Composite Materials & Structures

Composite materials and

structures:
unit-2

Unit 2.

Methods of analysis:

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Average properties of the material are

established in this process.
Two of the basic approaches that have
been used in the micromechanics of
composite materials are:
1). The strength of materials or
mechanics of materials theory, and
2). The theory of elasticity approach.

Assumptions in micromechanical analysis:

Following assumptions are made in the micro-

Micro mechanics mechanics of materials

approach, elasticity approach to determine
material properties.
Macromechanics - stress-strain relations,
with respect to natural axis, arbitrary axis
- determination of material properties.
Experimental characterization of lamina.

mechanical analysis of composite materials to

determine the structural properties:
1. Both the fibre and the matrix are
homogeneous and isotropic.
2. The fibre, the matrix and the resulting
composite exhibit linear elastic behaviour.
-contd-

Micromechanics
Micro mechanics deals with the
establishment of rational techniques by
which the lamina elastic constants,
strength, thermal expansion coefficients
etc., can be predicted in terms of the
constituent material properties and the
phase geometry (eg., the shape, and
arrangement of the filaments) and the
volume ratios of the filament and matrix.

Prepared by Prof. C Bhaskaran

3.Perfect bond exist between fibres and

matrix so that no slippage occurs at the
interface.
4. Fibres are uniform, regularly spaced
and perfectly aligned.
5. The matrix is free of voids.
6. The lamina is in a stress free state.

Composite Materials & Structures

Strength of materials approach:

Strength of materials or mechanics of materials
theory is more elementary and requires an
assumption concerning either the stress or
strain distribution over the cross section. This
approach is also known as theory of mixtures.
Assumptions:
This method assumes that,
the plane sections remain plane during
deformation process, each constituent material
undergoes same deformation.

1. Density:
Consider a composite of mass mc and
volume vc. The total mass of the composite is the
sum total of the masses of fibre and matrix, that
--------(i)
is,
mc = mf + mm
The subscripts c, f and m indicate composite,
fibre and matrix respectively.
Equation (1) is valid even in the presence of any
voids in the composite. The volume of the
composite, however, must include the volume of
voids vv.
Thus, vc = vf + vm+ vv -------------(ii)

Dividing equation(1) by mc and eqn(2) by vc,

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1.1 Density in the presence of Voids:

We can write c in terms of mass fractions,
c = mc/vc = mc/(vf+vm+ vv)
= mc/ ((mf/f) +(mm/m) +vv)
= 1/(Mf/f + Mm/m+ vv/mc)
= 1/ (Mf/f+Mm/m+Vv/c) -----------(6)
Eqn (6) can be indirectly used to measure the volume
fraction of voids in a composite material, as follows:

Rewriting eqn(6), we get,

c = c / [c(Mf/f + Mm/m) + Vv]
or Vv = 1- c[(Mf/f) + (Mm/m)] ---------(7)
Example:
A thermoplastic matrix composite contains 40% glass
fibre by weight. If the specific gravity of the matrix is
1.1 , while that of glass fibre is 2.5, what is the
density of the composite, if there are no voids?

Solution:

and denoting the mass and volume fractions by

Consider 100 kg of composite.

Mf, Mm and Vf, Vm, Vv respectively, we can write,

Amount of glass fibre, mf = 40 kg

and

Mf + Mm = 1

-------------(3)

Vf + Vm + Vv =1

------------(4)

The composite Density c (= m/v) is given by,

= (f vf + m vm)/vc = (f vf/vc )+(mvm/vc)

c = fVf + mVm

Prepared by Prof. C Bhaskaran

Volume of the composite, vc is the sum of volumes of fibre, vf

and matrix, vm.
Volume, vc = vm + vf = ( mm/m )+ (mf /f)

c = mc/vc = (mf + mm)/vc

ie)

Amount of matrix, mm = 60 kg
to determine the volume of the composite:

------------(5)

= (60/1100 + 40/2500) = 7.05x10-2 m3

density of the composite, c =100/ 7.05x10-2
=1420 kg/m3.

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Mechanical properties
Prediction of elastic constants:
1. Youngs modulus, E11, in the fibre direction.
Consider a unidirectional composite, as shown in
figure.
Assume that plane sections of this composite remain
plane after deformation. Let us apply a load Pc in the
fibre direction. Now , if two components adhere
perfectly and if they have the same Poissons ratio, then
each component will undergo the same longitudinal
elongation, l.
Pc

equation (3) is called the rule of mixture for

youngs modulus in the fibre direction.

