils to create a
platform for the road surface, making the construction of a subbase
unnecessary. At other times soil binders will reduce the amount of subbase or
base material required. The potential of a specific binder to reduce or make
unnecessary subbase or base material depends on the inherent strength of the
material with which it is to be incorporated and the weight of vehicles that will
use the haul road. Final determinations of feasibility must be made by a
qualified soils engineer who has evaluated the effects a binder will have on the
subgrade or base material at a particular haul road location. The application of
various additives can be discussed in general terms, however.
Asphalt impregnation and soil cementing, by virtue of their somewhat higher
costs, should be utilized primarily for permanent haul roads. On occasion, they
may prove beneficial in areas where the subgrade is extremely weak and would
require large quantities of off-site subbase for stabilization. In these instances,
4-45
the addition of asphalt and portland cement to small quantities of fill material
can create a stable base.
Calcium chloride, lignosulfates, and hydrated lime are more economical than
asphalt impregnation and soil cement, but are not nearly as effective. These
substances are best employed to supplement crushed stone or gravel bases to
increase their mechanical stability. Although the construction of any haul road
will benefit from the use of these additives, they are most applicable for road
segments that are subject to constant relocation.
4.13
Refer Figure 23
4-46
Figure 23
4-47
5. DRAINAGE
5.1 Catch Drain
Catch drains or cut-off drains are located at the top of cut slope behind the top
of the batter. Their purpose is to intercept the flow of surface water and
seepage water within the upper soil layer and to prevent scouring of the cut
slope face. Figure 24 shows the required shape and position of catch drains
with respect to the batter crest.
Care should be taken to ensure that provision of a catch drain in certain soil
types does not initiate a scour problem.
The recommended treatment of catch drains is grassing for longitudinal drain
slopes less than 10% and rock lining for longitudinal drain slope above 10%.
5.1.1. Catch Drain Type A is to be used whenever possible, particularly in
erodable country. The flat and level bottom is adopted to keep flow velocities to
a minimum. For longitudinal slopes less than 10% a flow depth of 200mm
maximum is permitted and for slopes above 10%, a flow depth of 100mm
maximum is permitted. The limiting depths of flow are required to keep the
velocity to a non-scour value. The width of the drain is chosen to suit the
natural side slope and the required drain capacity. When the drain reaches the
design depth for its particular width, the flow must be diverted to a cross culvert
or drainage channel.
5.1.2. Catch Drain Type B may be adopted where the flow is small, the
longitudinal slope of the drain less than 10%, the area is constricted in width
and the in-situ material is impermeable and not prone to scour.
5.1.3. Catch Drain Type C may be used in conditions similar to Type B. This is
generally used on roads where heavy vegetation at the top of the batter
necessitates minimum disturbances.
5.2 Drainage Provisions
Soil erosion by water is a common problem that can plague the operation of
safe and workable haulage roads. Erosive action on haulage roads can cause
ruts and washouts, and can saturate the soil, causing instability. The proper
use of drainage facilities can alleviate this problem, resulting in safer, more
efficient haulage roads.
5.3 Subsoil Drains
The function of subsoil drains is to drain the pavement or to lower the water
table in the vicinity of the pavement. These drains are only used in special
circumstances where ground water is a problem.
5-48
Figure 24
5-49
5-50
Figure 25
5-51
Figure 26
5-52
2. The outside table drain slope will vary with the material encountered. In rock
it may approach a vertical slope; in less consolidated material, a 2:1 slope or
flatter.
3. Where practical, the table drain should be located in undisturbed earth or
rock; avoid placing ditches through fill areas.
4. In a cut-fill section, slope the haul road toward the high wall. Carry drainage
in a single table drain.
5.8 Table Drain Capacity and Protection
Table drains must be designed to adequately handle expected runoff flows
under various slope conditions. The primary consideration is amount of water
that will be intercepted by the table drain during a rainstorm. Various methods
to determine runoff flows are described in a separate document known as the
KPC Rainfall and Runoff Manual.
After runoff flows are calculated, ditch design become a function of percent of
grade, V-configuration (4:1, 2:1, etc.), and the depth of flow. In the V-table
drain, as well as other configurations, depth of flow depends on percent of
grade and the texture of material lining the table drain. Loose and porous
linings and low percentage grades reduce flow rates and increase depth;
smooth, impervious linings and steeper grades create the opposite effect. To
alleviate excessive erosion that may result from high flow velocities, certain
table drain lining materials must be incorporated as the grade increases, except
when the table drain is in non erodable material. Some general rules to be
followed for various grades in erodable soils are designed below. Please note
that these are general rules and are by no means recommended to supersede
the guidelines provided in the KPC Rainfall and Runoff Manual.
1. At up to 3% grade, the drain may be constructed without benefit of a liner
except in extremely erodable material such as sand, or easily weathered
shales and silts.
2. At a 3% to 5% grade, the drain should be seeded and protected with jute
matting until a substantial grass lining can be established.
3. At grades over 5%, the lining should consist of dumped rock placed evenly
on both sides to a height no less than 150mm above the computed
maximum depth.
