AXIAL STRUCTURE SYSTEMS

including TRUSSES
using SAP2000
Prof. Wolfgang Schueller

For SAP2000 problem solutions refer to Wolfgang Schueller: Building

Support Structures examples model files:
https://wiki.csiamerica.com/display/sap2000/Wolfgang+Schueller%3A+Building+Su
pport+Structures+If you do not have the SAP2000 program get it from CSI. Students should
request technical support from their professors, who can contact CSI if necessary,
to obtain the latest limited capacity (100 nodes) student version demo for
SAP2000; CSI does not provide technical support directly to students. The reader
may also be interested in the Eval uation version of SAP2000; there is no capacity
limitation, but one cannot print or export/import from it and it cannot be read in the
commercial version. (http://www.csiamerica.com/support/downloads)
See also,
(1) The Design of Building Structures (Vol.1, Vol. 2), rev. ed., PDF eBook by
Wolfgang Schueller, 2016, published originally by Prentice Hall, 1996,
(2) Building Support Structures, Analysis and Design with SAP2000 Software, 2nd
ed., eBook by Wolfgang Schueller, 2015.
The SAP2000V15 Examples and Problems SDB files are available on the
Computers & Structures, Inc. (CSI) website:
http://www.csiamerica.com/go/schueller

Structure Systems & Structure Behavior

INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURAL CONCEPTS
SKELETON STRUCTURES

Axial Systems
Beams
Frames
Arches
Cable-supported Structures

SURFACE STRUCTURES

Membranes: beams, walls

Plates: slabs
Hard shells
Soft shells: tensile membranes
Hybrid tensile surface systems: tensegrity

SPACE FRAMES
LATERAL STABILITY OF STRUCTURES

L I NE E L E M E NT S

AXIAL STRUCTURE
SYSTEMS

TENSILE MEMBERS

COMPRESSIVE
MEMBERS

BEAMS

FLEXURAL STRUCTURE
SYSTEMS

FLEXURAL-AXIAL STRUCTURE SYSTEMS

BEAM-COLUMN
MEMBERS
FRAMES

S UR F A CE E L E M E NT S

TENSILE MEMBRANES
SOFT SHELLS
MEMBRANE FORCES

PLATES
SHELLS

SLABS, MEMBRANE BENDING and TWISTING

RIGID SHELLS

SKELETON STRUCTURES
PLANAR STRUCTURES
Axial force systems

TRUSSES
STAYED STRUCTURES

Flexural force systems

BEAMS

Flexural-axial force systems

FRAMES

ARCHES

SPATIAL STRUCTURES
SPACE FRAMES

CABLE STRUCTURES
COMPOSITE STRUCTURES

Examples of AXIAL

STRUCTURE SYSTEMS include, for instance,

trusses

compression-tension roof enclosure systems

lateral bracing of frames

suspended glass walls
battered piles

polyhedral domes
space frame structures
cable-supported structures: e.g. beams, roofs

air-supported structures, air members

etc.

AXIAL STRUCTURE SYSTEMS

primarily in compression and tension
The following structure types are investigated:

Columns

Beam Columns
Cables

Trusses
etc.

Simple compression-tension enclosure systems

The
building
response
to load
intensity

Some roof support structures

Examples of horizontalspan roof structure

systems

Balance of forces

COLUMNS
COMPRESSION/ TENSION
MEMBERS

BEAM COLUMN
Intersections

Paper Mill, Mantua, Italy, 1979,

Pier Luigi Nervi Struct. Eng

UNESCO Headquarters,
Paris, France, 1958, Marcel
Breuer, Bernard Zehrfuss,
Pier Luigi Nervi

FM Constructive system,
Elmag plant, Lissone,
Milano, 1964, Angelo
Mangiarotti Arch

Theatre Erfurt, Erfurt,

Germany, 2003, Joerg
Friedrich Arch

Theater Erfurt (2003), Joerg Friedrich Arch, foyer

Bundeskanzleramt, Berlin, 2001,

Axel Schultes Arch

Marie-Elisabeth-Lders-Haus, Berlin,
2003, Stephan Braunfels Arch

Paul-Lbe-Haus, Berlin, 2002,

Stephan Braunfels Arch

New Beijing Planetarium, 2001, AmphibianArc Nanchi Wang

School of Architecture, Bond

University, Brisbane, Australia, 2014,
Peter Cook (CRAB) Arch

Paper Concert Hall, L

Aquila, Italy, 2011,
Shigeru Ban Arch

TU Munich, Munich, Germany

Museum of Art, Bonn, Germany,1993,

Axel Schultes Arch

Crematorium Baumschulenweg,
Berlin, Germany, 1998, Axel Schultes
Arch, GSE Saar Enseleit Struct Eng