Pc

Thus, we can write for the strain in each

component,
f = m = cl = l/l --------(1)
Where, cl is the strain in the longitudinal
direction.
This is called the iso-strain or
action- in- parallel situation.
If both fibre and matrix are elastic , we can
relate the stress, , in the two components to
the strain, cl , by the youngs modulus, E. Thus,
f = Ef f and m = Em m
or, f = Ef cl and m = Em cl

Let Ac be the area of cross section of the

composite,
Am be the area of cross section of the matrix
and Af that of the fibres.
Then from the equilibrium of forces in the
fibre direction, we can write,
Pc = Pf + Pm
Or cl Ac = f Af + m Am ----------(2)
From eqns (1) and (2), we can write,
cl Ac = (Ef Af + Em Am )cl
or
Ecl = cl / cl
= (Ef Af/Ac) + (Em Am/Ac)

Prepared by Prof. C Bhaskaran

Now for a given length of composite,

Af / AC = Vf and
Am/Ac = Vm
Therefore,
Ecl = EfVf + EmVm = E11 ---------(3)

Modulus in the transverse direction:

For properties in the transverse direction, we
can represent the unidirectional composite by
what is called the isostress or the action- inseries situation, as shown in figure. We have
equal stress in the two components and
ct = m = f ,
where, ct = stress in the composite in the
transverse direction, and
m = f = stress in the matrix and the fibre
respectively.

Total displacement in the transverse direction, tc is

the sum of the displacement of the components.
ie). tc = tm+ tf
Dividing throughout by tc, the lateral dimension of
the composite, we get,
tc / tc = tm / tc + tf / tc
This equation an be written as,
tc/tc = (tm/tm)( tm/tc) + (tf/tf)(tf/tc)
where, tc/tc = ct, the strain in the composite in
the transverse direction, while, (tm/tm) and (tf/tf)
equal the strain in the matrix and fibre respectively.
Then, ct = m(tm/tc) + f(tf/tc).

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For a given cross sectional area of the composite

under the applied load, the volume fractions of fibre
and matrix can be written as,
Vm = (tm/tc) and Vf = (tf/tc).
Then the above equation simplifies to,
ct = mVm + fVf ------------(5)
Considering both components to be elastic and
remembering that, ct = m = f, in this case, we can
write from eqn (5), that,
ct/Ect = (ct/Em)Vm + (ct/Ef)Vf
or
(1/Ect ) = (Vm/Em) + (Vf/Ef) = (1/E22) ------(6)
ie.) E22 = EfEm/ (Vf Em+ VmEf )
E22 is the modulus in the transverse direction.

Poissons Ratio:
For in-plane loading of a composite, two
Poissons ratios are needed. If axis 1 is along the
fibre direction and axis 2 transverse to 1, then
12 is referred to as the major Poissons ratio
which relates the longitudinal strain to the
transverse strain, (-2/1), load in the direction 1.
The other one 21 is termed as minor
Poissons ratio which relates the transverse
strain to the longitudinal strain, (-1/2), load in
the direction 2. 12/E1 = 21/E2.
12 > 21.

Major Poissons ratio, 12 or lt :

1 or l is the longitudinal direction, and 2 or t
is the transverse direction.
2
matrix
1

Fibre

Apply a load in the direction 1. The major

Poissons ratio, 12 or lt can be predicted using
the relation , 12 or lt = -2/1.

Prepared by Prof. C Bhaskaran

The total deformation in the transverse direction,

tc = tf + tm
tf = f1 tf = f1Vf tc
tm= tcVm m1
tc = tc121, tf = tc Vf f1,

tm = tcVm m1,

tc 12 1 = tc Vf f 1 + tcVm m 1
or

12 = Vf f + Vm m

----------(7)

It may be noted that in case the fibre is not

isotropic, f will be replaced by 12f.

