Zoolec

3rd Dep Reviewer

4.) isotonic: .85% NaCl

5.) weight: 8%

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Functions
1.) Regulatory
a.) water movement between blood and tissues
b.) body temperature
c.) pH maintenance
2.) Protective
a.) platelets against blood loss and entry of pathogens
b.) plasma factors against toxins
3.) Transport
a.) soluble products of digestion
b.) waste products of metabolism
c.) plasma proteins from liver
d.) hormones
e.) respiratory gases

Functions
1.) Absorbs and transports nutrients (from digestive)
2.) Transports hormones (from endocrine)
3.) Delivers wastes (to excretory)
4.) Transports gases (with respiratory)
5.) Thermoregulation - distributes heat
6.) Immune - defends the body against invading microorganisms
7.) Buffer - maintain blood pH at 7.35
Types of circulation
1.) Continuous
- single-celled protozoans, sponges, cnidarians, and flatworms
- small size, simple architecture
- ciliary movements and contractions of the wall stirs body fluid in the
coelom
2.) Discontinuous
- specialized system in charge of circulation
Types of circulatory system
1.) Open
- nematodes, arthropods, mollusks, echinoderms
- Hemolymph: not true blood, blood + interstitial fluid; blood is not
enclosed within vessels
- structures: hemocoel: where blood is collected; sinuses ostia
- advantages: even distribution of materials
- disadvantages:
a.) slower circulation - no pressure going up
b.) cannot achieve high rates of oxygen transport
2.) Closed
- annelids, all vertebrates
- has true blood that remains within a completely enclosed system of
vessels and is separated from the interstitial fluid
- materials move between blood and interstitial fluid through the
capillaries
- advantages:
a.) more rapid circulation of materials - pressure between walls
b.) regulation of blood flow - elastic and muscular fibers of the
vessels
- disadvantages: less even distribution of materials
artery vein capillary
BLOOD
Properties
1.) 4-5x thicker than water
2.) temperature: 38 C
3.) pH: 7.35-7.45

Cells
- originated from stem cells in the bone marrow by haemopoeisis
Stem cell Monoblast Macrophage
Stem cell Lymphoblast Lymphocyte
Stem cell Hemocytoblast Proerthyoblast Erythrocyte
Stem cell Hemocytoblast Myeloblast Leukocyte
Stem cell Hemocytoblast Megakaryocyte Platelets
1.) Erythrocytes
- most numerous blood cells
- functions:
a.) transport of O2 and CO2
b.) contribute to the buffering capacity of blood
- Hemoglobin: red color; keeps viscosity low; allows best
arrangement of enzymes and solutes; prevents reduction in blood
water potential
2.) Thrombocytes
- involved in blood clotting
3.) Neutrophils
- most abundant leukocytes
- responsible for phagocytosis of microorganisms
4.) Eosinophils
- inactivates histamin to control allergic responses
5.) Basophils
- secretes histamine which increases inflammation
- secretes heparin which balances blood clotting and not clotting
6.) Monocytes
- largest of the leukocytes
- mature into phagocytic macrophages

7.) Lymphocytes
- responsible for immune response and direct cell destruction
Composition
1.) Plasma
a.) Water
b.) Plasma Proteins
i.) Serum albumin - transports steroids and fatty acids;
controls osmotic pressure; important and abundant
ii.) Serum globulin - -globulin: transport pyrosine and retinol,
-globulin: transfer iron, -globulin: antibodies
iii.) Fibrinogen - blood clotting
c.) Regulatory and protective proteins - hormones, antibodies,
enzymes
d.) Organic substances - wastes, nutrients
e.) Inorganic substances - Na Cl K Ca Mg HCO3 Fe
f.) Gases - O2 CO2 N
2.) Formed elements
a.) Erythrocytes - biconcave disc; no nucleus; 127 days lifespan;
Rouleux formation; Erythropoeisis: production of RBC in the bone
marrow
b.) Leukocytes - no hemoglobin; has nuclei; 9-12 days lifespan;
granulocytes and agranulocytes
c.) Thrombocytes - enucleated discs; derived from
megakaryotes; 10 days lifespan; involved in blood clotting
Erythropoeisis
Hemacytoblast

Rubriblast

Prorubricyte

Rubricyte: hemoglobin starts to appear

Metarubricyte: maximum hemoglobin

Erythrocyte: mature RBC accommodate hemoglobin

Phagocytosis: at the spleen

Fe group
Heme group

Liver - store
Bone marrow
Bilirubin - bile
Stimulus
1.) Hypoxia
Oxygen deficiency

Activates kidney cells to release renal erythropoietic factor or

erythrogenin into the blood

REF activates plasma globulin or erythropoietinogen in the plasma to

become erythropoietin

Initiate erythopoiesis in the bone marrow

2.) Anemia
a.) Nutritional anemia - lack of Fe in the diet; delayed synthesis
of hemoglobin
b.) Pernicious anemia - lacks absorption of Vit B12; failure of
parietal cells; unable to produce healthy RBCs
Abo blood group
Group
A
B
AB
O
Rh blood group
(+)
(-)

Antigen
A
B
AB
-

Antibody
B
A
AB

Receive
AO
BO
A B AB O
O

Donate
A AB
B AB
AB
A B AB O

Rh antigen
no Rh antigen

Blood clotting
1.) Extrinsic pathway - rapid clot formation; damaged blood vessels;
release thromboplastin
2.) Intrinsic pathway - massive clot formation; damaged platelets;
release Factor XII
Factor X