5.9 Estimation of Peak Flowrate
When utilizing the KPC Rainfall and Runoff Manual to develop peak flow rates,
the 10-year, recurrence interval should generally be used. The rainfall intensity
generated by a 10-year storm is recognized as the applicable standard for road
drainage design. Moreover, the volumes of water associated with this type of
storm are well in excess of normal runoff conditions and necessitate the design
of drainage facilities capable of handling extreme, rather that mean, rainfalls.
5-53
The above return period may be varied to best suit economic considerations of
each particular case. Quite often it can be more economical (with small
catchment areas) to allow the haul road to be over topped for short periods
rather than install large expensive culverts. The 10-year, recurrence interval
storm could thus be too conservative and this could be reduced to the point
where delays and damage due to over topping become economically
unjustifiable because of lost production time and/or vehicle and road damage.
In the event that a table drain grade must be altered to accommodate changes
in topography, the depth of the table drain must be changed accordingly.
Whether an increase or decrease in grade occurs, new volumes should be
computed based on the flow in the preceding table drain segment and the
volume of water generated by the contributing area contiguous to the new
grade.
By consulting table 10, the appropriate table drain depth needed to
accommodate a specific volume of water may be derived. After determining the
slope and finding the waterflow (in cubic metres per second), consult the
corresponding table drain configuration table where the cubic metres per
second is found. At the extreme left of this line will be the depth necessary to
accommodate the flow for that table drain configuration.
In some cases, additional depth may be required. In all cases where a subbase
must be placed, the depth of the flow must not exceed the lower level of the
subbase material. In cases where a freeboard is required, the depth of any
table drain shall exceed the centerline depth of flow by a minimum of 150mm.
Where placement of a table drain lining material is recommended, it shall also
be increased 150mm on each side.
Table 10 CAPACITY OF V-DRAINS (m3/sec)
(For typical soils at KPC)
Slope (%)
Geofabric Protection *
Rock Protection **
Dept
h
(m)
0.5
10
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
0.18
0.39
0.72
1.17
1.76
1.97
2.70
0.20
0.43
0.79
1.29
1.95
2.79
3.82
0.28
0.62
1.12
1.83
2.76
2.45
3.36
0.35
0.76
1.38
1.39
2.10
3.00
4.12
0.40
0.87
0.99
1.61
2.43
3.47
4.75
0.45
0.61
1.10
1.80
2.72
0.49
0.66
1.21
1.97
0.53
0.72
1.31
2.13
0.35
0.77
1.40
0.37
0.81
1.48
0.40
0.86
5-54
It is important to note that the table drain should be kept at all times of debris or
any material that would alter design capacity.
5.10 Culverts
Culvert sections are the most efficient and effective means of conveying freeflowing drainage away from the haulage road, and must be incorporated to
alleviate the potential of water overflows onto haul road segment. Any
accumulation of water on the haul road can seriously impede vehicular control
and promote road degradation.
To achieve the most efficient drainage scheme, the designer must consider
culvert location, sizing, placement, and inlet/outlet controls. Numerous factors
affect each of these design considerations. Therefore, each parameter is
discussed as a separate category below.
5.11 Culvert Location
1. Culverts should be located at all road drainage low points unless natural
water courses are present.
2. A culvert should be installed at all road intersections and prior to switchback
curves on the upgrade beginning of curvature.
3. Whenever a haulage road segment requires a transition from a through-cut
to a cut-fill, a culvert should be installed to intercept drainage prior to spilling
over an outslope.
4. Culverts should be placed in natural watercourses intersected by haul road.
5. In cut-fill sections, culverts may be placed at various intervals along the
drain to intercept drainage and convey it to natural drains below the fill
slope. This procedure can significantly reduce the size of drain required by
breaking runoff areas into small segments.
The following culvert spacing is recommended:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5-55
5-56
Figure 27
5-57
Slope of Embankment
(%)
Under 10
Over 10
All slopes
All slopes
Treatment Recomended
Establish vegetation
Riprap
Riprap
Energy dissipator
5-58
Figure 28
5-59
5-60
Figure 29
5-61
ADVISORY SIGNS
6.1
Introduction
Each haul road exhibits its own peculiarities and may require more or less
signage. In any case, proper care must be taken to ensure that all signs
installed are at a height and location that is within the eyesight of all drivers
operating all vehicles likely to be traveling on a given road. Even vehicles with
the most restricted visibility.
6.2
Speed limit signs should be posted on segments of the haul road alignment that
require slower than normal rates of travel to safely negotiate a hazardous
condition. Some of the more advantageous locations for posting speed limit
reductions include road segments that precede:
The commencement of a long descending haul road or pit ramp,
Changes in descending haul road grades.
Entrances to congested areas, such as pit, the ROM, maintenance areas,
overburden dumping points, vehicle crossings, fuel station, etc.;
Unusual road alignments, such as severe vertical and horizontal curves,
narrow lanes, and areas of restricted sight distance; and
Areas subject to material spills or other frequent obstructions.
6.3
Stop Signs
These signs can provide a driver with a warning of upcoming situations where
he should exercise caution. These signs are best restricted to positions in
advance of the most critical curves and heavily traveled intersections.
6.5
5-62
6.6
Private Property, Keep Out, or other signs of this nature are required in all areas
where traffic restrictions may need to apply. Examples may be where light
vehicles are restricted, or at haul road and public road intersections to keep
passing motorists from inadvertently wandering into the active mining operation.