Pinakotek der Moderne,

Munich, Germany, 2002,
Stephan Braunfels Arch

Canadian Embassy, Washington, 1989,

Arthur Erickson Arch

Xinghai Square shopping mall, Dalian, China

Guangzhou Baiyun International Airport, 2004, Parsons

Atrium, Germanisches Museum, Nuremberg, Germany, 1993, me di um Arch

Interchange Terminal Hoenheim-Nord, Strassbourg, 2002, Zaha Hadid

Undulating viewing platform,

Ludian, Yunnan, China, 2014,
John Lin +Olivier Ottevaere
Architects

Wanli University, Ningbo, China

Centre Cramique, Maastricht,

The Netherland, 1999, Jo
Coenen Arch

Haans Office, Tilburg, The Netherlands,

1993, Jo Coenen Arch

Modern Wing at the

Art Institute of
Chicago, Chicago,
Illinois, 2009, Renzo
Piano Arch

The Luxembourg
Philharmonie, Luxemboug,
2007, Portzamparc Arch

The Aluminum Forest

,Utrecht, Netherlands, 2001,
M.de Haas Arch

Kanagawa Institute of Technology Workshop , Kanagawa, Japan, 2007,

Junya Ishigami + Associate

Leonardo Glass
Cube, Bad Driburg
2007, 3deluxe Arch

The Netherlands
Architectural Institute,
Rotterdam, 1993, Jo
Coenen Arch

Kunstmuseum Wolfsburg, Wolfsburg,

Germany, 1994, Peter P.Schweger Arch

Indianapolis
International Airport,
Aerodesign Group
Arch, 2008

Sendai
Mediatheque,
2-1, Kasugamachi, Aobaku, Sendai-shi
980-0821,
Japan, 2001,
Toyo Ito Arch,
Mutsuro
Sasaki Struct
Eng

Park Gell, Santa Coloma de Cervello, Spain, 1908, Antoni Gaudi Arch

column shapes

Members in compression have the potential to buckle: to suddenly lose the ability
to carry load my moving laterally with respect to the load. In some cases, a
member may buckle about the strong axis direction (based on a strong axis
bending shape), or a weak axis direction, as shown below. The allowable stress
for each is calculated using appropriate k, L, and r properties for the direction.

Column formula: material failure (short

column), inelastic buckling (intermediate
column), elastic buckling (long column)

The load which causes a member to buckle elastically depends on the following
member properties:
The unbraced length: L
The cross section size and "spread-outness": I
The material stiffness: E
The end conditions are also important, since they change the effective length of
the member. This is accounted for by an "effective length factor", denoted by k.

The following table shows effective length factors:

Effective Length Factor, K

0.5

To account for Axial-Flexural Buckling

Indicates the total bent length of column between
inflection points
Can vary from 0.5 to Infinity
Most common range 0.75 to 2.0

1.0

0.5 - 1.0

2.0

1.0 -

K = 0.5

K = 0.7

K=1

K=1

K=2

K=2

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

SAP2000 examples of basic elastic buckling modes

(1) Fig. 3.21 & (2) Fig. 4.5, Effective Length Factors

Sagrada Familia, Barcelona, 1882 -2028(?), Antonio Gaudi

Elephant Temple, Bombay

Expo Dach, Hannover EXPO 2000,

Thomas Herzog, Julius Natterer

Turmrestaurant Bierpinsel, BerlinSteglitz, 1976, Ralf Schler +

Ursulina Schler-Witte Arch

Parkland Mall, Dalian, China, 1999

San Francisco Federal Building, 2007, Thom Mayne of Morphosis

Tokyo International
Forum,,1997,
Rafael Vinoly Arch,
Kunio Watanabe
Struct. Eng

Altmarkt Galery, Dresden,

Germany, 2002, Manfred Schomers
+ Rainer Schrmann Arch

Science and Technology Museum Shanghai, 2002, RTKL/Arup

Guangzhou Baiyun
Internationl Airport, 2004,
Parsons (Asia Pacific) +
URS Greiner Arch, T.Y.
Lin Struct. Eng.

Ningbo Air Terminal

Civic Center, Shenzhen ,

2004, Li Mingyi Arch

Science Museum Principe Felipe, Valencia,

Spain, 2001, Santiago CalatravaArch

BEAM COLUMNS
INLINED COLUMNS, FRAMES

Typical beamcolumn loading

Beam-column interaction

What is Slenderness Effect

Moment
Amplification

Capacity
Reduction

I
e

II
C

D = f(Mc)

I. Mc = P.e
Short Column

II : Mc = P(e + D)
Long Column

Column Capacity (P-M)

e = Mu/Pu
Pu

Pu

Mu

Region 1:
max axial compression

Po

e
Pu Pn
e = Mu/Pu
Mn/Pn
a.