Prothrombin thrombin

Fibrinogen fibrin

CLOT

Withdrawal of pseudopods

Plasminogen plasmin
HEART
Fish
Amphibian
Mammals
Humans

2 chambers - 1A, 1V
3 chambers - 2A, 1V
4 chambers - 2A, 2V
4 chambered hollow

Structure
1.) Pericardium - sac enclosing the heart
a.) Parietal pericardium - outer
b.) Visceral pericardium - adhere to the heart and epicardium
2.) Walls of the heart
a.) Epicardium - outer
b.) Myocardium - middle

c.) Endocardium - inner

3.) Chambers of the heart
a.) Atria - receiving chambers divided by interatrial septum
b.) Ventricle - pumping chambers divided by interventricular
septum
4.) Heart Valves - prevents backflow of blood
a.) Atrioventricular valves - between atria and ventricle
i.) Tricuspid valve - right
ii.) Bicuspid/mitral valve - left
b.) Semilunar valve - pumps blood
i.) Pulmonary valve - between PA adn RV
ii.) Aortic valve - between LV and aorta
*Open atrial pressure > ventricular pressure
Close atrial pressure < ventricular pressure
*Heart murmur - sound of leaking blood
a.) narrowed openings
b.) incomplete closure of valves
Intrinsic cardiac conduction system
- due to gap junction + in-house conducting system
- specialized cardiac cells initiate and distribute impulses
- components:
a.) sinoatrial node - pacemaker
b.) atrioventricular node
c.) av bundle of his
d.) purkinje fibers
e.) ventricular myocardium
- Electrocardiogram: instrument used to record electrical changes
during heart activity
- Electrocardiograph: record
i.) P wave - depolarization of arteries
ii.) QRS complex - depolarization of ventricles
iii.) T wave - repolarization of ventricles
- Cardiac cycle: alternate contraction and relaxation of the heart
a.) Systole - lub contraction; force blood out under high
pressure; closure of atrioventricular valves
b.) Diastole - dub relaxation; reduced pressure as blood enters
from the atria; closure of semilunar valves
- Cardiac output: amount of blood pumped by heart per minute of
life
- Stroke volume: volume of blood pumped out by a ventricle with
each contraction; Frank-Starlings Law of the Heart: stretch
contraction strength
Circulation
1.) Pulmonary circulation - right side; deoxygenated blood to the
lungs for aeration
Vena cavas -> RA -> TV -> RV -> PV -> PA -> Lungs
2.) Systemic circulation - left side; oxygenated blood is distributed
to the various parts of the body
Lungs -> PV -> LA -> BV -> LV -> AV -> Aorta -> Tissues

a.) Coronary circulation - supply blood to the heart

b.) Portal system - collects blood before going back to the heart
i.) Renal - kidneys
ii.) Hepatic - stomach, intestine, pancreas, spleen liver
Control of the heart
1.) Autonomic nervous system - parasympathetic fibers
2.) Hormonal influence - stress, adrenaline and noradrenaline
3.) Temperature heart rate
4.) Electrolyte balance
a.) Potassium heart rate
b.) Sodium
heart rate
c.) Calcium
heart rate
5.) Sex
a.) Female
heart rate
b.) Male
heart rate
6.) Age
a.) Old
heart rate
b.) Young
heart rate
BLOOD VESSELS
- layers:
1.) Tunica intima - inner; endothelium
2.) Tunica media - middle; muscular
3.) Tunica adventitia - outer; ct

Wall thickness
Pronounced layer
Shape
Lumen
RBCs
Valves

Ateries
Thicker
Tunica media
Round
Smaller
X
X

Veins
Thinner
Tunica adventitia
Collapsed
Wider
/
/

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
Functions
1.) Fluid balance - returns the excess tissue fluid and proteins to the
blood
2.) Absorption of fats from the intestine via lymphatic capillaries
3.) Surveillance and defense - filter out bacterial and produce
disease-fighting lymphocytes
Components
1.) Lymph
- lymphatic fluid
- water + leaked out biomolecules + interstitial spaces
- filtered and diffused tissue fluid that leave the blood capillaries and
are not returned to the bloodstream
- lymph formation and function:
a.) osmotic pressure return of fluid to the bloodstream
b.) interstitial pressure force of fluid into lymphatic capillaries

- lymph movement:
a.) Hydrostatic pressure - entry of lymph to the lymphatic
capillaries
b.) Muscle contraction - propels lymph into lymphatic capillaries
c.) Edema - interferes with the flow of lymph; due to disturbed
lymphatic vessels or tissues
2.) Lymphatic vessels
- one-way system
- returns lymph to the general circulation
Lymphatic capillaries

Lymphatic vessels

Thoracic duct

Left subclavian vein

Right lymphatic duct

Right subclavian vein

General circulation
a.) Lymphatic capillaries - tiny, close-ended tubes that extend
into interstitial spaces; receive fluid through their thin walls; fluid
becomes lymph once inside the lymphatic capillaries
b.) Lymphatic vessels - capillaries unite to form lymphatic
vessels; vein-like structure only thinner; same three layers with
semilunar valves
c.) Lymphatic trunks and collecting ducts - larger lymphatic
vessels pass through lymph nodes and merge to form lymphatic
trunks; drain lymph from the body
i.) Thoracic duct - drains to the left subclavian vein
ii.) Right lymphatic duct - drains to the right subclavian vein
3.) Lymph nodes
- 1-25mm, bean-shaped organ made of ovoid or round mass of
lymphatic tissue along the lymphatic vessels
- with blood vessels, nerves, efferent lymphatic vessels (attached to
the heilum) and afferent lymphatic vessels (entering on the convex
surface)
- clusters in groins and armptis
- covered with fibrous capsule CT that extends the node and divides
it into nodules
- lymph nodules:
a.) Payers patches
b.) Adenoids
c.) Tonsils - mucus membrane; has a geminal center: generate
lymphocytes; palatine (oropharynx), pharyngeal (nasopharynx),
lingual tonsil (tongue)
- functions:
a.) macrophages and lymphocytes filter lymph and remove
bacteria and cellular debris
b.) site of lymphocyte production
c.) add antibodies
d.) afferent vessels filtered out of efferent vessels