Minor Poissons ratio, 21 or tl :

The Minor Poissons ratio 21 or tl = can be
determined by the relation,
12 / E1 = 21 / E2. -----------(8)

Strength in the longitudinal direction:

(rule of mixtures)
Under longitudinal tension, the phase with
the lower ultimate strain will fail first. For
perfectly bonded fibres, the average longitudinal
stress, 1, is given by the rule of mixtures as,
1 = fVf + mVm
--------(4)
Where,
f, m = average longitudinal stresses in the fibre
and matrix respectively.
Vf, Vm= fibre and matrix volume fractions, respectively.

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The component which fails first will decide the

strength.
There are two distinct cases possible:
i) the fibre reaches the failure strain first,
and ii) the matrix reaches failure strain first.
i).
uft < umt
The composite will fail when the longitudinal
strain reaches the ultimate tensile strain in the
fibre. Then the longitudinal tensile strength of
the composite can be approximated by the
relation, F1t = Fft Vf +mVm,

ii) umt < uft

The composite material fails when the
longitudinal strain reaches the ultimate tensile
strain of the matrix. Thus the longitudinal tensile
strength of the composite can be approximated
by the relation,
F1t = ft Vf +Fmt Vm
where, ft is the longitudinal fibre stress when
the ultimate strain is reached in the matrix,
and Fmt is the matrix tensile strength.
(See Figure)

Where,

fibre

Fft

F1t = longitudinal tensile strength of the composite,

Stress

Fft = Longitudinal tensile strength of the fibre,

m = average longitudinal matrix stress when ultimate
fibre strain is reached.

F1t

Fm

composite

matrix

umt

Assuming linear elastic behaviour for the constituents,

the above equation can be written as,
F1t = Fft Vf + Em uft Vm = Fft [ Vf + Vm (Em/Ef)].

uft > umt

uft
Strain

Fig. Longitudinal stress-strain curve for composite and

constituents for the case of matrix - dominated strength.

refer figure.

Fft

uft < umt

fibre

Example:
Consider a unidirectionally reinforced glass fibre/ epoxy
composite. The fibres are continuous and 60% by

F1t
Fm

composite

volume. The tensile strength of the fibre is 1GPa and

Youngs modulus is 70 Gpa. The tensile strength of the

matrix

umt

uft
Strain

Fig. Longitudinal stress-strain curve for composite

and constituents for the case of fibre - dominated
strength.

Prepared by Prof. C Bhaskaran

epoxy is 60 Mpa and youngs modulus 3 Gpa. Compute

the Youngs modulus and tensile stregth of the
composite in the longitudinal direction.

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Solution:
(i) Youngs modulus in the longitudinal direction of the
c

composite is given by,

tm/2

Ecl = EfVf + EmVm = 70x0.6+3x0.4 = 43.2 Gpa.

(ii) To calculate the tensile strength of the composite in the

tm/2

longitudinal direction, we need to determine which

tf

tc

component, fibre or the matrix, has the lower strain at failure.

The failure strain of the fibre is given by,

f = f/Ef = 1/70 =0.014, while that of the matrix is,
m = m/Em = 60/3000 =0.02
Thus f < m, ie., fibre fails first.

tf

tc

tc

Fig: Idealisation of a fibre and associated matrix of a

composite material.

At the failure strain of the fibre, assuming a linear

stress-strain curve for epoxy matrix, the matrix
strength, m = Emf = 3x0.014 = 0.042 Gpa
Thus at failure, the stress in the fibre is 1GPa
and that in the matrix is 0.042 GPa.
Hence, applying the rule of mixtures,
the tensile strength of the composite in the fibre

From Hookes law for the fibre, the matrix and

the composite,
c = c / G12 , f = f/Gf , m = m/Gm ---(3)
G12,f,m are the shear modulii of composite, fibre
and matrix respectively.
From equations (1), (2) and (3), we can write,
(c/G12) tc = (f/Gf) tf + (m/Gm) tm
---(4)

direction is,
F1t = FftxVf + m Vm = 0.6x1 + 0.4x0.042
= 0.6168GPa = 616.8MPa.

In-Plane shear modulus:

Applying a pure shear stress, c, to a lamina, as
shown. The fibres and the matrix are represented by
rectangular blocks, as shown.
The resulting shear deformations of the composite,
(c), the fibre (f) and the matrix (m) are related by
c = f + m -----------(1)
From the definition of shear strains,
c = c tc, f= f tf, m = m m -----(2)
where c,f,m = shearing strains in the composite,
fibre, matrix respectively.
t c,f,m = the thickness of the composite, fibre and
matrix respectively.