Pu
Pu

min

Region 2:
compression controls
e

Pn, Axial compression

Pn max
= 0.80Po
(tied)

Balanced strain
condition

Pb
eb

Region 3:
tension controls

Mo
Mb
Mn, bending moment

b.

Fig. 4.11 Concrete Column Behavior Under Combined Bending and Axial Loads

Looped Hybrid Housing, Beijing, 2008,

Steven Holl Arch

Green roofs, Vancouver Civic Centre West, LMN + DAQ/MCM, 2009

Vancouver Civic Centre West, LMN + DAQ/MCM, 2009

Beijing

Downtown Ningbo, China,

2002, Qingyun Ma Arch

Dresdner Bank, Verwaltungszentrum, Leipzig, 1997, Engel und Zimmermann Arch

CABLES
TENSION MEMBERS

Golden Gate
Bridge, San
Francisco,
1937,
Joseph
Strauss and
Irwing
Morrow

Bollman Truss Railroad Bridge, Savage,

Maryland, 1869, Wendel Bollman Eng.

Sunniberg Bridge,
between Klosters and
Serneus, Switzerland,
2005, Christian Menn
Designer

Paper Mill, Mantua, Italy, 1979,

Nervi Struct..Eng.

Sundial Bridge, Redding, CA, 2006, Santiago Calatrava

Experiments with structure,

Iakov Chernikhov Arch, Russian
Constructivism, 1925-1932

NY Times, New York, 2004, Renzo Piano

Arch; X-bracing of high-rise building

Building stability and

slope stability anchors
Hopewell Center,
Wanchai, Hong Kong,
Gordon Wu & Assoc.,
Ove Arup Eng.

Berlin Stock Exchange, Berlin, Germany, 1999, Nick Grimshaw

House (World War 2

bunker),
Aachen, Germany

Godzilla House, Seoul, South

Korea, Chae-Pereiera Architect

Cable-supported structures

Yountville Town Center, Yountville, CA, 2011,

Siegel+Strain-Arch, Coastland Engineering

Structures primarily
in tension

Funicular tension lines, or pressure lines in the inverse

Single-strut and
multi-strut cablesupported beams

Kempinski Hotel, Munich, Germany, 1997, H. Jahn/Schlaich:

Auditorium
Paganini,
Parma, Italy,
2001, Renzo
Piano Arch

Landeshauptstadt
Mnchen, Baureferat,
Georg-Brauchle-Ring,
Munich, Germany,
Christoph Ackerman

Saibu Gas Museum for natural

Phenomen-art, Fukuoka, 1989, Shoei
Yoh + Architects

Hongkong Bank, Honkong, 1985, Foster + Arup

Pompidou Center, Paris, 1977, Piano and Rogers

Centre George Pompidou,

Paris, 1977, Piano & Rogers

Fondation Avicienne (Maison de l'Iran),

Cit Internationale Universitaire, Paris,
1969, Claude Parent + Moshen Foroughi
et Heydar Ghiai Arch

Fondation Avicienne (Maison de l'Iran), Cit Internationale Universitaire, Paris, 1969, Claude
Parent + Moshen Foroughi et Heydar Ghiai Arch

Petersbogen shopping center,

Leipzig, 2001, HPP HentrichPetschnigg Arch

Tower Bridge
House, London,
2006, Richard
Rogers Arch

Airport Munich Hangar 1 (153 m), Munich, 1992, Gnter

Bschl Arch, Fred Angerer Struct. Eng

Patcenter, Princeton, USA, 1984, Richard Rogers

Arch, Ove Arup Struct Eng

Shanghai-Pudong
International Airport, 2001,
Paul Andreu principal
architect, Coyne et Bellier
structural engineers

Milleneum Bridge, London,

2000, Foster/Arup

The Munich Airport Business

Center, Munich, Germany,
1997, Helmut Jahn Arch

Sony Center, Potzdamer Platz, Berlin, 2000,

Helmut Jahn Arch., Ove Arup Struct. Eng

Munich Olympic Stadium, 1972,

Gnther Behnisch, Frei Otto

Cable-supported structures

Space needle, Hirshhorn,

Washington, 1968, Kenneth
Snelson

SPHRERICAL ASSEMBLY OF TENSEGRITY TRIPODS

TRUSSES
COMPRESSION-TENSION
MEMBERS

Palladio's Trusses, 1580

TRUSSES are typical examples of axial structure systems . Because

of their simplicity of behavior they provide an ideal introduction to
computer analysis. Trusses are composed of frame elements ,which
are modeled as straight lines connecting two joints I and J which are
also called nodes. It is assumed that the members in trusses are pinconnected and subject only to joint loads, hence only axial internal
member forces are generated in the truss.
For determinate structures the effect of material and member sizes is
in the first introduction to structural software disregarded (i.e. use
using either elements with zero moments of inertia or using default
setting), since member stiffness has no effect on the magnitude of
internal member forces, however deflection results can not be used.

