E-Mail: Ykwag@hau - Ac.kr: Korea Aerospace University

< >
e-mail : ykwag@hau.ac.kr
Korea Aerospace University
Lecture 6 : Target Echo Information Extraction

Objective
- Detection
- Coherent Detection
- CFAR

- 6.1 Detection Introduction
- 6.2 Detection in Noise
- 6.3 Signal Integration and Fluctuations
- 6.4 M of N Detection
- 6.5 Threshold-Setting Concept CFAR
- 6.6 Reference
Radar Engineering
Prof. Kwag@RSP-Lab
6.1 Detection Introduction

Radar Environmental
Radar Engineering
Prof. Kwag@RSP-Lab

There are many sources and kinds of false alarms
Radar Engineering
Prof. Kwag@RSP-Lab

Detection Criteria : Four Conditions
target
#1
target
#2
target
#3
Target ?
Detection ?
Result
NO
NO
Correct
YES
YES
Correct
YES
NO
Error
Miss detection
NO
YES
Error
False alarm
Radar Engineering
Remark
Prof. Kwag@RSP-Lab

Definition : Probability of Detection
- Ps : Probability of signal, for given single test of signal-plus-interference
and threshold, threshold crossing if a target was present
single detection trial
- Pd : Probability of detection for given S+I and threshold, consecutive

detection if a target was present
compound detection trial (M of N det.)
- Pn : Prob. of Noise; the prob. that interference & noise alone will
cross the threshold for a single test
- Pfa : Prob. of false alarm; the prob. that interference alone will cross
the threshold for a look or compound
Radar Engineering
Prof. Kwag@RSP-Lab

- FAN : False Alarm Number
= number of test / false alarm

FAN = 1 / Pfa = 1 / (false number / trial)
- FAT : False alarm time
: mean time between noise threshold crossing
- FAR : False alarm Rate
= average number of false alarm / sec.
FAR = PFA RDT PFA B = 1/ FAT

( RDT = detection test )
Bandwidth of the system at the test point
Radar Engineering
Prof. Kwag@RSP-Lab

Goal of Target Detection
low PFA high Pd
Probability of Density functions

- Noise : random phenomenon
- Probability : measurement of the likelihood of the occurrence
of an event an event
Probability for continuous function, random noise
( x /Vx)
Vx 0
N
N
represented by pdf. P ( x ) = lim
x2
( x1 < x < x2 ) = P ( x)dx

x1
pdf =
Radar Engineering
P( x)dx = 1
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Prof. Kwag@RSP-Lab

- Uniform pdf
P( x)
phase of random sinewave
A/D noise
1
b
a+b
- Gaussian pdf: noise thermal noise

( x x0 ) 2
P( x) =
exp[
]
2
2
2
2
1
Radar Engineering
Prof. Kwag@RSP-Lab

- Rayleigh pdf
z
envelope of narrow band filter when input noise voltage is Gaussian
2x
x2
P( x) =
exp(
) x0
m2
m2
P( x)
m2 = < x 2 > av mean
x
- exponential pdf
P(w)
P( w) =
w
Radar Engineering
1
w
exp( ) w 0
w0
w0
when x 2 replaced by w in Rayleigh pdf.
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Prof. Kwag@RSP-Lab

- Others
z
Rice, Log-normal, Chi-square pdf
Probability Distribution Function

dP ( x)
P ( x) = P( x)dx or P( x) =
dx
x
- For Gaussian pdf

x2
P ( x)dx =
exp( 2 )
2
2
2
1
Radar Engineering
< x < where x0 = 0 mean
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Prof. Kwag@RSP-Lab

Probability of Detection & false alarm
- Envelope Detector
From
Mixer
IF
Amplifier
2nd
Detector
Video
Amplifier
Threshold
vt
Decision
- The receiver noise at IF described by Gaussian prob density

function
1
v2
P (v ) =
exp(
)
2
20
0
0 = mean square of noise voltage
- Rice showed that when Gaussian noise is passed through

the IF filter pdf of the envelope is given by Rayleigh
R2
P ( R ) = exp(
)
20
0
R
Radar Engineering
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Prof. Kwag@RSP-Lab