4.) Thymus
- soft, bilobed organ along the trachea, behind the sternum
- Involution: disappears with age
- surrounded by a capsule CT that extends inside and divides into
lobules: contain lymphocytes to provide immunity
- secretes thymosin: influences the maturation of T lymphocytes (Tc)
- for differentiation, maturation and training of Tc
- absent: get Tc in the paracortex in the lymph nodes
5.) Spleen
- largest lymphatic organ between the stomach and the diaphragm
- CT divides spleen into lobules which contain sinuses filled with
blood instead of lymph
- spleen lobule:
a.) Red pulp - contains components of circulating blood (RBC,
lymphocytes, macrophages)
b.) White pulp - lymphatic nodule-ish (lymphocytes)
- functions:
a.) filters and purifies blood
b.) phagocytose worn out RBCs
c.) blood reservoir
d.) site of erythropoeisis
- seals:
a.) large spleen which makes blood available under low pressure
b.) dive and remain underwater
6.) Red bone marrow
- involution to yellow bone marrow
- site of origin of all blood cells
- child: most bones
Adult: skull, sternum, ribs, clavicles, pelvic bones and vertebral
column
7.) Lymph tissue
a.) Diffuse lymphatic tissue - no capsule; scattered
macrophages and lymphocytes
b.) Lymphatic nodules - (Payers patches in digestive) no
capsule; oval-shaped; in singles/clusters
c.) Lymphatic organs - capsule is present
Disorder
- Elephantitis: extreme edema that occurs when lymph vessels are
blocked by filarial worms

IMMUNE SYSTEM
- ability of the body to defend against infectious agents, foreign cells
and abnormal cancer cells
- functional system with cells and molecules

Components
1.) Immunocytes - lymphocytes and macrophages
2.) Molecules - antibodies and lymphokines
Significance
1.) Recognize
2.) Immobilize and neutralize
3.) Destroy
*initial exposure before it is capable of protecting the body against
the substance (memory cells)
Origin of immunocytes
1.) Erythroid stem cell Erythrocytes
2.) Lymphoid stem cell Natural Killer cells
B-lymphocytes
T-lymphocytes
3.) Myeloid stem cell Monocytes Macrophages
Myeloid progenitor Megakaryocytes
Neutrophils, Eosinophils, Basophils
Kinds
1.) Non-specific immunity - does not distinguish between different
kinds of pathogens
a.) First line of defense - natural/physical barrier
i.) skin and mucus membrane of reparatory, digestive and
urinary tract
ii.) oil gland secretions - bacteria on skin
iii.) ciliated cells in respiratory tract - particles in the throat
iv.) lysozyme - tears, saliva and mucus secretion
v.) stomach - low pH
vi.) good bacteria in intestine and vagina - prevent bad bacteria
from invading their territory
b.) Second line of defense
i.) Phagocytic and natural killer cells
- Neutrophils: attracted to damaged cells (chemotaxis);
enters infected tissue and destroy them from within; self-destructed
- Monocytes: transformed to macrophages once they enter
infected tissue; effective and long-lived; macrophage: engulf microbe
in vacuole fused with lysosomes kill the microbe; lungs
(alveolar), liver (Kuppfer), kidney (mesanglial), brain (microglial), ct
(histiocytes), spleen and lymph nodes (mixed macrophages)
- Eosinophils: against larger parasitic invaders; release
destructive enzymes targeting the parasites external wall
- Natural killer cells: destroy virus-infected cells or
abnormal cells; mount an attack via lysis of infected cell
Natural killer cells
No receptor and nonspecific
Granulated
Not thymus-dependent

Cytotoxic killer t-cells

With receptors and specific
Nongranulated
Thymus-dependent

ii.) Localized inflammatory response - damage to the tissue;

entry of microorganisms; 4 symptoms: redness (rubor), pain (dolor),
swelling (tumor), heat (calor)
Tissue damage

Release of bradykinin

Local pain receptor stimulates mast cells to release histamine

Vasodilation and increased permeability of capillaries

(localized imflammatory response)

Neutrophils and macrophages migrate to site of injury

Diapedesis: squeeze through capillary wall

Pus: accumulation of dead neutrophils, tissue cells, bacteria and

living WBCs
*Pyrogens - from leukocytes; sets the bodys thermostat at a higher
temperature
*Fever - severe infection
a.) inhibit growth of microorganism
b.) facilitates phagocytosis
c.) speed repair of tissues - enhance chemical reaction
*Septic shock - high fever, low blood pressure caused by bacteria
iii.) Antimicrobial proteins
- Lysozyme: antimicrobial enzyme in tears, saliva and
mucus secretions
- Complement system: 20 serum proteins that lysises
- Interferons: secreted by virus-infected animal cells; bind
to receptors of noninfected cells to produce substance against
invaders; produced in large quantities by recombinant DNA
technology
Complement proteins
Protein seals invader

Protein attaches to invader and punctures cell membrane

Protein attaches to invader and attracts leukocytes

2.) Specific immunity - immune response; reacts in specialized way
to various invaders; third line of defense:
a.) B-lymphocytes - for humoral immunity (body fluids); produced
in the bone marrow
b.) T-lymphocytes - for cell-mediated immunity; produced in the
bone marrow, stored and matured in the thymus
Characteristics
a.) Antigen specific - recognizes and directed against particular
antigens

b.) Systemic - immunity is not restricted to initial infection site

(not localized)
c.) Memory - recognizes and mounts enhanced attack on
previously encountered antigens; magnitude
*Antigen - antibody generator; foreign molecule that elicits specific
response by lymphocyte
a.) Clonal selection - antigen-driven cloning of lymphocytes
i.) Effector/plasma cells - derivative of B-cells that secrete
antibodies; 1st exposure to antigenneutralize lang
ii.) Memory cells - remains in the lymph node until activated
be exposure to the same antigen
b.) Primary and secondary immune response
i.) Primary - initial immune response to an antigen; selective
proliferation and differentiation of lymphocytes in 1st exposure
ii.) Secondary - encounter the same antigen again; rate
magnitude duration
c.) Self from nonself
i.) Lymphocytes - react to foreign molecules; distinguish self
from nonself as it migrates to lymphatic organs; nonfunctional
undergo apoptosis
ii.) Self tolerance - no mature lymphocytes react against its
own cell components
iii.) Autoimmune disease - when self tolerance fails resulting
to autoimmune disease
iv.) Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) - cell-surface
antigens encoded by a family; foreign mhc may lead to rejection of a
transplanted tissue or organ; unique to each individual
- Class I MHC: present in all cells; bound to Cytotoxic T
- Class II MHC: present in specialized types as in
macrophages, B-cells, T-cells; bound to Helper T
Immune response
1.) Central role of helper T
a.) Structure of T-cell receptor
b.) CD4 and CD8 surface proteins
c.) Antigen-presenting cell
d.) Class I and Class II MHC
e.) Interleukins 1 and 2
Antigen-presenting cell engulfs a bacteria and transport it via Class II
MHC forming MHC II antigen complex