Application of trusses ranges from the small scale of a joist to

the large scale of a deep truss supporting a stadium roof. They
are used as roof and bridge structures and as wind bents that
is vertical cantilevers, which brace high-rise skeleton
structures. Trusses may replace any solid element such as
beams, columns, arches, or frames. From a structure system
point of view, they may be classified as,
Truss cantilevers, truss beams of various profiles (flat,
tapered, pitched, curved, crescent, etc.)
Truss arches
Truss frames forming single or multi-bay structures
The typical truss profiles for roofs are flat, pitched (e.g.
triangular, trapezoidal, hip, gambrel) or curved. Trusses may
be organized according to the arrangement of members and
according to behavioral considerations as:

Trussed structures primarily in compression and tension

Examples of trussed structures

Fig. 7.24 Trussed Frames (The

Vertical Building Structure by
Wolfgang Schueller)

Warehouse Magazzini Generali, Chiasso,

1925, Robert Maillart Arch and Eng

Project, Nationaltheater, Mannheim,

1953, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe Arch

Abgeordneten Bridge, Berlin, Stephan Braunfels Arch, Setzpfandt Struct Eng;

Marie-Elisabeth-Lders-Haus

Red-Bull-Arena, Leipzig, Germany, 2006, Wirth+Wirth, Glckner Architekten, Krber, Barton, Fahle

Allianz Arena, Munich, Germany, 2005, Herzog & de Meuron Arch, ARUP Struct Eng for roof

Roof structure of Olympia

Stadium, Berlin, 2012, von
Gerkan, Marg Arch, Schlaich
Bergermann Struct Eng

Arena Auf
Schalke,
Gelsenkirchen,
Germany, 2001,
Hentrich,
Petschnigg
Arch, Klemens
Pelle, Struct Eng

Quingpu Pedestrian Bridge, Shanghai, 2008, Pedro Pablo Arroyo Alba Arch,
Bridge Structures Dept. of Tongji University

A380 Lufthansa Maintenance Hangar,

Frankfurt/Main Airport , 2007, van
Gerkan Marg Arch, Schlaich
Bergermann Struct. Eng.

Internationales
Congress Centrum
Berlin,1979, Ralf
Schler + Ursulina
Schler-Witte Arch,

George Washington
Bridge Bus Station ,
New York, 1963, Pier
Luigi Nervi

new Trade Fair Center, parking

garage across A8, Stuttgart, 2007,
Wulf & Partners

Trade Fair Centre, parking garage,

Stuttgart, 2007, Wulf & Partners

Gund Hall, Harvard U.,

Cambridge, 1972, John
AndrewsArch, William
LeMessurier Struct Eng

Picture Window House,

Shizuoka, Japan, 2002,
Shigeru Ban Arch

Daimler Chrysler, Potsdamer Platz, Berlin, 2002,

Richard Rogers Arch

Potsdamer Platz Office and

Commercial Building, Berlin,
Germany , 2000, Helmut Jahn
Arch

Schulhaus
Leutschenbach
, Zrich, 2009,
Christian Kerez
Arch

Medellin Sports Coliseum, Medellin, Colombia,

2010, Giancarlo Mazzanti + Felipe Mesa Arch,
Nicols Parra+Daniel Lozano Struct Eng

Hancock Tower,
Chicago, 1970, Bruce
Graham + Fazlur Khan
/ SOM

Burj-Al-Arab Hotel,
Dubai, United Arab
Emirates, 1998, Tom
Wright Arch (W.S.
Atkins), W.S.Atkins
Struct Eng

Citic Bank HQ, Hangzou,China, 2015, by Norman Foster+Partners,

East China Architectural Design Institute Struct. Eng

8 Chifley, Syney,
Australia, 2013,
Rogers Stirk
Harbour +
Partners, Arup
Eng

San Francisco International Airport, International Terminal, 2001, SOM

Bush Lane House, London, 1976, Arup

The Leadenhall Building, London, 2010,

Rogers Stirk Harbour + Partners, Arup

Bank of China, Hong Kong, 1990, I.M. Pei Arch, Leslie E. Robertson Struct. Eng.