- Probability of False Alarm
R2
(VT < R < ) =
exp(
)dR
VT
20
0
VT 2
= exp(
) = PFA
20
- False Alarm time
TFA
1 N
TFA = lim Tk
N N
k =1
1
where B= B/W of IF amp.
PFA =
TFA B
- Prob. of detection for S + N

R 2 + A2
RA
)I0 ( )
Ps ( R) = exp(
20
0
0
R
ez
I0 ( z) =
2 z
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Prof. Kwag@RSP-Lab
6.2 Detection in Noise

Target Detection in Noise
pd =
vt
P (u ) dv
pmiss = 1 pd =
p fa =
Radar Engineering
vt
vt
P(u ) dv
P(n) dn
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Prof. Kwag@RSP-Lab

Probability of false alarm
v
p (v) = 2 exp
2
vt 2
p fa = exp
2
2
PFA =
vt
p (v) dv
vt 2
threshold / noise = 10 log

2
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Prof. Kwag@RSP-Lab

Detection in Noise
- Signal & Noise model
z
z
Rayleigh prob. distribution for signal prob. in noise interference

Ricean (=modified Rayleigh) distribution for signal-plus-noise
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Signal + Noise Probability
< Modified Rayleigh(Raeian Prob. Function and Distribution for Signal+Noise >
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False Alarm Rate
FAR = p fa RDT
where RDT = rate at which detectio n test occur (1 / s )
- Pfa directly affected target detection probability ( Pd )

since it is set by the detection threshold
Threshold vs False alarm rate
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Prof. Kwag@RSP-Lab
6.3 Signal Integration & Target Fluctuation

In practical
- Several echoes are integrated with the processed composite
applied to threshold
- Real targets fluctuate
- Signal-plus-interference other than threshold noise
Therefore, the pdf is to be modified
Actual design factors:

- False alarm prob.
- Detection prob.
- S/I ratio
- Interference type and statistics
- Target fluctuations
- Number of hits integrated into a look
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Prof. Kwag@RSP-Lab

Signal Integration
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Coherent Integration
S / N N = ( S / N i )( N / Li ) = ( S / N i ) N (
N
1
)
Li
( S / N ) N = (1/ N ) ( S / N ) k N ( S / N ) N
k =1
: Integrated S/N is N times the mean S/N
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Prof. Kwag@RSP-Lab

- signal phase error for rector sum process scalloping loss
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Target Fluctuations and Coherent Integration
- In Meyer & Mayers coherent integration model,
- Case1: 8 pulses coherently integrated low PRF case
< Detection Probability for Eight Pulses Coherently Integrated >

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Prof. Kwag@RSP-Lab
Example - Coherent Integration

(Ex) SW-3 case, S/N for
8 pulses hits of 9.0dB, 8.0dB, 12.4dB, 10dB, 9.8dB, 11.9dB, 8.9dB, 10.4dB
PFA = 1019 , window ( =3.0) Dolph-Chebyshev
half scalloping loss Table 11-1
find Pd for SW-3 target

(Sol) - mean S/N = sum of power ratios
= [7.94 + 6.31 + 17.38 + 10 + 9.55 + 15.49 + 7.76 + 10.96]/8
= 85.40/8 = 10.67 10.28dB
- From Table11-1, integration loss for D-C window
= 1.51 (1.79dB)
= Equivalent Noise B/W
Scalloping loss (0.72dB=1.44 half)
Total loss = 2.51dB for S/N of 7.77dB
Pd ; 0.65 for SN = 7.77 dB
From Fig5-7,
Radar Engineering
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Prof. Kwag@RSP-Lab

- Case2
z
z
z
64 pulses-Medium PRF
8 pulses S/N Pd .
several dwell (final decision ) M of N detection process
< Detection Probability for 64 Pulses Coherently Integrated >

Radar Engineering
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Prof. Kwag@RSP-Lab

- Case3
z
1024 pulses- High PRF (pulse Doppler)
< Detection Probability for 1024 Pulses Coherently Integrated >

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Target Fluctuation
- Slowly fluctuating targets are more difficult to detect than
those which are constant or rapidly fluctuating