Prepared by Prof. C Bhaskaran

The shear stress in the fibre, matrix and

composite are assumed to be equal
ie.), f = m = c

Then, eqn (4) gives,

(1/G12) = (1/Gf) (tf/tc) + (1/Gm) (tm/tc) .
Since the thickness fractions are equal to the
volume fractions,
(1/G12) = (Vf/Gf) + (Vm/Gm)
or
G12= (Gf Gm) / (VfGm + VmGf) ------(5)

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Mate- Exx
rial
GPa
Gra- 181
phite

Eyy
GPa
10.3

Gxy
GPa
7.17

xy

yx

0.28

0.015 0.7

Sp.gravity
1.6

Glass

38

8.3

4.1

0.26

0.45

1.8

Kevlar 76

5.5

2.3

0.34

0.6

1.46

Boron 204

18.5

5.6

0.23

0.5

2.0

Due to these difficulties, semi-empirical

models have been developed for design
purposes. The most useful of these
empirical models, include those of Halphin
and Tsai, since they can be used over wide
range of elastic properties and fibre
volume fractions. Halphin and Tsai
developed their models as simple
equations by curve fitting to results that
are based on elasticity.

Method of Elasticity:
Semi-empirical models / Prediction of
Elastic constants:
The values obtained for transverse
youngs modulus,E2 and in-plane shear
modulus G12 through the mechanics of
materials approach do not agree well with
experimental results. Hence, there is a
need for better modeling techniques.

The equations are semi-empirical

in nature since involved
parameters in the curve fitting
carry physical meaning. Many
other scientists like J.C. Ekvall,
B.W. Rosen, H. Paul have
contributed towards the prediction
of elastic properties of composites.

Elastic constants for some epoxy matrix composites.

(Fibres along x-axis)

Vf

These techniques include numerical

method such as Finite Element, Finite
difference, and Boundary value
methods and also theory of elasticity
solutions and variational principle
models. Unfortunately these models
are very complicated and are available
in graphical form.

Prepared by Prof. C Bhaskaran

Longitudinal modulus, El or E1:

If both materials act elastically, the
theory of elasticity approach predicts
the bounds on the longitudinal
modulus of Elasticity, El, as,
El
EfEm /(VfEm+ VmEf ),
on the lower hand
El

EfVf + EmVm
on the upper hand

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S. W. Tsai modifies the expressions for El

from mechanics of materials theory to,
El = k (VfEf + VmEm),
where k is a misalignment factor to
account for fibres having not exactly
parallel and straight. This factor ranges
from 0.9 to 1.0. This modification,
therefore, is not very significant.

3. Major Poissons ratio:

The expression for major Poissons ratio,
12 (or lt) as proposed by Halphin and Tsai
is the same as that obtained by mechanics
of materials approach.

Ekvall modifies the rule of mixtures to

account for triaxial stress condition in the
matrix due to the restraint provided by the
matrix material, as,
El = Vf Ef + VmEm
where Em = Em/(1 - 2m2)
However this modification also is not
significant for values of matrices.
Thus, the law of mixtures is a
reasonable approximation for the
longitudinal Youngs modulus.

Macromechanics:

4. In-plane shear modulus G12 is given by,

G12 = Gm {(Gf/Gm)-1}/{(Gf/Gm)+

Macromechanics deals with the establishment

of the stress- strain relationship and the
strength and stiffness of the composite material
applying the average properties* established
through micromechanics analysis.
Stress and strain relations for uni-directional
and bi-directional lamina are developed using
the lamina properties. Methods for the
evaluation of the properties of the angle lamina
are established and the strength and stiffness of
the laminate are arrived at.
* like density, E, G, Poissons ratio, strength etc.

2. Transverse Youngs modulus: Et, E2 or E3 .

Halphin and Tsai equation for the transverse
Youngs modulus is,
(E2/Em) =(1+Vf)/(1-Vf)
where = (Ef/Em)-1} /{(Ef/Em)+ }
is called the reinforcing factor and depends
on fibre geometry, packing geometry (or fibre
distribution) and loading conditions.
Eg., For a fibre geometry of circular fibres in a
packing geometry of square array is 2.0.