Core bracing
example

Highrise Beijing, 2006,

bracing example

Fiduciary Trust Building, Boston, 1977, The Architects Collaborative

Sony Tower (AT&T Building), New

York, 1984, Johnson/Burgee Arch,
Leslie Robertson Struct Eng

Onterie Center, Chicago, Ill,

1986, SOM Arch+Struct Eng

Citycorp Center, New

York, 1977, Stubbins
Arch, William
LeMessurier Struct Eng

Eccentrically braced frame

Hongkong Bank,
Hong Kong,
1985,
Foster/Arup

staggered
truss system

Godfrey Hotel, Chicago, Ill,

2014, Valerio Dewalt Train
Associates Arch, Structural
Affiliates International

Centre Georges Pompidou, Paris, 1977, R. Piano + R. Rogers

Arch, P. Rice (Arup) Struct. Eng

TKFC Yum! Center, Louisville Ky,

2010, Populous Arch, , Walter P
Moore Struct. Eng.

Merzedes-Benz Zentrale, Berlin,

2000, Lamm, Weber, Donath und
Partner

Holocaust Memorial
Museum,
Washington, 1993,
James Ingo Freed

Syntsalo Town Hall,

Finland, 1993, Alvar
Aalto Arch

NOVARTIS CAMPUS,
FABRIKSTRASSE 14 , Basel,
Switzerland, 2009, JOSE
RAFAEL MONEO Arch,
Werner Sobek Struct. Eng

Veteran's Memorial
Coliseum, New Haven
Connecticut, 1972, Kevin
Roche Arch

De Brug Unilever,
Rotterdam, 2007, JHK Arch

Centra at Metropark, Iselin, NJ, 2011, Kohn

Pedersen Fox Arch, DeSimone Struct Eng

Pennsylvania State, Millennium Science

Complex, University Park, PA, 2010, Rafael
Violy Arch, Thornton Tomasetti Struct Eng

POPS, Arcadia, Oklahoma, 2008,

Elliott + Associates Architects

Library Gainesville, FL

Bordercrossing Aachen-Lichtenbusch,
Belgium, 2006

British Airways
hangar, Munich

BOK Center, Tulsa,

Oklahoma, 2008,
Cesar Pelli Arch,
Thornton
Tomasetti Struct. Eng

TU Stuttgart, Germany

Valeo - Auto - Electric Motoren GmbH, Bietigheim

Bissingen, Germany,
Germany, Christoph
Ackermann Arch

Museum Marta, Herford, 2005, Frank Gehry

Petersbogen shopping center, Leipzig, 2001, HPP Hentrich-Petschnigg

Chongqing Jiangbei International Airport Terminal, 2005, Llewelyn Davies Yeang

Arch, Arup Struct Eng

Serpentine Joists: Lindhout Architects Headquarters, Brighton, MI, 2008

Skijump tower, Oberhof, Thueringen,

Germany

INTRODUCTION TO
TRUSS ANALYSIS

Basic triangular and

rectangular trusses

Simple trusses are formed by the addition of triangular

member units and can be further subdivided into
regular, irregular (e.g. fan trusses), and subdivided
truss systems often used for bridge trusses to give
adequate support to the deck (Fig. 6.2, 6.3).
Compound trusses are formed by addition of simple
trusses. These trusses are not necessarily composed
of triangles, indicating that stable trusses can be
generated by figures other than triangles (Fig. 6.6)

Complex trusses are neither simple nor compound.

Special methods of analysis must be applied to these
trusses even if they are statically determinate, since
more than three members are attached to each joint,
and sections cut through at least four members result
in more unknowns than available equations at the
location to be investigated (Fig. 6.7).

A.

B.

C.

D.

E.

F.

G.

G.

BASIC TRIANGULAR TRUSSES

Common simple truss types are identified in Fig. 6.3. It is demonstrated in

the drawings that the arrangement of the members determines which of
the members are in tension and in compression under uniform gravity
loading along the top chord..
Pratt truss (a.) with diagonals in tension and the verticals in
compression,
Howe truss (b.) using compression diagonals and vertical tension
members,
Modified Warren truss (c., d.) in which the diagonals are alternately in
tension and compression,
Lattice or double Warren truss (e.) can be visualized as two
superimposed single Warren trusses,
K-truss (f.) in which the top half behaves similar to a Howe truss, while
the bottom half behaves like a Pratt truss.
X-truss (g.) often designed as hinged frame truss cross-braced with
tensile rods, where the bars are not connected at their point of
intersection. Since the diagonals cannot carry compression, the truss
reduces to a Pratt truss under the given loading.
Irregular truss (h.): for the shown truss the diagonal bars cross each
other without being connected at their point of intersection. The truss
reduces to a Warren truss under the given loading. Other examples of
irregular simple trusses include fan trusses.
Composite, truss-like structures where struts resist compression
and ties tension (for discussion see Fig. 11.2)

a.

b.

c.

d.

e.

f.

g.

g.