6.7
The location of all safety features such as centre bunding, roundabouts. etc.,
should be pictorially depicted well in advance of their position.
6.8
The location and erection of traffic control devices is covered by the Australian
Standard AS 1742, Manual of Uniform Traffic Control Devices. The basic
information included in this manual is intended as a guide in the absence of
such specific requirements.
Basic Requirements Certain basic considerations govern the siting of signs.
These are as follows :
The sign should be so placed that the driver has adequate time to perceive
and react to its message and to take the appropriate action required of him.
The sign should be located so that it is within the drivers normal cone of
vision as he approaches it. He should not have to turn his head to see the
message.
The sign should have a good initial target value and be so placed that the
background does not render it inconspicuous.
The sign should normally be placed on the left side of the road or in special
circumstances overhead or on channelised islands.
To reduce undesirable direct reflection at night all signs should be rotated
away from the direction of travel by about 5 degrees.
6.9
The nearest edge of a sign should be 1m clear of the road shoulder, but should
be not less than 2 m nor more than 4 m from the edge of the outer traffic lane.
6.10
(a) Regulatory Signs : Many regulatory signs mark the point at which a specific
regulation commences, such as STOP, GIVE WAY, KEEP LEFT, NO LEFT
(RIGHT), TURN which are located at the point where the specific action is
required. The longitudinal position of these signs is fixed.
(b) Warning Sings :
The longitudinal placement of a warning sign is
determined by the letter size, the length of legend, the approach speed of
traffic, and the distance the motorist requires to observe and react to the
5-63
message.
On the mine site warning signs should be located approximately
75m in advance of a hazard (not less than 50 m or more than 100 m).
(c) Guide Signs : The longitudinal placement of guide signs depends on the
exact nature of the sign (i.e. advance direction sign, supplementary or
reassurance direction sign, advance information sign, etc.). For more precise
details see AS 1742, Part 1 Australian Standard Manual of Uniform Traffic
Control Devices.
(d) Temporary Signs : Advance signs and other devices to convey a warning in
advance of a hazard should be located approximately 75m in advance of a
hazardous situation. These distances may be increased to up to 200m where
the location of the work area is changing more or less continually. Such a
situation may be when some road grading or resheeting work is being
undertaken.
6.11
Height of Signs
The mounting height of signs is, with the exception of those on well-lit roads, a
compromise between the height of the headlight beam and exposure of the sign
to road dirt. Thus the optimum mounting height to the underside of the sign is
between 1 and 1.5 m above the nearest edge of the road surface for light
vehicles.
For heavy vehicles it is suggested that the signs where possible the underside
of the sign be mounted at least 2.0 m above the nearest edge of the road
surface.
6.12
Maintenance of Signs
To enable road haulage traffic to rely on adequate signs and guide posts at
night, in fog, rain etc., the signs have to be regularly maintained. This includes :
washing down regularly so that dust and mud do not obscure the sign or
effect the reflective qualities required for night operation.
prompt replacement of damaged and ineffective signs and guide posts.
replacement or removal of old signs which are inappropriate or out of date.
To enable good maintenance of signs to occur a dedicated road maintenance
team or a specific person should be responsible for this work. Similarly a stock
of commonly used standard signs should be available from the store for fast
and efficient replacement of damaged signs.
It is important that signs be washed on a regular basis depending on the
condition of the signs. Obviously signs that are exposed to very dusty and wet
conditions, such as at KPC, will need more regular attention. At KPC it is
recommended that signs and guide posts are cleaned once every two months.
5-64
Signs should be washed with grease cutting detergent with a very soft pad or
brush so as not to scratch the reflective surface. It is essential that all traces of
the detergents and or other cleaning agents are thoroughly removed by flushing
with clean water.
6.13 Types of Guide Posts
Guide posts may be of timber, concrete, metal, or other material painted white
with red delineators fixed to face approaching traffic. White delineators will be
fixed to the opposite side of the post. Refer to Figure 30 for details of a typical
guidepost.
6.14 Dimensions of Guide Posts
(a) For Light Vehicle - In general, guide posts should not be too heavy nor set
too deeply in the ground. Posts 100 mm by 50 mm have been adopted as
a desirable standard with the 100 mm width facing oncoming traffic.
Guide posts are generally 900 mm high but shorter posts may be used on the
inside of curves if they obstruct visibility.
(b) For Mining Vehicles Similarly, guide posts for mining vehicles should be
made of a light durable material, for example timber or PVC tubing.
Because these guide posts or Haul Road Markers are considerably higher
than normal guide posts, they need to be set well into the ground.
The nominal dimensions are in the range from 1.5 m to 2.4 m depending on
their application. On heavily trafficked continually watered haul road systems
2.4 m high guide posts are required.
These posts are generally painted white and have a corner cube high visibility
reflector, located 300 mm from the top. It may also be beneficial to back up this
with additional reflectors or with strips of reflective tape running around the
diameter of the post in bands.
6.15 Alignment of Posts
Guide posts should be erected at or near the edge of formation. Wherever
practicable, the distance from the pavement edge should be uniform and, taking
into account super-elevation and irregularities in shoulder contour, they should
be set out so that the tops of the posts are on a smooth grade.