Prepared by Prof. C Bhaskaran

Lamina stress strain relations referred

to arbitrary axes
or
Hookes law for a Two dimensional
angle lamina

Composite Materials & Structures

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Lamina Stress- Strain relations:

The building blocks of a laminate are single
lamina. Understanding the mechanical analysis
of a lamina precedes that of a laminate.
A lamina is not a homogeneous isotropic
material, even though it is made up of
homogeneous isotropic materials such as fibres
and matrix.
E.g., the stiffness of the lamina varies from
point to point, depending on whether the point
is on the fibre, the matrix, or the fibre-matrix
interface

A lamina is a thin layer of a composite material

which is generally of a thickness of the order of
o.125 mm.
A laminate is constructed by stacking a large
number of such laminae in various orientations
in the direction of the thickness. Structures are
made of these laminates. These structures are
subjected to various loads such as stretching,
bending, twisting etc. The design and analysis of
such laminated structures demand the
knowledge of the stresses and strains in the
laminate.

The building blocks of a laminate are

single lamina. A lamina is not a
homogeneous isotropic material, even
though it is made up of homogeneous
isotropic materials such as fibres and
matrix.
E.g., the stiffness of the lamina varies
from point to point, depending on
whether the point is on the fibre, the
matrix, or the fibre-matrix interface.

This makes the mechanical analysis of

the lamina very complicated. For this
reason the macro-mechanical analysis
of a lamina is based on average
properties and considering the lamina
to be homogeneous. Micro mechanics
deals with the methods to find the
average properties

As already mentioned, the laminates

for the construction of structural
elements are generally made by
stacking the laminae in various
orientations as per the design
requirements. Hence to analyze a
structure, the properties are required
along arbitrary directions.

Now, that the properties of the lamina

are known in the directions along and
transverse to the fibres, we need to
workout the stress - strain relations
referred to arbitrary directions.

-contd-

Prepared by Prof. C Bhaskaran

Composite Materials & Structures

The co-ordinate system

used to illustrate
an angle lamina
is shown in the figure.

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The global and local stresses are related to each

other through the angle , as shown below:

y
2

x
y
xy

= T

-1 1
2
12 ,

where, [ T ] is the transformation matrix given by,

The axes in the 1-2 direction is

called the local axes or material
axes or the natural axes

T =

C2 S2 2SC
-1
S2 C2 -2SC and T =
-SC SC C2-S2

C2 S2 -2SC
S2 C2 2SC
SC -SC C2-S2

where C = cos and S = sin, C2-S2 = cos2

The direction 1 is parallel to the

fibres and direction 2 is perpendicular
to the fibres.
Direction 1 is called as longitudinal or
l direction and 2 as transverse or t
direction.
The x-y co-ordinate system are called
the global axes or off axes.
The angle between the two is
angle .

The stress strain relationship in

the 1-2 co-ordinate system or the
local co-ordinate system has
already been established. The
stress strain relationship for the x-y
co-ordinate system or the global
co-ordinate system need to be
developed now.

Prepared by Prof. C Bhaskaran

1
S11 S12 S13 0
2
S12 S22 S23 0
3 = S13 S23 S33 0
23
0 0
0 S44
31
0
0
0 0
12
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
S55
0

0
0
0
0
0
S66

1
2
3
23
31
12

Hookes law for 3-D orthotropic material

(Strain-stress relation)

Now that, a unidirectional lamina

falls under the orthotropic material
category. If the lamina is thin and
does not carry any out of plane
loads, we can assume plane stress
conditions for the lamina.
Hence, we have the conditions
that 3=0, 23 = 13 = 0

10

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Where, Sij are the elements of the

compliance matrix.
Note, there are four independent
compliance elements in the matrix.

Co-ordinate system for thin sheet or lamina

Applying this in the strain- stress

relation for a 3D material, we get,
3 = S131 + S232
23 = 31 = 0
The normal strain 3 is not an
independent strain since it is a
function of other two normal strains 1
and 2. Hence the normal strain 3 can
be omitted from the stress strain
relationship equation.