Specific TH is activated; CD4 and Interleukin 1 enhances activation

Activated TH proliferates and gives rise to clone of identical cells

Cytokines further stimulate TH to activate B-cells and TC for cellmediated immunity and humoral immunity

a.) Antigen-presenting cell - macrophages and B cells that

presents degradation products (peptide remnants) to TH
b.) Cytotoxic TC - lymphocytes that kills infected cells
c.) Helper TC - TC + B-cells that make antibodies; TC + TC that
respond to antigens or secrete lymphokines or interleukins
d.) Suppressor TC - suppress development of TH and help
prevent B-cells and T-cells from getting out of control; shuts down
immune response
e.) Memory TC - clone of B-cells or T-cells mobilized during
secondary immune response
Macrophages engulfs and digests a pathogen and bind to Class I
MHC displaying MHC I antigen complex

TC is activated; CD8 of TC and Interleukin 2 of TH enhances the

activation

Activated TC secretes perforin

Water and ions flow into the infected cell; Cell lyses
3.) Humoral immune response
*Antibody - large protein; basic subunit; 2 binding sites for the
antibody; aka immunoglobins
*Antigen - stimulates the formation of specific antibodies reacts
with antibody to form antigen-antibody complex activation and
removal of antigen
a.) IgM - pentamer; first circulating antibodies to appear in
response to an initial exposure to an antigen; concentration in blood
declines rapidly; indicates current infection; effective in agglutinating
antigens
b.) IgG - monomer; most abundant; readily crosses the walls of
blood vessels and enters tissue fluids; immunity of fetus; protects
against bacteria, virus, and toxin in the blood and lymph
c.) IgA - dimer; from the mucus membrane; prevent attachment of
viruses and bacteria to the epithelial surfaces; found in many body
secretions such as saliva, perspiration and tears; first milk for infants
protection from gi infections
d.) IgD - monomer; do not activate the complement system and
cannot cross the placenta; antigen receptors that help initiate
differentiation of B-cells to plasma cells and memory cells
e.) IgE - monomer; small fraction of antibodies; triggered by
antigen to release histamine for allergic reaction
Opsonization
a.) Neutralization - cover toxic sites of antigenic agents
b.) Agglutination - multiple antigenic agents are bound together
into a clump by antibodies
c.) Precipitation - antigen-antibody complex is insoluble and
precipitates -PHAGOCYTOSISd.) Lysis/complement - antibodies directly attacking membranes
and cause rupture of cells

2.) Cell-mediated response

Invertebrate immune system

Sponges

Insects

Echinoderms
Earthworm

Sponge sort themselves and

reaggregate if mixed with other
sponges
Hemolin (hemoplymph protein)
binds to microbe and assists in
their disposal
Coelomocytes (amoeboid cells)
and interleukin 1 phagocytose
foreign matter
Defense system form memory
against tissue grafts

Immunity in health and disease

A.) Humoral immunity
1.) Active - develops following exposure to antigen; human body
produces antibody
a.) Natural - during actual bacterial or viral infections
b.) Artificial - provided using vaccines
i.) Vaccines - contains dead pathogens which have antigenic
determinants necessary to stimulate immune response
ii.) Immunization - use vaccine to induce active immunity
2.) Passive - antibodies are supplied by an immune human or animal
donor
B.) Blood transfusion and tissue transplantation
- limitation: immune systems capacity to distinguish self from nonself
- if incompatible blood is transfused, transfused cells are killed by
antibody (IgM)
- Erythroblastoesis fetalis: hemolytic disease of infants (IgG)
- Immunosuppressive drugs: prevent rejection in tissue
transplantation
C.) Abnormal immune function
1.) Allergic reactions - allergen triggers histamine release from mast
cells
a.) Allergies - hypersensitive response to certain environmental
antigens called allergens
b.) Anaphylactic shock - acute allergic response, life-threatening
reaction to allergens; mast cell degranulation abrupt dilation of
peripheral blood vessels drop in blood pressure dedz
2.) Autoimmune diseases
a.) Systemic lupus erythematous - autoantibodies against all
sorts of self molecules; skin rashes, fever, arthritis, kidney
malfunction
b.) Rheumatoid arthritis - damaged and painful inflammation of
the cartilage and bone of joints
c.) Insulin-dependent diabetes - beta cells of the pancreas are
the tagets of autoantibodies
d.) Multiple sclerosis - T-cells reactive against myelin infiltrate
the CNS and destroy myelin of neurons
3.) Immunodeficiency diseases
a.) Severe combined immunodeficiency - immune system fail

b.) Hodgkins disease - cancer that suppresses the immune

system by damaging the lymphatic system
c.) Acquired immune deficiency syndrome - caused by
destruction of CD4-bearing T-cells by HIV virus; marked by lower TH
levels and opportunistic disease, infections and cancers