6.16 Spacing of Posts
(for light vehicles refer to NAASRA booklet Road Maintenance Practices)
Figure 30
Missing
5-65
5-66
INTERSECTIONS
7.1
General
Since the highest amount of potential traffic conflict occurs at intersections, the
design for a haul road and any intersections, should attempt to reduce the
potential hazard while at the same time maintaining an acceptable traffic flow.
Although junctions in a haul road system are unavoidable every effort should be
made to reduce their impact.
Haul road junctions or intersections have a
negative impact on a haulage operation as trucks are required to slow down
when approaching an intersection and depending on traffic may have to stop to
give way to another truck.
As with corners and other limiting features this
deceleration and gearing down adds time to the haul cycle and costs money
through increased truck wear and productivity losses.
Any haul road layout
should aim to minimise the number of junctions and certainly their impact on
main haul routes.
7.2
Location of Intersections
As one of the main results of an accident between vehicles is that one or more
of the vehicles may leave the road, intersections should desirably not be
located on high embankments, near culverts, streams, on small radius curves,
on steep grades or superelevated curves.
7.3
Intersection Visibility
Intersection Angles
Avoid situations which allow conflicting traffic streams to cross one another at
acute angles.
Such situations create long zones where a drivers turning
intentions may not be apparent to an opposing driver.
This situation can
quickly lead to a collision if the wrong guess is made. This situation is also of
a particular concern at KPC where we have both left and right hand drive
vehicles using the same roads.
7-67
T-intersections
The two most common types of intersections on roads are three legged (T-)
intersections and four legged (crossroad) intersections. The number of conflict
points for vehicles is lower for T-intersections, and these should be used
whenever possible.
A staggering to two T-intersections is preferable to a
single crossroad intersection from both the safety and traffic flow point of view.
Refer Figure 31.
7.6
Drivers have difficulty judging the extra stopping distance requied on grades.
Particularly with the variable road conditions encountered at a mine.
It is
recommended that in order for heavy vehicles to operate at reasonable speed
near an intersection, the intersection should not be located on grades steeper
than 3%. If it is impossible for all legs to be limited to 3% grade, the major or
right of way road could have a steeper gradient, as stopping will usually take
place on the minor road.
For a typical layout of a T-intersection and a crossroad intersection refer to
Figures 32 & 33
7-68
7-69
7-70
7-71
MAINTENANCE
8.1
Introduction
Surface deterioration of the haul road will inevitably occur over a period of time
and is caused in varying degrees by the following actions :
1) Wheel rutting
8-72
Figure 34
8-73
3) Heavy rain washing away the fines and hence unravelling the surface
texture
4) Heavy rain saturating the surface material and turning the material into a
mud layer
5) Heavy rain flooding of the pavement and causing soft spots and subgrade
failure
6) Damage by tracked equipment
8.3
Wheel Rutting
If heavy haul trucks continue to use the same path the concentration of load will
eventually create ruts of furrows. To prevent this condition, pits should
encourage drivers to use different areas of the haul road by using suitable
markers to indicate the part of the road to be trafficked. On new pavements the
selective placement of markers will ensure that the pavement can be
progressively trafficked over the entire formation width. The markers should be
moved over in between each shift so that the entire pavement surface is
progressively compacted by the haul trucks. If necessary the pavement surface
may be grader trimmed to keep the profile to its correct crossfall and shape.
Light watering with a water cart is also required during this operation.
8.4
Spillage
8-74
8.5
Grading
Grading is the most important operation in the maintenance of earth and gravel
roads. The basic purpose of grading is to keep the road well drained and to
maintain a satisfactory running surface.
The process of maintenance grading consists of bringing material in from the
sides or cutting down high sections of the surface and filling the low spots with
the surplus loose material. A simplified procedure is shown on Figure 35.
If the formation is dry the loose material may be dispersed by wind or traffic
before it can bond with the underlying surface, so that grading indirectly
contributes to the wearing down of the formation. On the other hand, if the
formation is damp the loose material graded into low spots may be compacted
by traffic to give a more uniform surface with little loss of material.
It is important to keep the road in a free draining condition, water held in
depressions softens the surface and the road shape quickly deteriorates under
traffic. On the approaches to curves the transition from normal to one-way
crossfall should be started at least 15 m beyond the tangent point. On steep
grades where heavy vehicles would travel slowly the super-elevation should not
exceed 8 percent. For curves on flat ground it is important that the superelevation be taken up at the outside of the curve rather than lowering the inside
and causing drainage problems.
8-75
Figure 35
8-76
When a haul road has become worn to a state where the surface has hollows,
potholes, and corrugations, it can sometimes be restored by loosening and
reshaping. The shoulders are normally built up at the same time. However, the
success of this process depends on the thickness of gravel remaining and the
quality of the subgrade material immediately beneath it. If mixing the gravel
with subgrade material would lead to serious deterioration of the gravel,
loosening and reshaping should not be attempted. In such cases, or if the
thickness of gravel is substantially less than 75 mm, the pavement has reached
the stage where fresh gravel must be brought in to increase the thickness to
approximately 150 mm after which loosening, mixing, and reshaping may be
undertaken. Assuming that there is sufficient thickness of gravel, or the mixture
Mining Services Department
8-77
of a small amount of subgrade material will not have a deleterious effect, the
material should be loosened across its full width and not less than 75 mm deep.