The effect of fluctuation rapidity has more effect on
detection than the amount of fluctuation
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- Non-coherent integration & detection
z
Integration loss
< Detection after Non-Coherent Integration of Eight Hits >

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Prof. Kwag@RSP-Lab
< Detection after Non-Coherent Integration of 64 Hits >
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Prof. Kwag@RSP-Lab
6.4 M of N Detection
M of N Detection
- To take several independent looks at the same target space, at different

PRF and/or frequencies. Because of range and Doppler ambiguities
Detection is enhanced by using multiple independent looks
Pd =
J !( N J )!P
N!
(1 PS ) N J
j=M
where
M = required number of successes for detection

N = number of looks processed together
PS = probability of detecting the target on each look
Pfa =
N!
J
Pn (1 Pn ) N J
J = M J !( N J )!
where Pn = probability of detecting interference on each look
Note :
- improved false alarm probability
( Pfa is smaller than Pn ) ( Pfa < Pn )

- detection probability is improved.( Pfa < Pn )
- several looks must be made at the target
( )
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Prof. Kwag@RSP-Lab
CFAR - Detection
CFAR
Constant False Alarm Rate
Detection
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6.5 Threshold-Setting Concept-CFAR

Adaptive Mean Level Threshold Detection
Maintains Sensitivity
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Mean Level Detector Control of False Alarms
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Constant False Alarm Rate (CFAR)
- Goal : Detection threshold setting so that the radar receiver
maintains a constant pre-determined prob. of false alarm

Given
VT 2
r2
exp 2 dr = exp
Pfa =
2
VT 2
2
2
- Threshold
z
VT = 2 2 ln 1 : theoretical value
Pfa
Assuming the noise power 2 is to be constant, then fixed threshold

VT satisfy it
- To maintain a constant Pfa , the threshold value must be

continuously updated based on the estimates of the noise
variance
Radar Engineering
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Prof. Kwag@RSP-Lab

Type of CFAR
- Adaptive threshold CFAR
z
for known interference distribution
- Non-Parametic CFAR
z
for unknown interference distribution
- Non- linear receiver technique for normalize the root mean

square amplitude of the interference
Reference : CFAR by G. Minkler & J. Minkler ,

Magellan Book co.1990
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Prof. Kwag@RSP-Lab

Structure of CFAR
Detection criterion
Y1 K o Z
Target Range cell = M + 3
- used for the senses of range/Doppler bins

z
Assuming that target of interest in CUT all reference cells=zero mean

independent Gaussian noise of variance
Pfa =
Radar Engineering
(1 + K o )M
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Prof. Kwag@RSP-Lab

Threshold Setting
- For fixed threshold
- For general scheme for threshold setting
sensing the average interference level

and set the threshold so that a relatively
constant number of false alarms occurs
per unit of time = Adaptive Threshold
Constant False Alarm Rate = CFAR detection
z
Detection with a fixed threshold
adaptive
threshold
Detection with an adaptive threshold
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Prof. Kwag@RSP-Lab

Cell averaging CFAR (Range CFAR)
- each cell(bin) is tested against a threshold determined by the

-
average signal level in a few bins on either side of it

effective in clutter & jamming environment
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Prof. Kwag@RSP-Lab

- Threshold level
N 21
VTH = MTH
Vn
N 1 n=N 2+1
where N : numberof cells, includingthe cell being tested

MTH : thresholdmultiplier from prob. functionof noise. Fig.5 1
- Assuming the probability distribution of interference is

known, Rayleigh noise pdf.(ex)
- but, clutter and ECM type are not Rayleigh

z
in this case, sample the number of false alarm and modify the
threshold. parametric or distribution-free detector
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Prof. Kwag@RSP-Lab

Multiple Mean Levels are Required to Adapt to
Changing Clutter
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Guard band CFAR (Doppler CFAR)
- effective in broadband interference (barrage jamming)
- interference level examined by the freq. Bands adjacent to the
signal band
< Guard-Band CFAR >