EXCRETORY SYSTEM
- convert complex substances to simple compounds (harmful in small
amounts):
a.) CO2 lungs
b.) Toxic wastes large intestine
c.) Alcohol liver, kidney
d.) Nitrogenous wastes liver, kidney
Functions
1.) Excretion - rid the body of nitrogenous waste resulting from
metabolism (catabolism of proteins)
a.) Ammonia - toxic, water-soluble; gills of aquatic animals
b.) Urea - 2NH3 + CO2; liver of mammals, amphibians
c.) Uric acid - nontoxic, water-insoluble; guano: uric acid + feces
2.) Osmoregulation - regulate salt and water content; maintain
physicochemical balance; osmolarity: depends on concentration of
mineral ions Na Cl K HCO3
3.) Renin production - JG apparatus: important in human
hemodynamics (blood pressure and blood volume)
4.) Erythropoietin secretion - process of erythropoiesis
Invertebrate excretory system
Protozoans

Sponges, Cnidarians
Flatworms, Rotifiers,
Ribbonworms
Terrestrial insects
Collembolas, Springtails

Spipers
Crustaceans
Aquatic arthropods, Mollusks,
Earthworm

Cell membrane (marine species)

Contractile vacuole (freshwater
species)
Skin
Flame cell system /
Protonephridia
Malphigian tubules
Fat bodies: depository for
organic wastes
Exoskeleton: eliminate deposited
organic wastes
Coxal glands
Green glands
Metanephridia

Vertebrate excretory system

1.) Kidneys
a.) Archinephros - kidney found in the embryo of hagfish;
inferred ancestral condition of the vertebrate kidney
b.) Pronephros - functional kidney in adult hagfish and embryonic
fishes and amphibians; fleeting existence in embryonic reptiles, birds
and mammals

c.) Mesonephros - functional kidney of adult lampreys, fishes and

amphibians; transient function in embryonic reptiles, birds and
mammals
d.) Metanephros - functional kidney of adult reptiles, birds and
mammals
2.) Ureter - common collecting duct that carries wastes posteriorly
3.) Urethra - median duct that discharges to the exterior of mammals
4.) Cloaca - common passageway of excretory, digestive and
reproductive systems; amphibians, reptiles, birds
HUMAN URINARY SYSTEM
Anatomy
1.) Kidney (2) - bean-shaped, reddish brown, retroperiotoneally
located
2.) Ureter (2) - conducts urine from kidney to bladder
3.) Bladder - stores urine
*Sphincter muscle - controls urine; hold upto 600mL
4.) Urethra - where urine exits; penis (male), vaginal opening
(female)
5.) Nephron
a.) Renal corpuscle/malphigian body - filtration
i.) Bowmans capsule - flattened cells on a basement
membrane; distended, blind end of the renal tubule
ii.) Glomerulus - highly coiled network of anastomosing
capillaries; podocytes: visceral layer of Bowmans capsule; afferent
arteriole: blood vessels that supply the nephron; efferent arteriole:
drains the glomerulus
b.) Renal tubule - reabsorption and secretion; highly convoluted
i.) Proximal convoluted tubule
ii.) Loop of Henle
iii.) Distal convoluted tubule
iv.) Collecting duct
Physiology
1.) Filtration - initial urine; urea, uric acid, salts, glucose, vitamins,
amino acids, water
2.) Reabsorption - simple diffusion
Filtrate in renal tubule

Interstitial fluid

Peritubular capillaries

Blood system
3.) Secretion - final urine; 96% water, 2.5% urea, 1.5% others
Blood system

Peritubular capillaries

Interstitial fluid

Filtrate in renal tubule

Urine formation

Glomerular filtration

Tubular reabsorption

Tubular secretion

Reabsorption of
water

Excretion

Process
Blood pressure
forces small
molecules from
glomerulus to
glomerular space
Diffusion and active
transport return
molecules to blood
at the pct
Active transport
moves molecules
from blood to dct
Water returns by
osmosis following
active reabsorption
of salt along loh and
cd
Urine formation rids
the body of
metabolic wastes

Molecules
Water, glucose,
amino acid, salt,
urea, uric acid,
creatinine
Water, glucose,
amino acid, salt

Uric acid, creatinine,

H ions, ammonia,
penicillin
Water, salt

Water, salt, urea,

uric acid,
ammonium,
creatinine

Countercurrent multiplier effect

- produce concentrated urine in loop of Henle and collecting duct
- opposite direction of fluid in loop of Henle
- ion exchange in loop of Henle increases osmotic concentration
Glomerulus: reabsorb high threshold of substances

Proximal tubule: expel NH3, H+

Descending arm: expel H2O; osmosis

Loop of Henle: highest concentration of urine

Ascending arm: expel NaCl

Distal tubule: aldosterone reabsorb biomolecules

Collecting duct: expel H2O (outer medulla), urea (inner medulla);

forms concentrated urine
Controlling urinary output
- adjust volume and osmolarity of urine
- regulate water reabsorption by the collecting ducts
- Diuresis: production of voluminous urine
- Diuretic substance: antagonize ADH; no water reabsorption;
produce water urine; ie. tea, alcohol, coffee
- osmolarity: shrink

 osmolarity: restore size

Human hemodynamics
- 300 mOsm
- Kidney: regulate blood pressure and blood volume
- Aldosetrone:
Na absorption
Osmotic gradient
H2O moves out
BP BV
- Angiotensin: constriction of vessels; BP BV
JGA: renin production

Renin: angiotensin angiotensin II

Vasoconstriction
Adrenal gland

Aldosterone
- responses:
a.) RAAS - Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system; control blood
Na level and BP
b.) ANF - Atrial natriuretic factor; opposes RAAS; BP Na
secretion release of renin release of aldosterone

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Cell communication
- critical for multicellular organismteamwork
- uses different molecules but only a few mechanisms
- via signal transduction mechanism
Signal transduction mechanism
1.) Reception - exogenous molecule is received by the cell; similar to
recognition of an enzyme to its substrate (lock-and-key hypothesis);
ligand molecules are recognized by only one receptor protein
2.) Transduction - conversion to a response; leads to conformal
change in receptor
3.) Response - cellular activity (enzyme catalyst); rearrangement of
cytoskeleton (movement); specific gene activity
Types of signaling
1.) Paracrine/local signaling - targets small areas
a.) Growth factor proteins - cell division and growth
b.) Neurotransmitters - move across synapses
2.) Endocrine/distant signaling - specialized cells release
molecules into the blood vessels; hormones move to distant target
cells; delayed
3.) Cell to cell contact - direct signaling; ie. gap junction
Main function
Produces hormones that control and integrate body processes of
cellular physiology and behavior