Gravel that has packed down and is very hard is not easy to rip with grader
tynes and a number of passes may be required to avoid leaving hard areas
between the groves which will produce an unsatisfactory riding surface.
Unless there is adequate moisture in the pavement for compaction water should
be added. Final shaping and compaction by rollers or haul trucks should follow
the scarifying and reshaping.
8.9
Tyning
8-78
Thickness of Surfacing
The compacted thickness of a gravel surface should generally not be less than
75 mm compacted, but to allow for the difficulties in accurate spreading a target
minimum of 100 mm is desirable. The compacted thickness of any layer should
not exceed 150 mm but if the pavement is to be compacted in two or more
layers the compacted thickness of any layer should not be less than 75mm.
8.13
Quality of Gravel
Each pit should normally specify the quality of gravel to be used on each type of
pavement, the specifications allowing for a range in grading and plasticity. The
type of gravel to be used in any particular work will depend not only upon what
is available locally but also upon various factors such as climate, the nature of
the formation material, the size of vehicles, and the volume of traffic to be
carried.
In arid areas the gravel should have a sufficiently high clay content to allow it to
compact into a hard mass that will resist corrugating and ravelling. In wetter
districts, such as at KPC, the plasticity should be lower so that the pavement
remains stable when it is wet. A high proportion of hard angular stone will give
a better mechanical interlock allowing the pavement to support heavy loading.
High speed, light vehicles are better served by a pavement composed of
relatively fine grained material which can be graded to a smooth true shape free
of loose stones that may break windscreens.
8.14
Gravel Sources
Spreading
8-79
Compaction
Compaction should commence when the full thickness of gravel has been
spread and shaped (up to a maximum compacted thickness of 150 mm)
because the compaction of successive thin layers seldom results in a sound
pavement.
Water may be incorporated by spraying the gravel in the pit before or during
loading but the usual method is by successive applications from a water cart as
the gravel is spread. In either case some working of the grader across the road
tends to produce a more even distribution of both water and gravel particles.
If the gravel contains an excessive number of large stones or pieces these may
be broken on the road by steel-wheeled, grid or cleated drum rollers, but
normally the coarser material would be graded off the formation during
spreading operations.
The compaction of substantial areas of gravel pavement should be carried out
with powered, steel-wheeled or pneumatic-tyred rollers or vibrating, steel drum
rollers. However, in some cases it may be necessary to rely on the grader and
haul traffic to ensure compation.
Compaction should continue until there are no signs of movement in the
pavement and there is a solid rather than a drummy sound when it is struck. If
movement and cracking persist with each pass of the roller, rolling must be
discontinued and the source of the trouble identified. Should the fault prove to
be the moisture content of the pavement material this must be corrected before
compaction proceeds. On the other hand, if the subgrade is unstable the
pavement material must be removed to allow the instability to be corrected.
This may involve drying out or replacement.
NB : 4 to 6 passes over the entire pavement width at optimum water content
is a general rule of thumb for most materials. However, rolling trials and
compaction tests should be carried out to determine the site specific conditions.
8.17
8-80
8.18
Table Drains
The function of a table drain is to collect water that has fallen on the
carriageway or the batters of a cutting and flowed to the edge of the formation.
Table drains are essential wherever the road is in cutting and often desirable
along the shoulders of embankments.
Because table drains are often built on very flat grades to suit the road grade,
they must either have a large cross-sectional area or be provided with frequent
discharge points where the water can escape. Depending upon the nature of
the material in which they are constructed and their longitudinal grade, table
drains may need to be lined with stone, concrete, or a bitumen seal to resist
scouring.
Table drains require frequent maintenance, such as grading of unlined drains to
remove silt and other debris that may easily block the flow, and to restore the
original shape. The lining of table drains needs checking at frequent intervals
so that any failed section may be repaired before extensive damage occurs.
Scours in table drains need prompt attention to prevent serious damage that
may lead to undermining of the drain lining, the carriageway, or the batters of
the cutting. Short term measures, such as placing loose rock, etc., in scours to
arrest their development may be necessary on occasion, but such action should
generally be discouraged because it can lead to even more serious damage
before final remedial measures can be effected. Whenever a table drain is
susceptible to scour it is usually necessary to line it with some type of durable
material.
8.19
Batter Drains
It sometimes happens that water from table drains must be discharged down
the embankment batters. There will also be occasions when it is necessary to
discharge water down a cutting batter to avoid overloading a catch drain above.
In such cases the slope of the invert of the drain down the batter is too steep to
allow the water to flow over most natural materials because the high velocity
induced would lead to serious scouring.
Batter drains are, therefore, generally lined with concrete, metal, or some other
hard material such as grouted rock. When the batter drain is on earth the
protective lining should be flexible enough to adjust to any settlement of the
filling or movement with weather conditions.
It is important that batter drains should be inspected frequently and immediate
steps taken to make good any undermining and repair any breaks in the lining.
The flow of water in batter drains should be observed during heavy rain to
assess their adequacy.
