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Lesson 5
Wang Fei
matwf@nus.edu.sg
Department of Mathematics
Office: S14-02-09
Tel: 6516-2937
Chapter 1: Limits 2
Squeeze Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1
Chapter 1: Limits
Part II: Precise Definition of Limits 2 / 26
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2
Chapter 2:
Continuous Functions 4 / 26
O x
◦ Algebraically:
• the value of f (x), as x tends to a, is close to f (a).
◦ Geometrically:
• the graph of f (x) has no interruption at a.
◦ A function which satisfies the condition is said to be continuous.
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3
Definition of Continuity
• A function is continuous at a number a if
◦ Note that when x = a, |f (x) − f (a)| = 0 < ǫ is automatically true. We may remove the
restriction x = a and use
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Examples of Discontinuity
x2 − x − 2
• f (x) = .
x−2
(x − 2)(x + 1)
◦ For x 6= 2, f (x) = = x + 1.
x−2
y y
3 c
b 3 b
O 2 x O 2 x
Since lim f (x) exists, we can redefine f (2) = lim f (x) = 3 to remove the discontinuity at 2.
x→2 x→2
◦ Such discontinuity is a removable discontinuity.
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4
Examples of Discontinuity
1/x2 , if x 6= 0,
• f (x) =
1, if x = 0.
O x
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Examples of Discontinuity
• Let f (x) = ⌊x⌋ be the floor function, where ⌊x⌋ is the greatest integer less than or equal to x.
◦ ⌊1.2⌋ = 1, ⌊3⌋ = 3, ⌊−3.14⌋ = −4.
y
O 1 2 3 4 x
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5
One-Sided Continuity
• A function f is continuous from the right at a if
lim f (x) = f (a),
x→a+
• Proposition. f is continuous at a if and only if f is continuous from the left at a and continuous
from the right at a.
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O 1 2 3 4 x
◦ If a ∈
/ Z, f is continuous at a.
◦ If n ∈ Z,
• f is continuous from the right at n,
• f is discontinuous from the left at n.
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6
Continuity of a Function on an Interval
• Definition. A function is continuous on an interval if it is continuous at every number in the
interval.
◦ f is continuous on open interval (a, b)
⇔ f is continuous at every x ∈ (a, b).
◦ f is continuous
on closed interval [a, b]
f is continous at every x ∈ (a, b),
⇔ f is continuous from the right at a,
f is continuous from the left at b.
◦ f is continuous on [a, b) ⇔ · · · · · · · · ·
◦ f is continuous on (a, b] ⇔ · · · · · · · · ·
Example. The floor function f (x) = ⌊x⌋ is continuous on [n, n + 1) for each n ∈ Z.
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∴ cf is continuous at a.
∴ f + g is continuous at a.
◦ Similarly, replacing “+” by “−” or “·”, we can show that f − g and f g are continuous at a as well.
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Properties of Continuous Function
• Suppose f and g are continuous at a, (g(a) 6= 0).
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f (x) = c f (x) = x
O x
O x
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Examples of Continuous Function
• Let n be a positive integer. Then the power function
n copies
n z }| {
x = x ·x·····x
• The monomial axn is thus continuous (on R), because it is the scalar multiplication of power
function.
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x+1
• Example. Find lim .
x→4 2x2 − 1
x+1
◦ f (x) = is a rational function.
2x2 − 1
◦ If x = 4, 2x2 − 1 6= 0, so x = 4 is in the domain of f .
4+1 5
∴ lim f (x) = f (4) = 2
= .
x→4 2·4 −1 31
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9
Root Functions
√
• Theorem. The root function x1/n = x, n ∈ Z+ , is continuous in the domain.
n
1/n (−∞, ∞), if n is odd,
x is continuous on
[0, ∞), if n is even.
y y
O x
y = x1/9
1/1
1/3
1/5
1/7
O x
= xx1/10
yy = 1/2
1/4
1/6
1/8
√ √
3
◦ xm/n is defined as n
xm ; 82/3 = 8 2 = 4.
◦ What is xπ ? (We will see the definition in Chapter 6)
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Root Functions
√
• Theorem. The root function x1/n = n
x, n ∈ Z+ , is continuous in the domain.
• Proof. Let a > 0. √ n √ n
lim n
x = lim n x
x→a x→a
= lim x
x→a
= a.
√ √
∴ lim n
x= n
a.
x→a
• Note. This is a WRONG proof.
√
◦ We cannot apply the Product Law of Limits unless we have shown that lim n
x exists.
x→a
◦ We have to go back to the ǫ, δ -definition.
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Root Functions
√
• We now prove that “ x is continuous at a > 0”.
The general case is left as exercise (Challenge Prob 2).
◦ Let ǫ > 0. Our aim is to find a proper δ > 0 such that
√ √
0 < |x − a| < δ ⇒ | x − a| < ǫ.
√
Note that x is defined at non-negative numbers only.
y
( )
O a x
a−δ a+δ
First of all, in order to make sure that x ≥ 0 for all x satisfying 0 < |x − a| < δ , we must
choose δ such that 0 ≤ a − δ , i.e., δ ≤ a.
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Root Functions
√
• We now prove that “ x is continuous at a > 0”.
√ √ |x − a| δ δ
| x − a| = √ √ <√ √ <√ .
x+ a x+ a a
√ √
In order to make sure that | x − a| < ǫ,
δ √
it suffices to take √ ≤ ǫ, i.e, δ ≤ ǫ a.
a
√
• Proof. Let ǫ > 0. Choose δ = min{a, ǫ a}.
If 0 < |x − a| < δ , then x > a − δ ≥ 0. Then
√ √ |x − a| δ δ
| x − a| = √ √ <√ √ < √ ≤ ǫ.
x+ a x+ a a
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11
Trigonometric Functions
• Other than rational functions and root functions, there is another class of continuous functions:
◦ Trigonometric Functions:
sin x, cos x, tan x, cot x, sec x, csc x.
y = tan x
y = sin x y = cos x
x
O
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x = AB
⌢
x B
O H 1 sin x = |AH|
⌢
AB > |AB| > |AH|
x > sin x.
◦ For any 0 < x < π/2, 0 < sin x < x.
lim 0 = 0, lim x = 0.
x→0+ x→0+
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Continuity of Trigonometric Functions
• f (x) = sin x.
◦ lim sin x = 0.
x→0+
◦ lim sin x = lim+ sin(−y) = − lim+ sin y = 0.
x→0− y→0 y→0
∴ sin x is continuous at 0.
• g(x) = cos x. Let −π/2 < x < π/2.
∴ cos x is continuous at 0.
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|A′ B ′ |2
a x = (cos(a + b) − 1)2 + sin2 (a + b)
O b B ′ (1, 0) = 2 − 2 · cos(a + b).
B(cos b, − sin b)
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Appendix: Sum Formula of Trigonometry
• The sum formula for sin x:
tan a + tan b
tan(a + b) = .
1 − tan a tan b
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