Functions
1.) Reproduction
2.) Growth and development
3.) Mobilization of bodily defenses
4.) Maintenance of balance
5.) Cellular metabolism
Hormones
- chemical messengers secreted by endocrine glands, transported in
the circulation to target cells, where they regulate metabolic
processes
- types:
a.) Steroid hormones - lipid-based; ie. estrogen, testosterone,
aldosterone, ecdysone
b.) Polypeptide hormones - protein-based; ie. oxytocin, insulin,
glucagon, ADH, ACTH
c.) Glycoproteins - carbonprotein-based; ie. FSH, LH, TSH
d.) Iodine-containing amino acids - thryroid hormone
- mechanisms:
a.) Steriod hormone - fat-soluble; steroid + thyroxine; pass
through membrane easily; regulation of gene expression
i.) Testosterone secondary characteristics
- vocal cords: deep voice
- shoulder muscle: broadening
- epidermis: hair development
ii.) Aldosterone kidney Na reabsorption
Lipophilic hormone in the bloodstream

Steroid diffuses to the cells

Bind with steroid receptor complex

Form hormone responsive elements

Transcription

Translation
b.) Protein hormone - water-soluble; requires a second
messenger
i.) Somatotropin - bone and muscle for growth
ii.) ADH - kidney tubules for water reabsorption
iii.) Oxytocin - unterine muscles for uterine contraction
iv.) Prolactin - mammary gland for milk production
v.) Epinephrine - liver for glucose production; heart for
increased heart rate
*Hormone amplification - amplify signal; each activated component
can turn on many different molecules; steps amplification
Lipophobic hormone binds with beta receptor


Activates G protein; GTP GDP

One subunit activates adenylate cyclase; ATP cAMP

cAMP activates kinase, which activates a series of enzymes

Production of desired product/response: glucose

Lipophobic hormone binds with alpha receptor

Activates G protein; GTP GDP

Activate phospholipase C (PLC)

Diaglycerol (DAG) remains in the inner layer and recruits protein

kinase c (PKC), a calcium-dependent kinase

Inositol triphosphate (IP3) diffuses to the cell and binds to receptors

in the er to release Ca ions into the cytosol

Ca binds with calmodulin increased heart rate

organ
HUMAN ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Hormones
- chemical produced and transported throughout the organism and
produce specific response in target cells
- chemical categories:
1.) Proteins and peptides - insulin, oxytocin
2.) Amines - adrenaline
3.) Steroids - testosterone
- hormone-secreting cells:
1.) Endocrine - into the bloodstream; ie. Adrenaline
2.) Paracrine - affect adjacent cells; ie. Gastrin
3.) Autocrine - regulate own activity; ie. Testosterone

Hypothalamus

Oxytocin

Invertebrate endocrine system

Hydra

Annelids
Mollusks
Insect

Crustaceans

Hormone
Releasing/releaseinhibiting hormone
ADH

Stimulate growth and budding

(asexual reproduction) and
prevents sexual production
Stimulate egg production but
inhibits body growth
Stimulate laying thousands of
eggs
Juvenile hormone
- corpora allatum
- ecdysone larva to larva
ecdysone metamorphosis

Pituitary gland

FSH
LH

GH

Brain hormone
- corpora cardiacum
- prothoracic gland secretes
ecdysone for each of the stages
of metamorphosis
X organ sinus gland complex
- in the eyestalk
- molt inhibiting
- gonald development, water
balance, blood glucose level
Y organ sinus gland complex
- in the epithelial
- molt stimulating
- secrete ecdysteroids for
molting
- negatively regulated by X-

ACTH

PRL

TSH

MSH

Pineal gland

Melatonin

Thyroid gland

Thyroxine,
Triiodothryonine

Function
Control the pituitary
gland
Kidney tubules to
prevents production
of dilate urine
Uterine muscle and
mammary glands to
facilitate child birth
and breastfeeding
Adrenal cortex to
stimulate secretion
of cortisol and
aldosterone
Gonalds to initiate
gamete production
Gonalds to initiate
sex hormone
production
Muscle and bone for
growth; promotes
cell division, protein
synthesis
Mammary glands for
milk production;
carbohydrate and fat
metabolism
Thyroid gland to
regulate secretion of
thyroxine and
thiiodothyronine
Melanocytes to
increase production
of melanin
Regulates sleep
pattern
Increase cellular
metabolic rates

Parathyroid

Parathyroid hormone

Adrenal gland
cortex

Aldosterone
Cortisol

Adrenal gland
medulla

Epinephrine,
Norepinephrine

Reproductive gland
ovaries

Estrogen

Progesterone
Reproductive gland
testes

Testosterone

Pancreas

Glucagon
Insulin

Thymus gland

Thymosin

Digestive organs
stomach

Gastrin

Digestive organs
small intestine

Secretin

Increase blood
calcium
concentration
Maintain salt and
water balance
Regulate
carbohydrate and
protein metabolism
Initiate bodys
response to stress;
fight or flight
Regulates female
secondary sex
characteristics
Maintains growth of
uterine lining
Regulate male
secondary sex
characteristics
Stimulates release of
glucose
Stimulates
absorption of
glucose
Stimulates T-cell
formation
Release digestive
enzyme and
hydrochloric acid
Release various
digestive fluids from
the pancreas and
bile from the liver