8-81
The purpose of a diversion drain is to convey water from a table drain, catch
drain, or side drain so that it can be disposed of by soakage or by spreading
over the natural surface where its velocity is small and the likelihood of damage
by erosion is reduced.
Special attention needs to be given to the junction of the diversion drain with the
side drain where both scouring and siltation can easily occur. Similar problems
may also arise at the extreme end of the diversion drain where it has virtually no
grade.
Periodic grading of diversion drains, preferably in conjunction with the side
drains, is the main maintenance attention required. If serious scouring
develops it might be better to construct a new diversion drain in a better location
rather than persevere with the old one, which should be effectively blocked off.
8.21
Catch Drains
Floodways and fords are used where construction of suitable waterways under
the roadway cannot be justified. Floodways and fords are intended to be
8-82
covered by water for only short periods and to remain trafficable for extended
periods. Quite often the floodway is supplemented by a relatively small culvert
under the higher approach with its invert below the pavement level of the
floodway so that the pavement over the floodway is dry when the cross flow is
low.
The pavement of the floodway consists of hard durable material that is stable
under traffic when it is wet. The pavement may be concrete, grouted stone,
stabilised gravel, or packed rubble. In some cases it may have a bitumen seal
or be sheeted in asphaltic concrete. The batters of floodways must be
composed of material that will resist erosion by flowing water. Sometimes a
concrete or similar head wall is provided to give edge support to the
carriageway. Maintenance of floodways and fords may be divided into three
types as follows:
(a) During Dry Weather : The pavement, batters, and supplementary culverts
require routine maintenance similar to that of a normal road. Warning signs
and depth indicators need special attention. The former because they warn of
a dip in the pavement during dry weather as well as indicating the possible
presence of water over the pavement in wet weather. The latter because they
must be easily read at a distance when there is water over the floodway.
(b) During Flooding : Regular inspection is necessary to ensure that the
floodway is safe for traffic, having regard to the fact that deep holes and
washed out batters may not be apparent to all drivers. Debris that may collect
on the floodway should removed and holes under the water filled with rock
pending permanent repair when the water has receded.
(c) After Flooding : High priority must given to the restoration of physical
damage so that the floodway is safe for traffic and is not further damaged by
subsequent floods. Debris should be cleared from the upstream channels
leading to the floodway and culvert, if any. Markers and signs should also
received attention.
Many dry water courses contain loose sand which may be deposited on the
floodway in sufficient thickness to prevent the passage of vehicles, or at least
create hazardous conditions for them. The removal of this loose material is
generally the most urgent restoration work after floods. In some cases it may
also be desirable to raise the pavement level of the floodway to inhibit the
further deposition of sand when the water course next carries water, providing
this did not cause damage upstream by afflux or lead to scour due to increased
velocity.
8.23
The two main purposes of subsoil drains are to lower the level of the water table
and to intercept or drain underground water trapped or held by impervious
material. To be effective subsoil drains need to be not less than 500 mm below
the subgrade level.
Mining Services Department
8-83
A shoulder drain is a special type of subsoil drain that is installed across the
shoulder of a road to drain water that may be trapped on an impervious
subgrade.
The commencing points and the outlets of the drains should be indicated by
distinctive reference pegs. Maintenance action for buried drains consists
primarily of inspection of outlets from time to time to ensure that water is
seeping from them. This should, of course, be done immediately after a period
of rain, but in some cases even after a dry season there will be some evidence
such as staining indicating that the drain is working.
Any growth or siltation at the outlet should be cleared and if vermin proof
screens of flaps are provided these should be repaired or replaced as required.
Damp areas or water seepage at any location above a subsoil drain should be
investigated because this will probably indicate a blockage of the drain.
Pavement failures due to softening of the subgrade in roads served by subsoil
drains generally indicate the need to construct a further transverse branch to
the main drain or to construct deeper subsoil drains.
8.24
Culverts
Culverts are key structures in any road drainage system and since they often
provide the only passage for surface water from one side of the road to the
other failure usually has serious consequences. Failure of the culvert may
cause damage to the road formation if it is overtopped by flood water or
damage to the culvert or formation by scour due to high velocity. Structural
failure of the culvert itself may occur because of settlement, overloading, or
corrosion.
There is usually ample physical warning of the likelihood of failure but the
detection of this involves close inspection of the inside of the culvert as well as
both the inlet and the outlet. Systematic inspection is most important followed
by appropriate remedial measures. Since many culverts are not apparent to an
observer moving along a road some sort of distinctive marking on guide posts
may assist in drawing the attention of maintenance crews to their presence.
Maintenance tasks include the constant clearing of debris and growth from the
channel, particularly after forest fires, or in seasons when trees shed their
leaves. In problem areas debris screens may be required. The accumulation of
silt or drift sand in the culvert barrel must also be removed periodically by
mechanical or hydraulic means.
Scour in the vicinity of culverts must be recognised in the early stages and
repaired promptly before the damage becomes extensive.
Corroded metal inverts, or any abraded inverts, should be built up with concrete
mortar. Open joints between precast segments should be repaired by grouting
or patching with mortar.
Mining Services Department
8-84
In new pipe culverts under high fills structural failure may become evident from
the distortion of the pipe; the vertical diameter of the pie decreases and the
horizontal diameter increases with cracks appearing in the barrel. Emergency
action consists of tomming the pipe to prevent complete failure pending
permanent remedial measures.