The shearing strains, 13 and 23

can also be omitted, since they are
zero. Hence the equation for an
orthotropic plane stress problem
can be written as,
1
S11 S12 0
1
2 = S12 S22 0
2
12
0 0 S66 12

Prepared by Prof. C Bhaskaran

Inverting the above equation, we

get the stress strain relations as,

1
2 =
12

Q11 Q12 0
1
Q12 Q22 0
2
0
0 Q66 12

Where, Qijs are the Reduced

Stiffness Coefficients.
These Reduced Stiffness Coefficients
are related to the compliance
coefficients as follows:
Q11 = S22/ (S11 S22-S122)
Q12= - S12/(S11S22-S122)
Q22= S11/ (S11S22-S122)
Q66= 1/S66

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Qij can be written in terms of Cijs

as follows:
Qij = Cij (Ci3 Cj3/C33)
(I,j = 1,2,6)

Using the stress strain equation for the local

axes, that
1
1
2 = Q
2
12
12
we can write the relation for global axes as,
x
y
xy

In terms of elastic constants,

we can write,
Q11 = E1 / (1-1221)
Q12 = 12 E2 / (1-1221)
= 21 E1/(1-1221)
Q22 = E2/(1-1221)
Q66 = G12

Using the stress strain equation for the local

axes, that
1
1
2 = Q
2
12
12

-1
=

1
2
12

The global and local strains are related

through the transformation matrix,
1
x
2
= T
y
(12)/2
(xy)/2
note:
x = u/x,
y = v/y
xy = [u/y + v/x]/2
xy= [u/y + v/x]

The stress strain relation in the local coordinate system can be written as,
1
2
12

Q11 Q12 0
Q12 Q22 0
0
0 2Q66

1
2
12/2

we can write the relation for global axes as,

x
y
xy

-1
=

Prepared by Prof. C Bhaskaran

1
2
12

where, Q11= E1 / (1-1221)

Q12 = 12 E2 / (1-1221) = 21 E1/(1-1221)
Q22 = E2/(1-1221)
Q66 = G12

12

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Then the stress- strain relation in the global coordinates can be written as,

{}global = [T]-1[Q][T]{}global
x
y
xy

x
= [T]-1[Q][T] y
xy/2

Q11 Q12 Q16

= Q12 Q22 Q26
Q16 Q26 Q66

x
y
xy

Where Qij are called the elements

of transformed reduced stiffness
matrix Q and are given by,

Q11 = Q11c4 + Q22S4 + 2(Q12+2Q66)s2c2

Q12 = (Q11+Q22-4Q66)s2c2 + Q12(c4 +s4)

Where,
Q11 Q12 0
Q = Q12 Q22 0
0
0 2Q66

Q22 = Q11 s4 +Q22 c4 + 2(Q12+2Q66)s2c2

Q16 = (Q11-Q12-2Q66)c3s - (Q22-Q12-2Q66)s3c
Q26 = (Q11- Q12-2Q66)cs3-(Q22 - Q12-2Q66)c3s
Q66 = (Q11+Q22-2Q12-2Q66)s2c2+Q66(s4+c4)

Whereby,
x
Q11 Q12 2Q16
y = Q12 Q22 2Q26
xy
Q16 Q26 2Q66

Prepared by Prof. C Bhaskaran

x
y
xy/2

Note that there are six elements in the

[Q] matrix. However, they are
functions of four stiffness elements
Q11, Q12, Q22, Q66 and the angle of the
lamina, .

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Inverting the above equation gives,

x
y =
xy

S11 S12 S16

S12 S22 S26
S16 S26 S66

x
y
xy

Where Sij are the elements of the

transformed reduced compliance
matrix and are given by,

S11 = s11c4 + (2s12+ s66)s2c2 + s22s4

s12 = s12(s4+c4)+s11+s22-s66)s2c2
s22 = s11s4+(2s12+s66)s2c2+s22c4
s16 = (2s11-2s12-s66)sc3-(2s22-2s12-s66)s3c
s26 = (2s11-2s12-s66)s3c-(2s22-2s12-s66)sc3
s66 = 2(2s11+2s22-4s12-s66)s2c2+s66(s4+c4)

From these equations for the stressstrain relation for a unidirectional

lamina, it may be noted that when
they are loaded in the material axes
directions, there is no coupling
between the normal and shearing
terms of strains and stresses.