SIMPLE RECTANGULAR TRUSSES

From a point of view of optimum weight, the truss configuration should reflect the
funicular shape due to the critical external loading so that the chords carry all the
loads and the web members are zero and are primarily used for the secondary
asymmetrical loading case and for lateral bracing of the compression chord. One
may also want to consider the constant-force design of trusses, where the force
flow along the top and bottom chords is constant. Several examples of efficient
truss forms as related to gravity loading, are shown in Fig. 6.4.
A truss should be curvilinear in response to uniform load action (e.) with a
funicular top chord arch and constant-stress bottom chord; for a fish belly truss the
situation is opposite.
However, in the ideal form, the vertical web members should be arranged
in a radial fashion so that that their extensions intersect at a concurrent
point, the center of the circle forming the top (or bottom) arch. For this
situation, the forces are constant in the arched top chord and almost
constant in the radial web members and the bottom chord (e.).
A truss should be lens-shaped, if the loads are shared by the arched top and
bottom chords in compression and tension respectively (f.).
A truss should be pitched for point loading. In other words, the truss should be
triangular with respect to a single load (a.), trapezoidal for two loads (d.), and of
gambrel profile for three single loads (c.).
A triangular truss should have a funicular bottom chord, if the web columns
transfer loads from the top chord to the tensile bottom chord (b.).

a.

b.

c.

d.

e.

f.

FUNICULAR TRUSSES

a.

b.

c.

d.

d.

f.
FAN TRUSSES

Compound Trusses
When several simple trusses are connected to each other, they are
called compound trusses (Fig. 5.8). Trusses may be connected by:
by three nonparallel bars whose axes cannot cross a common point,
by a single member and common joint,
by replacing members of the main truss with secondary trusses.

Compound trusses can be analyzed by using a combination of the

methods of sections and joints. For the third truss type, however,
remove the secondary truss members and replace them with fictitious
members to form the main truss. First figure the reactions and force
flow of the secondary trusses, and then apply the reactions as
external loads to the main truss.

a.

b.

d.

c.

g.
e.

f.

COMPOUND TRUSSES

Complex Trusses
Trusses, which cannot be classified as simple or compound trusses
are called complex trusses. Complex trusses may have any member
configuration and any number of support conditions as long as Eq.
5.1 is satisfied for statically determinate trusses and they are stable.
To check the computer solution of complex, determinate trusses
manually may not be simple, since joints generally have more than
three unknowns. In other words, using the method of joints, the
equilibrium equations for several joints must be set up, and then the
equations must be solved simultaneously. Another method of analysis
is to reduce the complex truss to a stable simple truss by removing a
member and substituting it somewhere else to form a simple truss,
called the method of substitute members. For fast approximation
purposes of parallel chord trusses, however, use the beam analogy by
assuming that the moments are carried by the flanges and the shear
by the web members.

a.

b.

c.

d.

e.

f.

COMPLEX TRUSSES

The distribution of force flow depends not just on the arrangement

of the web members but also on the truss shape. Comparing the
basic truss profiles of flat, pitched, and curved trusses under
uniform gravity loading, one may conclude:
The curvilinear profile can be considered optimal since it is nearly
funicular for the given loading.
The chords of the flat truss are only used efficiently in the midspan range thereby suggesting the benefit of the shape for larger
spans where bending controls.

For the triangular truss the chords are only efficiently used at the
supports where the shear is maximum, indicating the advantage of
the shape for shorter spans where shear beam action controls.
The trapezoidal truss falls between the parallel and triangular
trusses.

Response of ordinary trusses to

uniform gravity loading

Concurrent force
system using
METHOD OF JOINTS
for analysis

The cabin of Mac Dunstan and Linda Grob, in a hillside near Seattle, 2008

Investigate a basic 15-ft (4,57-m) high, 30-ft (9,14-m) span, triangular, hinged truss unit using SAP2000. Apply vertical, horizontal,
or combined single loads of 1-k = 4,45kN at the joints as indicated on the drawing; assign zero to self-weight. Disregard the effect
of material and member sizes (i.e. use default setting), since member stiffness in determinate structures has no effect on the
magnitude of internal member forces, however do not use deflection results.
Study the load flow effect due to change of:
GEOMETRY: profile, crown location, roof slope, inclination of bottom chord, etc.
LOAD ARRANGEMENT: load location, load direction
SUPPORT LOCATION and ORIENTATION (i.e. rotate supports)
Start with the basic symmetrical regular truss, and then reshape the unit and run the case analysis, and so on. Use a 5x5-ft
(1,524x1,524-m) grid to construct the layout of the truss. Show the axial force flow with numerical values, and show the reaction
forces. Study the relationship of member tension and compression so you can develop a feeling for the structure and
predict the direction of the force flow.
Check manually (graphically or analytically) the computer results of member forces and reactions for at least half the cases.

a.
c.

b.
d.