8.25
Bridges
All areas where loose material is employed to increase rolling resistance and
vehicle retardation (escape lanes, median berms) should be periodically
checked for loose consistency. If these areas become compacted, a bulldozer
equipped with scarifying equipment should be used to break the surface.
8.27
Traffic aids such as signs, signals, and pavement markings are provided on
roads to aid in the safe and convenient movement of mining and light vehicle
traffic. They may instruct the road user, warn of hazards not immediately
apparent, or indicate directions to destinations and points of interest.
The location and erection of traffic control devices is usually covered by the AS
1742 Manual of Uniform Traffic Control Devices. For more specific information
as it applies at KPC refer to Chapter 6 of this manual.
8.28
Conclusions
8-85
Frequency
2. Road Reconstruction
(a) Digging out soft spots & repairing potholes
As required
(b) Reforming road cross-sections and longitudinal During dry season prior to
profiles to remove ruts, bumps, adverse crossfalls, the wet and as required
etc.
(c) Culvert reconstruction, replacement or repair During dry season prior to
(see drainage section)
the wet, and as required
3. Drainage (including culvert works)
(a) Side drains, catch drains, etc. should be graded Monthly. Normaly done
and/or cleaned out regularly
on a backshift
(b) Deep gully drains and creek run-outs should be At least once a year prior
desilted with an excavator or front-end loader
to the wet season
(c) Culverts/Pipe Crossings :
(i)
Headwalls & structures should be regularly
checked for scouring or damage especially after 3 to 4 times per year
heavy rain
(ii)
Siltation and debris will block culverts and
hence should be removed as it occurs. If siltation is a Monthly check required.
major problem, silt traps will be required.
Frequency of checks to be
increased during wet
(iii)
Reconstruction & replacement of culverts will season.
be necessary if damaged or corroded culverts are
found. Poor installation can often lead to weak spots During dry season prior to
in the pavement after heavy rain.
wet and as required
8-86
8-87
Design
An In-pit road shall be a high volume pit or dump road that will be required
for up to six months; or a low volume pit or dump road required for up to
twelve months. Refer Section 2.3
A main road shall be high volume pit, dump, or ex-pit road that will remain
in place for in excess of six months; or a low volume pit, dump or ex pit road
that will remain in place for over twelve months. Refer Section 2.3
The design speed for trucks for in-pit roads will be 40 kph while the design
speed for trucks on main roads will be 60 kph. Refer Section 2.4
The sight distance for any vehicle using a roadway will be based on the
recommended design speed. This distance must always be equal to or
exceed the required vehicle stopping distance.
Refer Section 3.2 and
Figures 1 to 4.
9-88
Avoid sharp horizontal curves near the bottom of hills or after a long
sustained down grade. Trucks are normally at their highest speed at
these locations. Refer Section 3.11.
With the CAT 789 currently the widest truck on site it is recommended
that a minimum single lane width of 15.5m is adopted and a minimum
double lane width of 27.0m is adopted. Refer Section 3.13.
The recommended cross slope for all KPC haul roads is 3% to 4%.
Refer Section 3.15.
A well drained stable road base is one of the most important fundamentals
of a road. A road that is not free draining and holds water, however slight,
is unacceptable. Refer Section 4.1.
The percentage of fines in a red mudstone gravel surface material will effect
surface stability in the wet conditions at KPC. For red mudstone as a
pavement surfacing material it should not have more than 10% fines. Refer
Section 4.10.
Stop signs are required where any secondary access road intersects with a
main haul road or at intersections where sight distance is less than vehicle
stopping distance. Refer Section 6.3.
Reflectorised guideposts are required on all roads where vehicles are likely
or may need to travel at night. Refer Section 6.13.
9-89
9.2
Compaction equipment must be used, to ensure that high quality roads are
constructed. This applies to both the subgrade and the pavement layers of
a roadway.
Without properly controlled compaction it is impossible to
achieve maximum CBR values. Refer Section 4.11.
A well designed and constructed road will have a significant impact on the
longer term maintenance cost of a road.
9.3
Maintenance
9-90
10
Inspection
10.1
The following questions or checks are proposed as the basis of an initial lower
level audit of an existing road, with particular reference to potential areas of safety
concern.
To assist in the conduct of an audit it is suggested that a detailed
topographical plot of the particular section of road is first obtained. This will then
help facilitate the basic checking of some information and will also allow the
specific nomination or marking up of any areas of concern. If any concerns are
identified then further reference to the appropriate sections of this manual will
assist in the correction of such concerns.
An answer of yes to any of these questions will require further investigation or
action.
Does any section of the road have a single lane width of less than 15.5m or a
dual lane width of less than 27.0m? Measure inside edge of bund to inside
edge of bund.
Are there any horizontal curves in the road that are not superelevated?
Are there any horizontal curves in the road that have a radius of less than
200m? Refer Section 3.8.
Are there any sections of the road that are not free draining or that hold or pond
any water after rain?
Are there any areas where roadside table drains, cutoff drains, culverts, or the
like restrict the free flow of runoff water?