But, for loading other than the natural

axes, there is coupling between the normal
and shearing terms of stresses and strains.
If normal stresses only are applied to
an angle lamina, the shear strains are
non-zero
and if shearing stresses only are applied
to an angle lamina the normal
stresses are non-zero.
----------00000000-----------

We know that,
s11 = 1/E1

s22 = 1/E2

s12 = - 12/E1 = - 21/E1

Experimental characterization of a Lamina.

s66 = 1/G12

Prepared by Prof. C Bhaskaran

14

Composite Materials & Structures

9/24/2013

In order to analyze a composite structure,

the analyst needs macroscopic material
properties, such as, El , Et , lt ( l and t being
longitudinal transverse directions to the
fibre axis) of a unidirectional lamina or ply.
In addition we need at least 3 fundamental
strengths of the lamina. (This assumes that
the tensile and compressive strengths are
equal. If not we need five strengths.)

1. X- axial or longitudinal strength

2. Y- transverse strength.
3. S- shear strength.
These quantities are the ultimate
stresses of a lamina and have units of force
per unit area.

To evaluate these values, four experiments need to

be conducted. Three tension tests and one torsion
test , as shown in the figures below:
2
P

P 1

Fig.1

Fig.2

P
2

x P

T
fig-3

Prepared by Prof. C Bhaskaran

fig-4

1. Experiment-1.

Figure 1 shows a tensile

specimen with fibres along the
loading direction. Strain gauges are
fixed on the specimen to measure
the strain along and across the
fibre directions.

Since the fibre is oriented along

the loading direction, the l
direction or 1 direction coincide
with the global direction and =0.
This experiment could be used to
determine the elastic constants El
(or E1) and lt (or 12) and the
fundamental strength, X.

By measuring the load P,

the cross sectional area A, and the
strains l (or 1) and t (or 2).
The youngs modulus, El (or
E1) is given by, El or E1 = P/(Al)
Poissons ratio, lt (or 12) = (t/l)
and the strength along l-direction,
X= Pultimate/A.

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Composite Materials & Structures

2. Experiment-2.
Figure-2 shows a tensile
specimen with fibres along the
transverse direction to the loading
direction. Strain gauges are fixed as
in experiment -1.

9/24/2013

3. Shear modulus or modulus of rigidity,

Glt or G12.
Figure-3 shows a tension specimen in which the
fibres are oriented at an angle with the
loading direction. If the test is conducted such
that =45 and the load and strain are
measured, then Ex=P/Ax and Glt can be
computed using the formula,
(1/Ex) = (1/El +1/Et +1/Glt 2lt/El)/4 or
(1/Glt) = 4/Ex-1/El-1/Et+2lt/El .

This experiment can give the

youngs modulus in the transverse
direction to the fibre, Et (or E2),
the Poisson's ratio, tl (or 21)
and the strength in the transverse
direction Y.

Proof of above equation:

When only x is applied x is given by,
x = s11 x and (1/Ex) = (x / x ) = s11
where, s11 = s11c4+(2s12+s66)s2c2 + s22s4
When = 45, cos =sin =(1/2)1/2, c4=s4=1/4
then, s11= ()[1/E1-212/E1+1/G12+1/E2]
or, 1/Ex = ()[(1/E1)-2(12/E1)+(1/G12)+(1/E2)]

As in experiment-1, we have,
Et (or E2) = P/(At)
tl (or 21) = -(1/2)
Strength in the lateral direction of
the composite material, Y = Pultimate/A
A check on the accuracy of the
measurement can be made at this
point, from the equations that,
El tl = Et lt

Prepared by Prof. C Bhaskaran

4. Shear strength, S.
To determine the shear strength we do the fourth test.
A tube is constructed by circumferential winding to
only a few laminae thickness; it can be considered so
thin that the stresses can be assumed to be constant
through the thickness.
For torsional load, the state of stress at any point in the
material will be pure shear. If T is the torsional load and
r and t are the tubes mean radius and thickness
respectively, then ,
shear strength, S = ultimate = Tultimate/2r2t.

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Composite Materials & Structures

property
El
Et
lt
Glt
X
Y
S

Boron/epoxy
MPa
280x103
28x103
0.25
10.5x103
1050
28
56

9/24/2013

Shear coupling:

Glass/epoxy
MPa
56x103
18.9x103
0.25
8.75x103
1050
28
56

In an angular lamina, unlike unidirectional lamina,

interaction occurs between the shear strain and the
normal stresses. This is called the shear coupling. The
shear coupling term which relates the normal stress in
the x-direction to the shear strain is denoted by mx and
is defined as,
(1/mx) = -(x/E1xy) = - (1/ s16E1)
Note that mx is a non-dimensional parameter like
Poissons ratio.