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Cell Averaging CFAR Using Greatest-Of
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The Cell Averaging CFAR with
Greatest-Of Selection
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Clutter Map Design Considerations
- Clutter amplitude or residue implementation
- Clutter map cell size
- CPI synchronization to map radials
- Rejection of slow moving unwanted targets
- Use of spreading in range and/or azimuth
- Detection of low velocity targets
- Map compensation for platform motion
- Lin or log implementation and update algorithm
- Normalization or thresholding algorithm
- Clutter map CFAR loss
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Typical Radar Clutter Map
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Clutter-map CFAR
- CA CFAR in azimuth dimension
- radar space into range and azimuth bins
- moving average of the clutter residue in each range-
azimuth cell over the several scan

signal on each scan is compared to threshold based on the
moving average
Clutter map
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Limiting CFAR (analog)
- signal and broadband interference to hard-limiting
rejects all amplitude information in both signal
and interference
< Impulse Response >
< Analog Limiting CFAR (Dicke-fix) >

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Prof. Kwag@RSP-Lab
< Analog Limiting CFAR Waves and Spectra >

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6.6 Reference
[1] Radar Target Detection : Handbook of Theory and Practice by D. P. Meyer and
H. A. Mayer, Academic Press, 1973
[2] Introduction to Radar Systems, 2nd ed by M. I. Skolink, McGraw-Hill, 1980
[3] Radar Handbook by M. I. Skolink, McGraw-Hill, 1990
[4] A Statistical Theory of Detection by Pulsed Radar and Mathematical Appendix
by J. I. Marcum, IRE Transactions, vol. IT-6, pp.59-267, 1960
[5] Probability of Detection for Fluctuating Targets by P. Swerling, IRE
Transactions, vol. IT-6, pp.269-308, 1960
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E-Mail: Ykwag@hau - Ac.kr: Korea Aerospace University

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Lecture 6 : Target Echo Information Extraction

6.1 Detection Introduction

6.1 Detection Introduction

6.1 Detection Introduction

6.1 Detection Introduction

- Pd : Probability of detection for given S+I and threshold, consecutive

6.1 Detection Introduction

= number of test / false alarm

- FAT : False alarm time

: mean time between noise threshold crossing

- FAR : False alarm Rate

= average number of false alarm / sec.

FAR = PFA RDT PFA B = 1/ FAT

6.1 Detection Introduction

Probability of Density functions

represented by pdf. P ( x ) = lim

( x1 < x < x2 ) = P ( x)dx

6.1 Detection Introduction

- Gaussian pdf: noise thermal noise

6.1 Detection Introduction

envelope of narrow band filter when input noise voltage is Gaussian

m2 = < x 2 > av mean

when x 2 replaced by w in Rayleigh pdf.

6.1 Detection Introduction

Rice, Log-normal, Chi-square pdf

Probability Distribution Function

- For Gaussian pdf

< x < where x0 = 0 mean

6.1 Detection Introduction

- The receiver noise at IF described by Gaussian prob density

0 = mean square of noise voltage

- Rice showed that when Gaussian noise is passed through

6.1 Detection Introduction

- False Alarm time

- Prob. of detection for S + N

6.2 Detection in Noise

6.2 Detection in Noise

threshold / noise = 10 log

6.2 Detection in Noise

Rayleigh prob. distribution for signal prob. in noise interference

6.2 Detection in Noise

6.2 Detection in Noise

where RDT = rate at which detectio n test occur (1 / s )

- Pfa directly affected target detection probability ( Pd )

Threshold vs False alarm rate

6.3 Signal Integration & Target Fluctuation

Actual design factors:

6.3 Signal Integration & Target Fluctuation

6.3 Signal Integration & Target Fluctuation

: Integrated S/N is N times the mean S/N

6.3 Signal Integration & Target Fluctuation

6.3 Signal Integration & Target Fluctuation

< Detection Probability for Eight Pulses Coherently Integrated >

Example - Coherent Integration

find Pd for SW-3 target

6.3 Signal Integration & Target Fluctuation

< Detection Probability for 64 Pulses Coherently Integrated >

6.3 Signal Integration & Target Fluctuation

1024 pulses- High PRF (pulse Doppler)

< Detection Probability for 1024 Pulses Coherently Integrated >