Identify any areas where the sight distance of a vehicle is at all restricted. Is
the sight distance of the vehicle less than the stopping distance for the
recommended design speed? Refer Section 3.2.
Do any roads join or cross another road at an angle of less than 70 degrees?
Are there any road intersections where the right of way has not been specified
or is at all unclear?
Are there any centre or side bunds within 75m of an intersection that have not
been reduced to a height of 1m in order to permit clear vision of other traffic in
the vicinity of the intersection? Refer Figures 32 & 33.
Are there any areas where either sign posting or guide posting is felt to be
lacking or insufficient? Refer Section 6.
Are there are areas where signs and guide posts are either dirty or are not
clearly visible either during daylight or dark? Refer Section 6.
Are there any areas of the road where if a vehicle strayed it would encounter a
significant hazard? Such a concern would be a sudden drop of in excess of
1m, a drainage channel or a deep body of water. Refer Section 11 as a
protective bund may be necessary.
10-91
Are any existing bunds lacking in height? A centre road bund should be 1m
high. A road side bund should be a minimum of 1.6m high. A high wall bund
should be a minimum of 2.4m high.
An active dump face bund shall match
the tray clearance height. Refer Section 11.
Section 11 provides details of the Standard for the Construction and
Maintenance of Safety Bunds. This procedure also requires that audits are
conducted to ensure that no areas of non-compliance. Are there any areas of
non-compliance that have not been actioned?
10-92
11
Bund Procedure
11.1
Purpose
The purpose of safety bund is to a safer operating environment for KPC vehicles
and operators through the construction of an effective barrier or separation from an
identified hazard. Such hazards would include any sharp or sudden change or
drop off in ground level of greater than 1m, or any other of possible traffic concerns
such as a drainage culvert, body of water etc.
11.2
Scope
This procedure will apply to all areas of KPC mine site and will apply to all roads
and like areas where vehicle access is possible for either light or heavy vehicles.
In general terms all safety bunds will be formed and constructed from readily spoil
or earthen material and will be in accordance with the following details and apply in
the following situations.
Type 1 Traffic Control Bund
Type 1 bunds are a lower profile intermittent bund constructed down the middle of
major or longer term haul roads with truck speeds exceeding 50kph, where traffic
demarcation is required or in areas such as intersections where traffic control is
critical or of possible concern. The bunds are to be 1m high with faces maintained
at 45 degrees or steeper and will have regular short breaks to both help with road
drainage and turning vehicles. Refer Figure 36.
Type 2 Road Side Bund
A higher profile bund constructed along the side of haul road or access to provide
vehicle and driver protection from an identified hazard or area of concern. These
bunds are to be a minimum of 1.6m high (i.e. 0.5 times wheel height of the largest
truck in operation). This type of bund may be constructed in three acceptable
forms.
1. Continuous Cone Bunds cones of spoil dumped in a row to form a bund.
Suitable mainly for shorter term haul road. Cones should be close stacked and
should be maintained to an angle of repose of greater than 35 degrees.
2. A Straight Bund a shaped bund suitable for longer term roads or areas where
width is limited. On straight road sections the bunds can have small regular
breaks to help road drainage. The face of the bund should be maintained at an
angle of 45 degrees or more.
11-93
Figure 36
11-94
Definition
Bund =
A wall of earth constructed to form a barrier or separation to provide
protection to both vehicle and driver from identified hazard.
Wheel Height
= Type 2, 3 and 4 bund are all expressed in terms of wheel
height. The wheel height being the height or diameter of the
wheel (including tyre) of the largest vehicles that is likely to
use the road or area under consideration.
As reference the following wheel heights are applicable:
Cat 777 = 2540mm
Cat 785 = 2886mm
Cat 789 = 3186mm
11-95
Figure 37
Mining Services Department
11-96
Figure 38
11-97
Figure 39
11-98
Figure 40
Mining Services Department
11-99
Figure 41
11-100
Figure 42
11-101
11.4
Accountability
General Manager
Shall ensure that equipment, training and manpower are made available to fully
satisfy the requirements of this procedure within his area of designated
responsibility.
Shall ensure that the designated area of responsibility for each Manager is
clearly understood and communicated and that responsibility fro this procedure
has been specially nominated.
Shall ensure that random audits are conducted of this procedure to ensure that
there are no areas of no-compliance within his area of responsibility.
Pit Manager
Shall ensure that equipment, training and manpower are made available to fully
satisfy the requirements of this procedure within his area of designated
responsibility.
Shall ensure that specific responsibility for the construction and maintenance of
safety bunds is delegated to a 24 hours a day position such as a designated
shift Superintendent or Supervisor.
Shall ensure that a system of random but frequent audits are conducted to
ensure there are no areas of procedures non-compliance.
Shall ensure that the procedure is raised regularly during toolbox talks and all
personnel are reminded of the names of the designated Superintendent or
Supervisor. The reminder frequency should be at least every six months.
Shall ensure that inspections are made each shift to confirm that bunds are
being properly constructed and maintained.
Identify and immediately attend to any areas where bund are missing or where
they do not comply with the requirements of this procedure.
Investigate and immediately attend to any areas of reported concern or new
identified hazards.
All Personnel
11-102
Appendix A : Figure 43
Mining Services Department
11-103
Appendix B : Figure 44
11-104