5'
5'

Structural software, West Point Bridge Designer, version 4.1.1, which was developed
by Colonel Professor Steve Ressler at the U.S. Military Academy, West Point, NY.
(bridgecontest.usma.edu/index.htm).

a. b.
c. d.

4'
4'

a. b.
c. d.

4'
4'

COMPUTATION OF AXIAL MEMBER FORCES

Generally, two methods can be used: Method of Joints and Method of Sections
The internal member forces at mid-span are only checked. Therefore, a segment of
the truss is investigated by cutting an imaginary section through the truss, (i.e.
method of section) and looking only to the left free-body. The unknown internal
forces in the top, bottom and diagonal members are designated as Nt and Nb with
the assumed direction as shown in the previous free-body that is acting in
compression towards the members, and Nd acting in tension away from the
members.
Vertical equilibrium of forces gives the magnitude of the normal force Nd in the
diagonal member,
V = 0 = 2.5 - 2(1) - (Nd /)1, or Nd = 0.707 k (C)
Rotational equilibrium about the top joint D at mid-span yields the magnitude of the
bottom chord force Nb.
MD = 0 = 2.5(16) -1(16) - 1(8) - Nb(8), or Nb = 2.0 k (T)
Rotational equilibrium about the bottom joint J yields the magnitude of the top chord
force Nt.
MJ = 0 = 2.5(8) -1(8) - Nt(8), or Nb = 1.5 k (C)
Check: H = 0 = 2.0 - 1.5 - (0.707/)1, OK
The magnitude of the other members in the free-body can be obtained now by the
method of joints.

1k

1k
2.0 k

70
0.

0.5 k

7
k
1.5 k
i
2.5 k

METHOD OF SECTIONS for analysis

Dr.Frame program, the structural programs of Dr. Software, www.drsoftware-home.com

William J. Clinton Presidential

Center , Little Rock, Ark, 2004,
James Polshek

Seoul National University Museum,

2006, Rem Koolhaas

Cardinals Stadium, Glendale, Ariz, 2006, Peter Eisenman Arch, Walter P Moore+Buro
Happold (roof) Struct. Eng

Rafael del Pino Auditorium, Madrid,

Spain, 2008, Rafael de La-Hoz Arch

SPACE FRAME STRUCTURES

Three-dimensional structures may be organized as follows:

Spatial frameworks, such as derricks, building cores, towers, guyed structures
Linear space truss members, such as beams and arches
Single-layer, three-dimensional frameworks, which are folded or bent latticed
surface structures, such as folded plate planar trusses, polyhedral dome-like
structures and other synclastic and anticlastic surface structures. They obtain their
strength through spatial geometry, that is, their profile.

Multi-layer, three-dimensional, space frames, which are generated by adding

polyhedral units to form three-dimensional building blocks. In contrast to single-layer
systems, the multi-layer structure has bending stiffness and does not need to be
curved; familiar examples are the flat, double-layer space frame roofs and the subtensioned floor/roof structure

trestle table by Carlo Mollino (1948)

Ningbo Airterminal

San Siro Stadium, Milan,

Italy, (1925 originally)
1990 renovation,
Giancarlo Ragazzi, Henry
Hoffer, Leo Finzi E

National Motor
Museum, Beaulieu,
Hampshire,
England, UK,
1972, Leonard Man
asseh + Ian Baker
Arch

Post Tower, Bonn, Germany,

2003, Murphy/Jahn Arch, Werner
Sobek Struct Eng

Petersbogen shopping
center, Leipzig, 2001,
HPP HentrichPetschnigg

Beijing Capital
International Airport Terminal 2, 1999

San Francisco International Airport, International Terminal, 2001, SOM

Leicester University, Engineering

Building, 1959, Stirling and Gowan Arch

Polyhedral Roof Structures

Single-layer space frame roofs

Force equilibrium in space

Atrium, Germanisches Museum, Nuremberg, Germany,1993, me di um Arch

Common polyhedra derived from cube

Support conditions for three-dimensional structures

The basic three-dimensional structure

1k
e
15'
z
y

15'
1k

y
x

15'
d

20'