Anatomy
1.) Hypothalamus
- beneath the thalamus
- regulates body temperature, breathing, hunger and thirst;
homeostasis
- master switchboard: regulates two-lobed pituitary gland releasing
both releasing and release-inhibiting hormones
- links the endocrine system to the nervous system
- Neurosecretory cells: produce hormones that are either stored in
the pituitary gland or regulate the pituitarys activity
- sends:
a.) nerve signals to medulla to speed up or slow down heart rate
b.) hormones
2.) Pituitary gland
- 1cm in diameter; connected to the hypothalamus by a stalk-like
structure
- master gland
- hormones:
a.) Posterior pituitary
i.) ADH/vasopression

ii.) Oxytocin
b.) Anterior pituitary
i.) Releasing hormone
ii.) Release-inhibiting hormone
iii.) Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
iv.) Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
v.) Luteinizing hormone (LH)
vi.) Growth hormone (GH)
vii.) Prolactin (PRL)
viii.) Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
xi.) Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH)
3.) Pineal gland
- near the base of the brain
- Melatonin: increase at night, decrease during day
4.) Thyroid gland
- at the base of the neck, just below the larynx
- requires iodine (from iodized salt) to produce thyroxine and
triiodothyronine
- hormones:
a.) Thyroxine
b.) Triiodothyronine
c.) Calcitonin - produced by the C-cells; inhibits release of
calcium from bones
- Goiter: swelling of the thyroid gland due to iodine deficiency
- thyroxine rate of cell respiration energy active
- Hyperthyroidism: thyroxine
body temperature
heart rate
metabolic rate
blood pressure
weight
- treatment: medication, thyroidectomy
- Hypothyroidism: thyroxine
body temperature
heart rate
metabolic rate (lethargy)
blood pressure
weight
- treatment: supplementary thyroxine
- Cretinism: hypothyroidism in infants; affects normal development of
the skeletal, muscular, and nervous system; characterized by
dwarfism and mental retardation
5.) Parathyroid gland
- at the back surface of the thyroid gland; two in each lobe
- hormone: parathyroid hormone (PTH)
- Tetany: muscular spasms; PTH Ca in the blood; treatment:
administration of large amounts of PTH and Ca
6.) Adrenal glands

- on top of each kidney

- two hormones:
a.) Adrenal cortex - outer; 80% of the mass; responds to ACTH
i.) Corticosteroids - steroid hormones essential for normal
body functions
ii.) Aldostone
iii.) Cortisol
b.) Adrenal Medulla - inner; specialized part of the sympathetic
nervous system; secretes neurohormones/fight or flight hormones
i.) Epiphrine/adrenaline
ii.) Norepiphrine/noradrenaline
- Addisons disease:
activity
blood pressure
energy
- Cushing syndrome:

activity
obesity
sugar levels
blood pressure
bones

7.) Reproductive glands

- Gonalds: gamete-producing organs that also produce a group of
steroid sex hormones; ovaries in females, testes in males
- Sex hormones: regulate body changes that begin with puberty
- Puberty: adol stage when the sex organs mature and secondary
sex characteristics
- hormones:
a.) ovaries
i.) estrogen
ii.) progesterone
b.) testes
i.) testosterone
8.) Pancreas
- behind the stomach
- both an exocrine and endocrine gland
- Islets of Langerhans: secretes hormones:
a.) Glucagon
b.) Insulin
- Diabetes mellitus: undersecretion of insulin
- Type I/juvenile onset: before 25yo; little or no insulin production;
requires strict diet and daily injections of insulin
- Type II/adult onset: after 40yo; lack of insulin receptors
- Hyperglycemia: insulin blood sugar; can cause nausea and
rapid breathing, possibly leading to oxygen deficiency, circulatory and
nervous system failure; diabetic coma
- Hypoglycemia: insulin blood sugar; glucose is stored rather
than distributed; lethargy, dizziness, nervousness, unconsciousness
9.) Thymus gland
- beneath the sternum and between the lungs
- consists mostly of T-cells which plays a role in the development of
immune system

- secretes thymosin
10.) Digestive organs
- secrete hormones that help digest food
- hormones:
a.) gastrin
b.) secretin

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Modes
1.) Asexual
- uniparental
- a single parents buds, fragments or divides to give rise to two or
more offspring that have hereditary traits identical with those of the
parent
- no special reproductive organs or sex cells or fusion of nuclei
occurs
- advantages:
a.) rapid
b.) simple
c.) economy
- disadvantages: offspring are similar to the parents and cant cope
with changing pressures of the environment
- types:
a.) Binary fission - divided into two equal parts; longitudinal,
transverse or oblique; ie. Amoeba, flagellate, ciliate
b.) Multiple fission - parent cell give rise to several offspring cells
simultaneously; schizogony or sporogony
c.) Budding - unequal division; internal or external; ie. Sponges
(gemmules), tapeworm (cyst)
d.) Fragmentation - plasmotomy; fragments into two or more
fragments then each forms missing parts; ie. Earthworm, sea
anemone
2.) Sexual
- biparental
- involves reproductive organs for fusion of gametes to form new
individual
- advantages:
a.) promotes genetic variation among members of the same
species
b.) offspring is more capable of survival than parents in a
changing environment
- disagvantages:
a.) requires more time and effort
b.) many gametes are produced but only a few gets fertilized
c.) reassortment of genes: parent cant give its exact set of genes
- types:

a.) Conjugation - temporary union of two individuals to exchange

gametic nuclei
b.) Copulation - fertilization; ensure meeting of sperm and egg
i.) External - outside the female genital tract; multiple
fertilization; aquatic animals
ii.) Internal - delivery of sperms into the body of the female via
an intromittent organ
Terms
1.) Parthenogenesis - development of egg into a new individual
without fertilization; ie. Rotifers, nematodes, arthropods, gastropods
2.) Polyembryony - fertilization of a single egg by several to many
sperms due to nonfunctionaly fertilization membrane; resulting zygote
is either sterile or dead
3.) Metagenesis - alternation of sexual and asexual generation in
lower forms; ie. Obelia
4.) Hermaphroditism - animal possesses both male and female
reproductive organs; self-fertilization; ie. Flatworms, clams
a.) Protogyrous - female male
b.) Protandrous - male female
5.) Artificial insemination - sperms are deposited in the female
structure by mechanical means without the use of intromittent organ;
ie. Testtube babies
6.) Spermatophore - packet of enclosed sperms that is delivered to
female genital tract
7.) Spermatheca - unique organ attached to the vagina of the female
where sperms are collected
HUMAN MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Anatomy
1.) Testis
- length: 4cm; diameter: 2.5cm
- function:
a.) production of male gametes
b.) secretion of male sex hormone
- Seminiferous tubules: structural units of testis containing cells at
different stages of development; production of spermatozoa
- Cryptorchidism: undescended testis
- types of cells:
a.) Spermatogonic series
i.) Spermatogonia
ii.) Spermatocytes
iii.) Spermatids
iv.) Spermatozoa
b.) Nonspermatogenic cells
i.) Sertoli cells - nourish spermatozoa
ii.) Leydig cells - produce testosterone
2.) Systems of ducts
Seminiferous tubules

Rete testis

Efferent ductules

Epididymis: sperm maturation and capacitation

Vas deferens
seminal vesicle
Ejaculatory duct
prostate gland
Prostatic urethra

Penile urethea: valve controlling urine and sperm exit

semen
Outside :-D
3.) Glands
a.) Seminal vesicle - membranous pouches lying posterior to the
bladder near its base; secretes thick alkaline nutrient-containing fluid:
i.) fructose - ATP, energy source
ii.) fibrinogen
iii.) vit C
b.) Prostate gland - surrounds the bladder neck; secretes thin
alkaline and milky fluid containing fibrinolysin and citric acid;
neutralize acidity of vagina
i.) Paraurethral glands - small numerous glands which open
to prostatic urethra
ii.) Benign prostatic hypertrophy - obstuction of urinary
outflow
c.) Bulbourethral/cowpers gland - pea-sized gland; secrete
fluid which lubricates urethra for passage of semen during ejaculation
*Semen - product of ejaculation consisting of spermatozoa and
seminal fluid; 3.5mL each ejaculate; (1) 50-150M spermatozoa per
mL (2) desquamated cells (3) prostatic concretions
4.) Penis
- male organ of copulation and flaccid structure when not stimulated
- erection: blood is engorged:
a.) paired corpora cavernosa penis (CCP)
b.) single corpora covernosa urethra (CCU)
- Glans penis: expansion of lower portion of penis containing
sensory end organs and urethral orifice; covered by prepuce
Physiology
Hypothalamus

Pitutary gland

FSH

Sperm-producing

Regulate sperm-production

LH

testosterone-producing

testosterone

Sexual response
1.) Erection - first effect of male sexual stimulation (visual)
2.) Lubrication - glands secrete mucus during sexual stimulation or
copulation
3.) Emission - precam; may contain sperm
4.) Ejaculation - actual discharge
Fertility
1.) Radiation - affects actively diving cells in spermatogenesis
2.) Temperature - prevents spermatogenesis; causes degration of
ST
3.) Sperm count - 3.5mL, 120M sperms, 3-4days, 30min-3hr travel;
<20M hyarulonitaze cant break coronaradiaga of the egg
HUMAN FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Functions
1.) Oogenesis - production of female gametes in the ovaries
2.) Reception of male gametes
3.) Fertilization by the spermatozoa at the oviduct
4.) Implantation of fetus at the uterus
5.) Child birth
6.) Child nutrition
Anatomy
1.) External organs
a.) Vulva
i.) Mons pubis - elevation of adipose covered by pubic hair
ii.) Labia majora - rounded folds of adipose tissue with
overlying skin
iii.) Labia minora - medial to labia majora
*Prepuce - upper folds to join in clitoris
*Frenulum - posterior union
b.) Vestibule - cleft between labia minora
i.) Hymen - thin fold of vascularized membrane separating
vagina from the vestibule
ii.) Vaginal orifice - posterior to vestibule; Bartholins gland:
elaborate mucus secretion that acts as lubricant during intercourse
iii.) Urethral orifice - posterior to clitoris, anterior to vaginal
orifice; Skeenes gland: homolog of prostate gland
iv.) Clitoris - erectile body at the apex of vestiblue, anterior to
vagina; homolog of penis
2.) Internal organs
a.) Vagina - tubular canal 4-6in; wall is made of muscle layer
capable of contraction and dilation; part of birth canal; female organ
of copulation
b.) Uterus - implantation of fertilized egg; where fetal
development occurs
c.) Fallopian tube - where fertilization takes place
d.) Ovaries - sites for oogenesis

3.) Breasts - accessory reproductive organ; 15-25 breast lobes, each

consisting of tubuloalveolar glands
a.) Nipple - mammary papilla
b.) Areola - pigmented skin containing sebaceous gland
c.) Lactiferous ducts - drains each lobe
Physiology
1.) Ovarian cycle - ovary, FSH; follicular development; follicle:
structure containing oocytes; 20-90 follicles compete, 1 will emerge
as the winner; primordial, primary, secondary, graafian
2.) Menstrual cycle - preparation for the winner
Day 1-5
Menstrual phase
5-13
Estrogen phase
14
Ovulation
15-28
Progesterone phase
13-17* FERTILE
Estrogen: responsible for thickening

Estrogen FSH LH: trigger ovulation

Progesterone: makes uterus glandular and vascularized

LH Progesterone Estrogen: corpus luteum will regress

3.) Fertilization
Embryo secretes human choriogonadtropin (HCG) which maintains
corpus luteum until 3rd trimester

Uninterrupted progesterone and estrogen secretion

Stop menstruation, start pregnancy

HCG: corpus luteum regresses

Placenta takes over corpus luteum until childbirth

4.) Estrous cycle - when animal is sexually receptive or in heat;
ovulation events; pheromones: chemical signal that female has
ovulated
Response
1.) Stimulation and lubrication - Bartholin's gland
2.) Erection - clitoris
3.) Orgasm - peristaltic contraction of uterus