Engineering constants of an angle lamina:

The engineering constants for a unidirectional lamina
were evaluated earlier. Using similar techniques , we
can evaluate the engineering constants of an angle
ply or lamina, Ex, Ey, xy etc in terms of the stiffness
or compliance matrices. We know the relation
between strain and stress for an angle lamina, as,
2

x
y =
xy

S11 S12 S16

S12 S22 S26
S16 S26 S66

x
y
xy

x
angle ply or angle lamina

1. To find the youngs modulus in the direction x:

Apply a single stress in the direction x.
ie, x = 0.0 , y = xy= 0.0, we get,
x
y =
xy

S11 S12 S16

S12 S22 S26
S16 S26 S66

x
0
0

Now apply the load in the y-direction alone.

y
(i.e.), x= 0 y = 0 xy= 0
we can see that ,
Ey=1/ s22 , yx = - s12/ s22
y

1/my = -1/( s26E1)

3. Reciprocal relationship:

then,x= s11x , y = s12x and xy = s16x

the youngs modulus in the direction x is defined as,
Ex= x/x = (1/ s11)
xy = -(y/x) = -(s12/ s11)

Prepared by Prof. C Bhaskaran

2. Youngs modulus in the y-direction:

from the above we can see the relation

between Ey , xy and yx as,
( xy / Ex ) = (yx / Ey)
which is known as the reciprocal relationship of
the Poissons ratio.

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Composite Materials & Structures

9/24/2013

1/Gxy = s66 = 2(2s11+2s22-4s12-s66)s2c2 +s66(s4+c4)

= 2(2/E1+2/E2+412/E1-1/G12)s2c2 +1/G12( s4+c4)

4. Shear modulus:
By applying stresses, x=y=0.0, and xy = 0.0, as
shown in figure, it is seen that,
1/mx = -1/ s16 E1
1/my = -1/ s26 E1
y xy
Gxy = 1/ s66
x
xy

mx = -s16E1
= -E1[(2s11-2s12-s66 )sc3-(2s22-2s12-s66)s3c]
= E1[(1/G12- 2/E1 - 212/E1)sc3(1/G12-2/E2-212/E1)s3c]
my = -s26E1
= -E1(2s11-2s12-s66)s3c-(2s22-2s12-s66)sc3)
= E1[(1/G12-2/E1-212/E1)s3c
+(2/E2+212/E1-1/G12) sc3]

Hence the stress strain equation of an angle

lamina can also be written in terms of the
engineering constants of an angle lamina, as,

Example:
Find the following for a 60 angle lamina of a
graphite/epoxy,
given :
E1 =181 GPa, E2= 10.3GPa
12=0.28,
G12=7.17GPa
1. Transformed compliance matrix
2. Transformed reduced stiffness matrix
3. Engineering constants, Ex, Ey, Gxy, mx, my,& xy.
if the applied stress is x=2.0 MPa, y=-3.0MPa,
xy= 4MPa, calculate,
4. global strains, 5. local strains, 6. local stresses,
7.Principal stresses, 8. maximum shear stress,
9. Principal strains .

1/Ex
-xy/Ex - mx/E1
x
y = -xy/Ex 1/Ey - my/E1
xy
-mx/E1 -my/E1 1/Gxy

x
y
xy

The above six engineering constants of an angle

ply can also be written in terms of the
engineering constants of a unidirectional ply, as,

(1/Ex) = S11 =s11c4+(2s12+s66)s2c2+s22s4

= c4/E1 +(1/G12- 212/E1)s2c2 +s4/E2
xy = - Exs12 = -Ex [s12(s4+c4) +(s11+s22-s66)s2c2]
= Ex [(12/E1)(s4+c4) - {(1/E1)+(1/E2)-1/G12}s2c2]
(1/E
y

End of unit 2

)= s22 = s11s4+(2s12+s66)s2c2 + s22c4

= s4/E1+[(-2 12/E1)+ (1/G12)] s2c2 + c4/E2

Prepared by Prof. C Bhaskaran

18