15'

Pyramidal Roof Structure

Spatial Tree Unit: Axial Force Diagram

Problem 1, Braced building core

Flat space-frame roofs

Generation of space grids by overlapping planar networks

Platonic solids

Double-layer space frame types

Common space frame

joints

Slab analogy and slab support

Structural behavior of double-layer

space frames

Space Grid Truss Axial Force Flow

Two-Way Space Truss Beam Grid

US Air Force Hangar Projekt,

1951, Konrad Wachsmann Arch

Stuttgart Airport, Terminal 1, Germany, 1991, von Gerkan Marg Arch

Trees

concept of tree
geometry
Tree
geometry

a.
a.

b.

c.

Example of Space Frame Structures: tree construction in SAP2000

tree construction

National Air and Space Museum,

Washington, 1976, Gyo Obata of
Hellmuth, Obata and Kassabaum

Us Airline Terminal, OHare International Airport, Chicago, 1987, Helmut Jahn

B&B Italia Offices,

Novedrate, Italy, 1973,
Studio Piano & Rogers

New Trade Fair Parc Luxembourg and Train

Station, Luxembourg-Kirchberg, 2010, Pohl
Arch, Knippers Helbig Struct Eng

Ice and Swim Stadium Lentpark, Cologne,

Germany, 2012, Schulitz Arch, Arup Struct Eng

Eco House Prototype, Malibu ,

CA, 2009, Peter Jon Pearce

Eco House Prototype, Malibu ,

CA, 2009, Peter Jon Pearce
Arch

Olympic Stadium, Mexico

City, 1968, Felix Candela
Arch

Geodesic dome

Eden Project,
Cornwall, UK,
2001, Nicholas
Grimshaw
Architects,
Anthony
Hunt Struct Eng

Examples of terraced housing

Ramot Polin housing, Jerusalem,

Israel, 1975, Zvi Hecker

Habitat '67, Montreal, 1967, Moshe Safdie

Arch, August E. Komendant Struct Eng

Danciger Building,
Mechanical
Engineering Building,
Technion, Haifa, Israel,
1966, Zvi Hecker +
Alfred Neumann Arch

Beijing National
Stadium roof (Birds
Nest), 2008, Herzog
and De Meuron Arch,
Arup Struct. Eng.

The 313-m (1027-ft) span Beijing National Stadium roof (Herzog and De Meuron Arch,
and Arup Eng,) is saddle-shaped with an elliptical building footprint. The concept of the
dome form is a birds nest, where the interwoven mesh of tubular steel members
appear to be arranged in a chaotic, random manner. This irregular, grid-like, threedimensional space frame structure, however, only looks like random, in reality it consists
of a primary members based on 24 column points at ground level spaced at regular
intervals around the elliptical footprint. Truss columns of roughly pyramidal shape
supporting a regular series of interwoven trusses that span tangentially to the central
roof opening across the stadium. Secondary, diagonal members are placed along the
perimeter for the staircases and are arched across the roof down to the other side.
Finally, a tertiary group of infill members is added as required by the aesthetics of the
faade. The faade is in-filled with translucent ETFE panels or openings are left, to allow
natural ventilation through the public concourse, into the stadium, and through the
central opening in the roof structure.

Beijing National Swimming Center (Water Cube), 2008, Arup Arch

The 177x 177 x 31 m (581 x 581 x 102 ft) Beijing National Swimming Center (PTW Arch and Arup
Eng., 2008) known as the Water Cube celebrates the transparency and dynamics of water
bubbles. It has column-free spans up to 121 m (396 ft) in either direction. The development of the
subdivision of space is derived from the arrangement of organic cells, mineral crystals and the
natural formation of soap bubbles. The enclosing structure consists of a polyhedron space frame,
but the arrangement of the cells is irregular and appears random and organic although it is
mathematically rigorous and repetitious; because when an all space-filling regular polyhedral
system is cut at an arbitrary angle it appears to be random. The space frame is made up of
slender steel pipes and joints; it is clad with translucent plastic foil air pillows that look like
bubbles. The skins material is ethylene tetrafluoroethylene (ETFE) a species of Teflon, which is
designed to react to changing light conditions thereby creating amazing visual effects. The
building skin has excellent insulation properties and creates a greenhouse effect capturing the
energy from the sun for heating and lighting.

Inflatable Yorkshire Diamond Pavilion,

Oslo Norway, 2009, Various Architekts AS,
Tom Gam Struct Eng

Culver City, LA, 1990, Eric

Owen Moss Arch